Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

Original article

Microscopic and spectroscopic techniques for the study of paper supports

and textile used in the binding of hispano-arabic manuscripts from
Al-Andalus: A transition model in the 15th century
Teresa Espejo a , Adrian Duran b,,c , Ana Lopez-Montes a , Rosario Blanc d
a

Painting Department, Fine Arts Faculty, University of Granada, Avda. Andalucia s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
b Materials Science Institute of Seville (CSIC), Avda. Americo Vespucio, s/n., 41092 Seville, Spain
c Centre de recherche et de restauration des muses de France, C2RMF, Palais du Louvre, Porte-des-Lions, 14, quai Fran
cois-Mitterand, 75001 Paris, France
d Analytical Chemistry Department, Science Faculty, University of Granada, Avda. Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
Received 30 October 2008; accepted 27 January 2009
Available online 13 November 2009

Abstract
This work focuses on the study of paper and textiles used in the binding of a series of manuscripts that share some specific characteristics that
lead us to speculate on the possibility of a transitional codicological typology from the Arabic to the Christian book in Al-Andalus during the 15th
century. The books we analyzed belong to the collection of the Historical Archive of Malaga, the Archive of Sacromonte Abbey, in Granada, the
School of Arabic Studies and the Library of P.P. Escolapios, also in Granada. Paper physical study was performed by microscopic and spectroscopic
techniques. A routine and objective method, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, was employed and proved to be a useful technique
for the characterization of cellulosic fibres, main component of paper from the boards and the envelope flap pasteboards, and the fabric lining
from the cover. The results of our research will help us to date, identify and study the evolution of the techniques, proving that the materials and
innovations of the Italian paper manufacturing processes were perfectly known in the south of modern day Spain, before the Christian Reconquest.
2009 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Al-Andalus; Arabic paper; Fibre identification; 15th century; Microscopic and spectroscopic techniques

1. Research aims
The present work focuses on the study of fabric lining and
papers used in the covering and paper used as support in a
series of manuscripts which share particular characteristics
regarding their binding structures that might suggest a
codicological typology characteristic to the transition between
Arabic and European book in Al-Andalus [1,2]. This study was
carried out keeping in mind the differences between Arabic
and European paper, as well as the different manufacturing
processes. We will also consider the potential interchange of
certain elements of theses different processes during the period
of coexistence of both civilizations in the Iberian Peninsula,
when there was a flourishing trade and information exchange
between both cultures. We applied Fourier Transform Infrared

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adrian@icmse.csic.es (A. Duran).

1296-2074/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.culher.2009.01.007

(FTIR) spectroscopic technique as a new application for

characterization of the different fibres present in the paper and
in the binding of these series of manuscripts.
2. Introduction
The heritage left by the Arab world in the history of science
is directly related to the innovations in both the manufacturing
of paper and the production of codex, as guardians of a cultural
legacy. Getting to know the codicological structure and materials
of this legacy will help us to date, identify and study the evolution of the techniques used by calligraphers, copyists, binders
and restorers of graphic documents. Arabic paper manufacturing
techniques are not very well-known since information sources
are scarce and describe similar processes with typical characteristics depending on the different periods and geographical areas
[3,4].
Arabic papermaking process involved a paste made of old
rags and ropes beaten to separate the fibres, left to ferment and

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51

Table 1
Composition of the different cellulosic fibres.

Cotton
Flax
Hemp
Jute

% cellulose

% hemicellulose

% pectin

% lignin

% other components

82.7
64.1
67.0
64.4

2.8
16.7
16.1
12.0

2.9
1.8
0.8
0.2

0.1
2.0
3.3
11.8

11.5
15.4
12.8
11.6

whiten with lime [5]. The paste was then placed on a special
sieve or mould in order to shape the sheet. Generally, sheet size
depended on the artisans ability to move the sieve. That was
the reason why paper was almost never bigger than 45 65 cm.
To render it suitable for writing, paper was burnished and sized
with certain materials using a brush, making paper less porous
and brighter. European paper was smoother than oriental paper.
While Europe used animal glues, Oriental paper used rice, wheat
or corn starches which improved paper conservation and gave
its bright appearance.
In Islamic manuscripts, each quire consisted of several bifolia
(sheets of paper folded in two) or, sometimes, single leaves were
added to the quires in the fold. The number of bifolia might vary
considerably: from just one bifolia to quires made up to 12 sheets
or more. All the different quires were then sewn together [6].
Few studies on paper identification have been carried out
and they have determined composition only by means of visual
examination using microscopy and scanning techniques. These
methods rely heavily on experience, as they generally generate
qualitative data and require a subjective comparison of results
[79]. Furthermore, degradation and physical damage in documents are mainly due to humidity, solving agents and glues that
can even destroy the characteristic fibre morphology necessary
to an unambiguous identification. The most common fibres used
in textile supports for paintings and in documentary cultural heritage are cotton and flax, although others such as hemp or jute
might also be found.
Vibrational spectroscopy covers a range of techniques,
including FTIR, Raman and Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR)
spectroscopies that have already been widely employed for the
study and differentiation of cellulosic, proteinaceous and artificial fibres [1013].
However, there have been few reports on the differentiation
of chemically similar fibres within a group, such as cellulosic
plant fibres (flax, cotton, hemp and jute). Edwards et al. [14] have
employed Raman spectroscopy to discriminate among untreated
plant fibres on the basis of peak ratios derived from the associated CH and glycosidic COC vibrations. Garside and Wyeth
[15,16] have employed ATR Spectroscopy, a refinement of conventional FTIR, to characterize these ones.
In this work, we used ATR and conventional FTIR spectroscopies, and since we obtained similar results with both
techniques we decided to use only FTIR, since this technique
is in general easier to perform. Spectroscopic methods for fibre
characterization are based in the different types of bond vibrations and the different composition of cellulosic fibres (Table 1).
All plant fibres have a cellular structure and are largely composed

of cellulose, along with hemicellulose, pectin, lignin and other

minor components (waxes, water, etc.) [7,9].
3. Materials and methods
The books selected for this work are:
Book I from the Historic Archive of Malaga (15th century)
called Libro de ocio, that belonged to alfaqi Muhammad b.,
Ali b. Muhammad al-Yayyar al-Ansari (Fig. 1a);
Manuscript 16 from Sacromonte Abbey Archive of Granada
(15th century), a grammar of Ibn al-Fajjar al-Bayri,

Sarh al-Yumal
fi l-nahwi (Fig. 1b);
Manuscript 20 from Sacromonte Abbey Archive of Granada
(14th century), a book of medicine of al-Aynazarbi, Kitab
al-kafi fi-l-tibb min al-qarn il l-qadam (Fig. 1c);
Al-Zubaydi grammar book from the School of Arabic Studies
in Granada (1516th centuries) (Fig. 1d);
Moorish Koran from the Order of P.P. Escolapios [Pious
School] Library of Granada (15th century) (Fig. 1e).
Samples were generally taken from strategic zones of the
books that, without damaging the document, provided the best
information (Table 2). In addition to paper samples, textile samples, taken from the fabrics and threads used to reinforce the
book structure, are also included. The analyses were performed
in the Materials Science Institute of Seville. Also, some analyses of samples from the Moorish Koran were carried out at
the University Alfonso X and the Spanish Historical Heritage
Institute.
The examination of the physical features consisted in the
description of paper dimensions and thickness. Thickness values were the mean obtained by dividing the sum of a set of
measurements performed in different parts of the same sheet
and also in different sheets. If wide differences in these values
were found, the highest and lowest values were determined. For
the detection of wire and chain lines distribution, watermarks,
support characteristics and sheet flaws due to the papermaking
process a fibre optic light sheet was used. The measure of wire
lines are taken between 20 mm in all the cases.
In the samples analyzed at the Materials Science Institute,
fibres were treated with a sodium sulphate solution (1% p/v) in
order to remove glues and other undesired materials. The same
methodology was followed in all the cases (textiles used in bindings threads and fabrics and papers). The fibres were placed
on a microscope slide, after fibre separation in order to get a
longitudinal view. The transverse sections (cross-sections) were

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T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

Fig. 1. Photographies: a: Book I, Malaga Historic Archive; b: Manuscript 16, Sacromonte Abbey Archive of Granada; c: Manuscript 20, Sacromonte Abbey Archive
of Granada; d: Al-Zubaydi Grammar, School of Arabic Studies of Granada; e: Moorish Koran, P.P. Escolapios Lybrary of Granada.

obtained in the same fashion that thin films or cross-sections

samples of paintings are normally obtained. The process started
digging a small cavity on a methyl polymethacrylate base. This
cavity was partially filled with methylmethacrylate (Palparess
several CE 0044) and catalyst, before curing. The sample was
introduced in a horizontal position in order to facilitate the perpendicular cut, and finally more resin was poured to completely
fill the cavity. This preparation takes 24 hours to settle and is
then cut with a fretsaw and a fretsaw blade Bahco 302-83S(2Px1.2), and polished with an automatic polishing machine
Struers Labo-Pol-5 with sandpaper with different grits (P-240,
P-500 and P-1200), until the surface we wish to examine become
exposed. Since cutting and polishing processes turned out to be
critical in almost of the preparations, special attention must be
paid to these processes. Microscopic studies were performed
using a Nikon Optiphot and a Jeol JSM 5400 microscopes.
Spectroscopic methods (infrared spectroscopy) were also
used. This technique has been scarcely used on paper samples

and on fibres used as binding in manuscripts. We carried out

some measurements using portable ATR equipment. The results
we obtained were very similar to those obtained by conventional FTIR. In this case, an infrared spectrometer Nicolet 510
(source: Globar; detector: DTGS/KBr) was used. Fibre samples
were ground and prepared into KBr pellets (5 mg of sample in
100 mg of KBr). By applying high pressure (8 tons) on the sample preparation a solid and transparent pellet is obtained. KBr
pellet preparation normally involves the grinding of the fibre
in order to prevent light scattering. The spectra were collected
in transmission (pellets) and reflectance (cross-section) mode,
in the 4000400 cm1 range, with a 4 cm1 resolution. At least
100 scans were collected for each spectrum. Peak positions were
determined using the Nicolet Omnic software (based on a polynomial least squares method). In order to confirm the obtained
results, we used replication in the measurements by FTIR.
Following the methodology of Garside and Wyeth [15,16],
two ratios were calculated to distinguish between fibres:

T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

53

Table 2
Provenance of the samples.
Book I Malaga

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3

Inner cover fabric

Pasteboard paper
Textblock paper
Textblock paper
Pasteboard

Sacromonte Abbey Archive

Sample 1 Manuscript 16
Sample 2 Manuscript 16
Sample 3 Manuscript 16
Sample 4 Manuscript 16
Sample 5 Manuscript 16
Sample 1 Manuscript 20
Sample 2 Manuscript 20
Sample 3 Manuscript 20
Sample 4 Manuscript 20
Sample 5 Manuscript 20
Sample 6 Manuscript 20

Al-Zubaidy Grammar

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
Sample 7
Sample 8
Sample 9
Sample 10

Textblock paper
Upper cover pasteboard
Lower cover pasteboard
Inner cover covering paper
Blue thread warp of the spine reinforcement
Blue thread woof from the spine reinforcement
Natural thread warp of the inner cover lining
Natural thread woof of the inner cover linning
Headband threat
Natural thread sewing of the cover leather

Moorish Koran

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3

Textblock paper
Textblock paper

R1 = I1595 /I1105 and R2 = I1595 /I2900 . Bands in spectra situated at

1595 cm1 were referred to groups C = C and were assigned to
lignin; bands at 1105 cm1 to glycosidic bond CC in polysaccharides (cellulose compounds); and bands at 2900 cm1 were
associated to general organic material (groups CH2 , CH3 ,
methyl and ethyl). Depending on the theoric cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin percentages, and on the ratios R1 and R2 ,
four different theoretical regions were defined, corresponding to
flax, jute, hemp and cotton.
Samples from the Moorish Koran were treated with a sodium
hydroxide solution (5% p/v) before the microscopic study
using an Olympus BX-50 and a Philips XL30 microscope.
After this, spectroscopic studies were performed as described
before.
4. Results
4.1. Historical and codicological study
4.1.1. Book I from the Historic Archive of Malaga
According to the investigation carried out by Calero [17],
Book I is a reference book on Islamic law that belonged to
alfaqi Muhammad b., Ali b. Muhammad al-Yayyar al-Ansari,
imam of the mosque in the farmhouse, or Al-garya, of Cutar,
Malaga, during the Mudejar period. It is a miscellaneous codex
consisting of notarial documents, texts on testament law, mathematics, Prophet Muhammads traditions and legal matters about
marriage [1].

Blue fabric warp

Blue fabric woof
Textblock paper
Textblock paper
Pasteboard paper
Yellow thread from the warp
Yellow thread from the woof

The binding is of the envelope type in parchment that appears

hand-written in the inner side, pasteboard covers, also handwritten, and a blue dyed fabric lining. Paper is used as writing
support, as reinforcement in the spine and as the main component
of the covers (Table 3).
4.1.2. Manuscript 16 from Sacromonte

Grammar book by Ibn al-Fajjar al-Bayri, Sarh al-Yumal

fi lnahwi [2]. Envelope binding in tooled brown leather. The leather
is decorated with geometric patterns: a central medallion framed
by a braided geometric band. The inner lining is blue taffeta of
18 18 threads/cm2 density.
The watermark shows variation and is in the form of an open
hand with either a flower or a six-point star above (Table 3).
4.1.3. Manuscript 20 from Sacromonte
The volume is a medicine treatise by al-Aynazarbi, Kitab alka -l-tibb min al-qarn il l-qadam, from 702 AH/1302 AD [2],
with an envelope binding in brown tooled leather. The turn-ins
cover part of the inner cover lined with a yellow taffeta of 15 16
threads/cm2 density. The decoration is a triple filet framing a
central geometric motif (Table 3).
4.1.4. Al-Zubaydi Grammar
Kitab al-Wadih de Abu Bak Muhammad B Hasan AlZubaydi, appeared in the catalogue of the School of Arab Studies
in Granada by Castillo [18] where it is mentioned that it came
from the University of Granada and, as sole codicological data,

54

Table 3
Description of manuscripts.
Book

Binding

Textblock
Material

Writing

Material

No. folia

Dimension
textblock
(mm)

Thickness ranges
(mm)

Chain lines

Wire lines

Watermarked

Book I Malaga

Envelope

Parchment

Paper

114

200 160

0.200.30

Not visible

Not visible

No

Manuscript 16 Sacromonte

Envelope

Brown tooled leather

Arabic and largely

vocalized over
black characters
Maghribi script
not vocalized

Rag paper

245

295 215

0.190.27

25

Open hand
with a flower
or a six-point
star

Manuscript 20 Sacromonte

Envelope

Brown tooled leather

Non-vocalized
Maghribi

Rag paper

48

305 235

0.260.30

Not visible

13

Not visible

Al-Zubaidy Grammar

Envelope

Brown leather

Maghribi

Paper

90

200 140

0.170.25

Folio 1 to 80
Folio 81 to 88
Folio 90

16
15
13

V-Shaped
No
Medallion

Moorish Koran

Envelope

Brown tooled leather

Maghribi with
characteristics of
Andalusi style and
in Mesut type.
Carefully
punctuated with
red vocalization.
Headings in Kufic
script

Rag paper

108

235 185

0.240.40

Not visible

10

No

5
6
5

T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

Type

T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

that is bound in embossed brown leather, quite deteriorated.

Thick paper. Clear and vocalized, medium size Maghrib script.
Black ink with red diacritical marks and headings. The latter in
a bigger size. Non-foliated. [. . .] Some of the nal leaves are
missing. Defective restoration of the four last leaves. Size: (170)
/ 140 (90). 20 lines per folio and some words written in the
margins.
Its codicological structure can be somehow considered a
transition between Arab and Mudejar bindings, since it shows
characteristic features from both styles. In this sense, it combines the envelope binding with sewing supports decorated with
a triple line, typical from the 16th century and it has a fabric lining in addition to the sewing through the pasteboards and several
reinforcements in paper and parchment. The covers consist of
pasteboards made up of several layers of very fragmented paper.
Leather and undyed taffeta coverings are a complex structure
attached to the textblock by means of leather sewing supports
(Table 3).
4.1.5. Moorish Koran
Moorish Koran has envelope binding in brown-tooled leather
[19]. Its decoration similar to Manuscript 20 from the collection of Sacromonte Abbey is a triple fillet and corner
ornaments framing the cover and a geometric central motif. As
main characteristic just like in the previous books the inner
fabric lining of the inner covers is sewn to the textblock through
the headbands. The leather covering was added later covering
part of this fabric. The in-turn of this leather is decorated with a
blind-tooled single fillet.
Originally, there were probably three volumes but this one,
the third one, is the only one that has survived. This book encompasses the suras XXXVIII to CXIV, all of them complete with

55

no lagun. The volume is undated and unsigned, maybe because

the date and copyists name were mentioned in the first volume.
Technical and stylistic appearance and also some chronological
data on the pasteboard suggest it dates from circa the middle of
the 15th century (Table 3).

4.2. Optical and scanning microscopies

In all the cases, some indications were followed [79] for the
morphological identification of fibres.
Samples 1 of textile and 2 of paper from Book I of Malaga
Historic Archive show a similar aspect, in both cases, fibres were
flax and cotton, the latter in a minor proportion (Fig. 2a). In paper
sample number 3, flax was identified as the only fibre.
From Sacromonte Abbey Archive, cotton and flax were identified in samples of paper 1, 2, and in samples of textile 5 and
6 obtained from Manuscript 20, and in samples of paper 2, 3,
and 4 and in sample of textile 5 from Manuscript 16 (Figs. 2b,
c). In the rest of the samples, cotton was not found. Samples of
paper 1, 2 and 4 of Manuscript 20 showed a reddish-yellowish
discoloration, as the same as those from textiles (5 and 6). Bluish
discoloration was found in two samples of textile (fabric) from
manuscript 16 (Fig. 2d).
Samples from the Al-Zubaydi Grammar were very heterogeneous: in some of them, paper composition is clearly flax and
very little or no cotton. Samples of paper 1, 2, 3 and samples of
textiles 7 and 8 belong to this group (Fig. 2e) where, although
some cotton fibres and the characteristic twisting of this type
of fibre are observed, these could be considered as deviations
of the flax fibre which might be defined as cottoned flax [20].
This presence is due to the absence of fibre development or to
the separation of the remaining flax fibres by means of an alkali

Fig. 2. Microphotographies: a: fibres of sample 1 from Malaga Historic Archive (scanning electron microscopy); b: fibres of sample 4 from Manuscript 20 of
Sacromonte Abbey (optical microscopy 50); c: fibres of sample 6 from Manuscript 20 of Sacromonte Abbey (scanning electron microscopy); d: bluish fibres of
sample 5 from manuscript 16 of Sacromonte Abbey (cross-section, optical microscopy 50); e: fibres of sample 7 from Al-Zubaydi Grammar (scanning electron
microscopy); f: fibres of sample 1 from Moorish Koran (optical microscopy 25).

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T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

Table 4
I1595 , I1105 and I2900 cm1 , and R1 and R2 values, corresponding to the 27 samples studied by spectroscopic methods.
I1595

I1105

I2900

R1

R2

Book I Malaga

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3

0.024
0.052
0.028

0.100
0.204
0.062

0.069
0.135
0.057

0.24
0.25
0.45

0.35
0.38
0.49

Sacromonte Abbey Archive

Sample 1 Manuscript 16
Sample 2 Manuscript 16
Sample 3 Manuscript 16
Sample 4 Manuscript 16
Sample 5 Manuscript 16
Sample 1 Manuscript 20
Sample 2 Manuscript 20
Sample 3 Manuscript 20
Sample 4 Manuscript 20
Sample 5 Manuscript 20
Sample 6 Manuscript 20

0.040
0.033
0.027
0.022
0.021
0.031
0.021
0.033
0.039
0.046
0.052

0.043
0.142
0.110
0.053
0.050
0.135
0.088
0.039
0.093
0.108
0.316

0.034
0.088
0.070
0.038
0.037
0.076
0.042
0.034
0.056
0.072
0.205

0.93
0.23
0.24
0.41
0.42
0.23
0.24
0.84
0.42
0.42
0.16

1.18
0.38
0.38
0.58
0.57
0.41
0.50
0.98
0.70
0.64
0.25

Al-Zubaidy Grammar

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
Sample 7
Sample 8
Sample 9
Sample 10

0.041
0.059
0.029
0.026
0.025
0.015
0.021
0.015
0.026
0.035

0.070
0.098
0.056
0.143
0.120
0.052
0.041
0.022
0.133
0.155

0.058
0.070
0.043
0.093
0.083
0.046
0.032
0.020
0.084
0.108

0.58
0.60
0.51
0.18
0.21
0.29
0.50
0.68
0.19
0.23

0.71
0.84
0.67
0.28
0.30
0.33
0.64
0.73
0.31
0.32

Moorish Koran

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3

0.029
0.032
0.045

0.065
0.070
0.089

0.053
0.059
0.073

0.45
0.46
0.51

0.56
0.54
0.62

treatment, without spinning or a complete treatment. Flax and

cotton were identified in the rest of the samples (4 of paper, and 5,
6, 9 and 10 of textiles). Samples 5 and 6 support showed a bluish
discoloration, and samples 2 and 3 a reddish discoloration.
Finally, the fibres of the Koran were identified as flax or hemp
by their microscopic morphology [21] (Fig. 2f).

4.3. Spectroscopic methods

Infrared spectra corresponding to 27 samples belonging to
Book I from Malaga Historic Archive, manuscripts 16 and 20
from Sacromonte Abbey Archive, Al-Zubaydi Grammar from
the School of Arabic Studies in Granada, and the Moorish Koran

Fig. 3. Infrared spectra from: a: sample 3 from Malaga Historic Archive; b: sample 3 from the Al-Zubaydi Grammar; c: sample 4 from the Al-Zubaydi Grammar;
d: sample 6 from Manuscript 20 from Sacromonte Abbey.

T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

57

Fig. 4. Representation R1 R2 of the 27 samples studied by infrared spectroscopy, defining the different types of cellulosic fibres.

from P.P. Escolapios Library, were analyzed and values of R1 and

R2 were calculated (Table 4). In Fig. 3, spectra corresponding
to sample of paper 3 from Book I of Malaga Historical Archive,
sample of textile 6 from Manuscript 20 from Sacromonte,
and samples of paper 3 and 4 from Al-Zubaydi Grammar, are
shown.
In Fig. 4, the areas defined previously by means of theoretical
models were compared with standard samples, showing perfect
correlation (samples not shown). So, the results of R1 and R2
from the 27 infrared spectra, were represented in the diagram.
All the above results were compared with the results from the
morphological identification, and there was a total correlation
between both identification techniques.
The majority of the analyzed samples of paper and textiles
were clearly flax, with high R1 and R2 values. However, samples
1 and 2 from Book I of Malaga Historic Archive; 1, 2 and 6 of
Manuscript 20; samples 2 and 3 from Manuscript 16; and 4, 5,
9 and 10 from Al-Zubaydi Grammar, showed R1 values lower
than 0.25, and are represented in cotton zone, in the intermediate
zone between linen and cotton or in the bottom of the linen
zone.
5. Discussion and conclusions
Book I of Malaga Historic Archive and Manuscript 16 of
Sacromonte Abbey date from the middle of the 15th century.
Manuscript 20 seems to date from the 14th century, although
the characteristics of its binding correspond to those of volumes
from the 15th century, like the Moorish Koran. The Al-Zubaydi
Grammar has a few characteristics from the 16th century, but
characteristics of the Mudejar bindings.
In all the cases, the format used in the design and manufacturing of these volumes, and consequently the format of their folia,
is rectangular with a ratio between length and width of 1.21.3;

apart from the Grammar book with a 1.4 ratio. The imprints left
by the mould are visible.
In a generic way, we can talk about two different types of
paper clearly differentiated. The first type is the paper used in
the Koran, in Manuscript 20 and in Book I showing a poor refinement degree since rests of fibres, threads or other textile used
as raw materials in the manufacturing process are visible under
transmitted light. Paper is not satin or watermarked. In Book I
the wire lines are not visible. In Manuscript 20, chain lines and
chain-sewing marks are not visible. In the rest of the documents,
generally five chain lines are present, and also 10 to 13 wire lines.
Leaf thickness is not homogeneous and varies considerably from
0.20 to 0.40 mm.
The second type of paper has a clear Western influence. It
was used in Manuscript 16. It is watermarked and chain and
wire lines are clearly visible. The mould was probably metallic
and left five chain lines that run parallel to the axis of the spine
and 25 wire lines separated 20 mm. This type of paper is thinner
than the first type ranging from 0.19 to 0.27 mm, depending on
the folium.
However, the Al-Zubaydi Grammar features from both types
can be found. As we mentioned before, this manuscript dates
from the end of the 15th century to beginning of the 16th century
and different types of paper are present, all poorly refined and
not satin. Paper thickness is similar to the previous one varying
from 0.17 to 0.25 mm. However, the number of chain lines in
20 mm varies from 10 to 16. Chain lines are irregularly arranged,
perpendicular to the spine axis and generally there are five per
leaf, although some leaves show six.
All the samples, so much those of paper as the employees
in the binding, were analyzed morphologically using optical
and scanning electron microscopy, also on cross-sections. Due
to microscopic techniques limitations, a routine and objective method, FTIR spectroscopy, was employed repeatedly to

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T. Espejo et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (2010) 5058

confirm results and proved to be a good technique for differentiating the types of cellulosic fibres in paper and fabric lining.
According to the spectroscopic and microscopic analysis,
lower values of R1 and R2 were calculated in the spectra
corresponding to those samples where cotton presence was
previously suggested by microscopic methods. So, we can
confirm the presence of cotton in paper samples: sample 2 from
Malaga Book, samples 1 and 2 from Manuscript 20, and also,
in samples 2 and 3 from Manuscript 16. Cotton is also present
in fibres from textiles used in other parts of these documents,
such as reinforcement areas of the book structure, especially in
the Al-Zubaydi Grammar.
If we take into account that the raw material used in Arabic papermaking was mainly flax and hemp and that cotton was
mainly used in Christian Europe, the presence of cotton fibres in
paper in Manuscript 20 of the collection of Sacromonte Abbey
from early years of the 14th century (702 AH/1302 AD)
and also in Manuscript 16, in pasteboard of the manuscript from
Malaga and in fabric lining from the cover of these documents
can make us think that this raw material was incorporated to the
manufacturing process in Al-Andalus. The presence of watermarks in both the second and the Al-Zubaydi book ratifies the
fact that the innovations of the Italian papermaking process were
perfectly known and used in the production of Arabic paper in
Al-Andalus before the Christian reconquest.

[2]

[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]

[12]

[13]

Acknowledgments

[14]

This work was supported by the Project MAT2008-020008/

MATAplicacin de tecnologas de anlisis especficas para el
conocimiento de materiales y la mejora de los procesos de conservacin de los manuscritos rabes de la Pennsula Ibrica en los
siglos X-XVIIIgranted by the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Technology; the MEC/FULBRIGHT grant/contract granted
by the Spanish Education and Science Ministry (20082010),
and the grant/contract granted by the University of Granada
(2007/2008). The authors are very grateful to Dr. Enrique Parra
(Alfonso X University), Dra. Carmen Martn (Spanish Historical
Patrimony Institute) and Dra. Maria Carmen Jimnez (Materials
Science Institute of Seville) for their collaboration.

[15]
[16]
[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

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