Crtextbook ch02

Chapter 2
Radio Frequency Spectrum and

Regulation
Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

By A. M. Wyglinski, M. Nekovee, Y. T. Hou (Elsevier, December 2009)
The Basics
An understanding of the actual
physics behind the layers of
interactions in cognitive radio
environments
Provides a valuable basis for
understanding the rest of the
topic!
Characteristics of
Electromagnetic Waves
Radiate (stone in a pond) / light bulb
Decrease in intensity with distance
(R2 Rule) from point of origin
Can travel in straight line (lens /
laser)
Can be Reflected, Refracted, Diffused,
Scattered and Absorbed

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Photograph of the output of a prism on a table

Propagation
Received Power
is inversely
Proportional to
Distance from
The Transmitter
(radius) Squared
the R2 Rule!

Reflection / Refraction
Velocity 1
Velocity
Velocity 22
Interface
rr

Diffraction - Absorption Scattering
Incident
Incident

Incident
Characteristics of
Electromagnetic Waves
Radiate (stone in a pond)
Can travel in straight line (lens / laser)
Decrease in Intensity with distance from
point of origin
Can be Reflected, Refracted, Diffused,
Scattered, and Absorbed
Even more exciting, waves can and do all
these things at the same time and based
on mobility, dynamically change as well!
Reflection / Refraction
Incident Ray
Source
Interference
Velocity 1
Velocity
Velocity 22
Interface
rr
Velocity 1

Electromagnetic spectrum
Our Focus
Visible Light
X-rays
Ultraviolet
Infrared
0.000000010.0000010.0001
0.01
Microwaves
1.0
Radio
100
10,000
Wavelength (in cm)
High Frequency
Low Frequency
Short Wavelength
Long Wavelength

Frequency and Wavelengths

Wavelength = Speed of Light / Frequency
or
=c/f
for WiFi 802.11b/g, f =~ 2.4 GHz and c = ~300,000 km / sec,
therefore,
=~300,000 / 2,400,000 = 12.5 cm (~ 4.9)
For low band cellular, f = 900 MHz therefore
300,000 / 900,000 = 33.3 cm (~13)



13
Cognitive Radio Challenges

Interference!
Co-existence
Interoperability
Complexity
International Standards &
Regulations
Power

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Access
Should a Regulator Allow Cognitive
Access?
Deciding not to allow it (and hence do
nothing).
Enabling existing license holders to

allow cognitive access into their own
bands if they chose to.
Licensing cognitive access to particular
bands.
15

Access
Exempting cognitive equipment from the
need for licensing with appropriate
restrictions on when, where and how
they might operate.

16

Access
How to Determine the Rules of Entry
If the regulator has decided to allow
cognitive access to a particular band,
the next step in to set the rules of
entry.
Rules ensure a very low probability of
interference to the incumbent users of
the band while at the same time
placing the minimum possible
restrictions on the cognitive device
17

Access
The incumbents will be seeking the
maximum level of protection
Will seek out situations where the
hidden node problem or other signal
modification issues are most extreme.
Even setting an appropriate level of
probability of interference occurring can
be fraught with difficulties.

18

Access
Even setting an appropriate level of
probability of interference occurring
can be fraught with difficulties
Many other rules are also needed
including:
Maximum inband power

Out-of-band power limits
Bandwidth
Transmit power control
Sensing periodicity

19

Access
Regulatory Implications of Different
Methods of Cognition
Geographical Databases
Access to a database listing the
frequencies allowed to secondary use at
each location.
Beacon Reception
Transmission of a signal from some
appropriate infrastructure providing
information on which frequencies are
available
for cognitive
use
Cognitive Radio Communications
and Networks:
Principles and Practice
20

Access
Geographical Databases
To what accuracy should the device
know its location?
Who will maintain the database?
What availability is needed for the
database?
How will devices download updated
versions of the database?
What about dynamic use of spectrum?
21

Access
Beacon Reception
Who provides the beacon signal?
How is the information the beacon is
transmitting kept up to date, especially
where the licensed services are changing
rapidly?
What spectrum is used for the beacon?
What technical parameters and protocols
are used by the beacon transmitter?
22

Access
Regulatory Developments to Date
Most notably in November 2008 the FCC
published its Report and Order enabling
cognitive access in the white space in the
TV broadcast spectrum.
In July 2009 Ofcom published a
statement on Licence-exempting
Cognitive Devices Using Interleaved
Spectrum
23

Access
The FCC concluded that sensing alone
was insufficiently proven for cognitive
access.
Sensing alone would result in an
unacceptable risk of interference.
Geographical databases were also
required.

24
Spectrum Occupancy Studies
Radio Car circa 1927 (photo courtesy of the Institute for

Telecommunications Science (ITS), NTIA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce)
25
WPI team prepare for an RF spectrum measurement sweep in downtown

Rochester, NY.
26
A map of the forty eight locations close to I-90

between Boston, MA and Blandfield, MA over which
spectrum measurements were collected in June 2009

27
Snapshot Studies
Measured Spectrum Occupancy in Chicago and New York City
PLM, Amateur, others: 30-54 MHz
TV 2-6, RC: 54-88 MHz
Air traffic Control, Aero Nav: 108-138 MHz
Fixed Mobile, Amateur, others:138-174 MHz
TV 7-13: 174-216 MHz
Maritime Mobile, Amateur, others: 216-225 MHz
Fixed Mobile, Aero, others: 225-406 MHz
Amateur, Fixed, Mobile, Radiolocation, 406-470 MHz
TV 14-20: 470-512 MHz
TV 21-36: 512-608 MHz
TV 37-51: 608-698 MHz
TV 52-69: 698-806 MHz
Cell phone and SMR: 806-902 MHz
Unlicensed: 902-928 MHz
Paging, SMS, Fixed, BX Aux, and FMS: 928-906 MHz
IFF, TACAN, GPS, others: 960-1240 MHz
Amateur: 1240-1300 MHz
Aero Radar, Military: 1300-1400 MHz
Space/Satellite, Fixed Mobile, Telemetry: 1400-1525 MHz
Mobile Satellite, GPS, Meteorologicial: 1525-1710 MHz
Fixed, Fixed Mobile: 1710-1850 MHz
PCS, Asyn, Iso: 1850-1990 MHz
TV Aux: 1990-2110 MHz
Common Carriers, Private, MDS: 2110-2200 MHz
Space Operation, Fixed: 2200-2300 MHz
Amateur, WCS, DARS: 2300-2360 MHz
Telemetry: 2360-2390 MHz
U-PCS, ISM (Unlicensed): 2390-2500 MHz
ITFS, MMDS: 2500-2686 MHz
Surveillance Radar: 2686-2900 MHz
0.0%
Chicago
New York City
25.0%
50.0%
75.0%
100.0%
Spectrum Occupancy

28
Spectrum Observatories
IITs Spectrum Observatory antenna array

29
Spectrum Observatories
SQUIRRELWeb spectrum measurement

interface at WPI
30
TV Spectrum Utilization
Spectrogram of TV channels 21 51 taken in Chicago 22 29 April 2008

31
Cellular Spectrum Utilization
Spectrogram of 800 MHz cellular band in Chicago taken 1724 April 2008
32
Paging Spectrum Utilization
Wireless spectrum of 928-948 MHz in Rochester, NY on 19 June 2008.

33
Chapter 2 Summary
Nature of the electromagnetic
spectrum with specific focus on that
portion of the spectrum most useful
for radio networks and
communications systems
Cursory review of the early use of this
spectrum has been presented

34
Chapter 2 Summary
Rise in national and international
regulatory bodies focused on both the
allocation of the spectrum and in
defining the acceptable parameters
for its use
Emerging unlicensed approaches to
the use of the spectrum have been
examined
Cognitive access approach to spectrum
utilization
35

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Chapter 2

Radio Frequency Spectrum and

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Photograph of the output of a prism on a table

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Diffraction - Absorption Scattering

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Wavelength (in cm)

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Frequency and Wavelengths

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Challenges

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Enabling existing license holders to

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Maximum inband power

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Regulatory Issues for Cognitive

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Spectrum Occupancy Studies

Radio Car circa 1927 (photo courtesy of the Institute for

Spectrum Occupancy Studies

WPI team prepare for an RF spectrum measurement sweep in downtown

Spectrum Occupancy Studies

A map of the forty eight locations close to I-90

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

IITs Spectrum Observatory antenna array

SQUIRRELWeb spectrum measurement

Spectrogram of TV channels 21 51 taken in Chicago 22 29 April 2008

Cellular Spectrum Utilization

Paging Spectrum Utilization

Wireless spectrum of 928-948 MHz in Rochester, NY on 19 June 2008.

Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks: Principles and Practice

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