Changing modes of production in India

In any specific society or country, different modes of production might

emerge and exist alongside each other, linked together economically through
trade and mutual obligations. To these different modes corresponds different
social classes and strata in the population. So, for example, urban capitalist
industry might co-exist with rural peasant production for subsistence and simple
exchange and tribal hunting and gathering. Old and new modes of production
might combine to form a hybrid economy.
Though according to Marxian view with the expansion of capitalist
markets tended to dissolve and displace older ways of producing over time. A
capitalist society was a society in which the capitalist mode of production had
become the dominant one. The culture, laws and customs of that society might
however preserve many traditions of the preceding modes of production. Thus,
although two countries might both be capitalist, being economically based
mainly on private enterprise for profit and wage labour, these capitalisms might
be very different in social character and functioning, reflecting very different
cultures, religions, social rules and histories.
Before independence/during colonial period India was an agrarian
society. The Indian British agrarian structure was feudal in social relation
(Zamindari and Ryoti) and technological application. After independence
through legislative intervention agrarian structure were transformed towards
productive and egalitarian in economic sphere. With this Indian agriculture
became more capital-intensive in nature. The land and social relation started
developing market relation manifested through introduction of wage labour in
agriculture work and tendency for Cash crops.
There are some important factors which is responsible to make a change
in the mode of production by the introduction of modern technology in the
rural areas. These are:
Improved implements:
Since introduction of community development Projects in 1952, it
introduced new technologically inputs in the villages with the objective of
giving self-sufficiency to the peasants. Improved variety of plough, cattle,
alongwith an appropriate technology, has been introduced to the peasants. The
tractor, lorry, thresher and a large number of techniques have been given to the
village people. There are some parts of our country such as Punjab, Maharashtra

and Gujarat where the use of bullocks has become oblivious. Bullock-cart has
also become outdated. All this clearly shows the role played by new technology
to change the mode of production.
New agricultural inputs:
The Five Year Plan throughout their history of implementation has given
new agricultural inputs. The electric or diesel oil-run water pumps have
revolutionised the old pattern of irrigation. The construction of dam has also
added great facilities of irrigation. The chemical manure and insecticides have
added much to the farm produce. Much of our food deficiency has been covered
by the agricultural growth. The green revolution is the result of the new input
and in making change in the pattern of agricultural production.
Improved Cattle:
India despite its being agrarian society suffered from scarcity of milk. But
supply of improved cattle has revolutionised the dairy produce. India is now at
the stage of white revolution. The production of milk has given rise to a large
number of by-products which have assumed importance of export.
Abolition of intermediaries:
The system of intermediaries in the form of Jamindars and Jagirdars
which was abolished by the middle of 1950s in parts of India where there was
feudal rule, a structural change has been observed leads to change in the mode
of production in the rural areas.
Development of Market Economy:
The development of market has also provided a large number of facilities
for the production and their better ways to gain profit in the market. It further
creating a consumer society where everything is for sale and it is promoting the
mode of production in a very efficient and effective manner. In this way
Marxian stress on production relations has been replaced by consumerism and
this new wave is transforming rural society and creating all over changes in the
mode of production.
In Indian context changes in mode of production primarily due to modern
technology is changing traditional economic and social setup. Yogendra singh
argues that in the contemporary social change that India witnesses, there is
profound significance of culture. He argues that the higher consumption level
which is being attained by the rural people indicates that despite being quite
traditional, the rural society has taken to new cultural ways of life. It must be

admitted that across the nation, the lifestyle and leisure time activities of people
have changed. It includes mode of consumption, style of dress, uses of synthetic
materials or artefacts, mode of transportation and the weakening of the
traditional interdictions about the consumption of meat, poultry etc. the
consumption of fruits, vegetables and milk products now has a much wider
base. The use of modern technology is primarily responsible in enhancing the
changes in people diets and its mass availability. The transformation due to
Green revolution and White revolution should be accounted in this perspective.

Critiques & Concerns towards Changing Modes of Production in India

In the recent phase of agrarian structural change in some areas
entrepreneurs in agriculture sector have acquired sufficient knowledge about
government policies, skills and use of advanced technology to change the means
of production at large scale. Therefore these entrepreneurs came to rural areas
driven by economic benefit or interest as land could be utilised as best
resources. Nevertheless, the capitalist mode of farming for small farmers has
been found less beneficial as prices of product fluctuate because of market
demand and supply volatility.
On the question of growth of capitalist mode in agrarian sphere, Daniel
Thorner found with the help of surveying 250 villages and that in every part of
Indian society capitalist farmers are present with variation in strength. He also
found most of the subsidies provided by the state reaching to these entrepreneur
farmers. In the 1951 there were number of agricultural labour was 16% of the
total population and in 1971 it had increased up to 36%. This shows the more
availability of farming labour but the landlords are not interested to employing
them because of the more and more use of upgraded technology in farming
sector to gain maximum profit. Therefore, the emergence of such capitalist class
in the area of farming from land and agrarian mode of production in India is the
result of maximisation of profit in farming sector.
According to P. C. Joshi a Marxist scholar, the Indian mode of agriculture
is feudal in character. He also found that larger area of agricultural land of India
is still in the hands of big landlord are reserved through the Benami transfer. In
Indian society land is used as status symbol and they do not look in to the
economic dividend. It also shows the strong relation between land and caste
system in India i.e. dominant caste holds the large number of land and lower
caste having minimum hold on the land.

On other hand accounting demographic changes in rural India Amit

Bhaduri found that the recent trend of land structure is changing and now it is
partly feudal in nature. This is because of continuous demographic pressure on
land which leading to land-division and family getting segmented with the land
distribution. As a result most of the landlords sending their children to urban
centres for better education and employment. Therefore, it is creating the
shortage of labour force in farming and it further leads to increase in the
bargaining power of labour now a days. Hence, the changing mode of
production in countryside making Indian farming sector a capitalist business
approach to make higher gain. The contemporary changes in mode of
production must be looked at in the context of the demands made on Indian
agrarian economy.