Road Pavement Construction

1 INTRODUCTION
Construction quality is crucial to the long-term pavement performance. Construction

factors such as surface preparation, placement, joint construction and
compaction/consolidation have an overwhelming effect on pavement performance, which
cannot be ignored or compensated for in mix or structural design. Other construction
considerations such as plant operations, mix transport and quality control procedures
can also directly influence pavement performance.
Pavement construction is somewhat of a combination of science and art. Although the
mix design and structural design are determined through carefully controlled
experiments and equations, properly constructing a pavement can be done in many
different ways, each of which may be appropriate for a specific combination of factors
such as temperature, pavement thickness, material properties, and subgrade to name a
few. Essentially, there are so many variables involved in construction that it is virtually
impossible to reduce it down to a simple set of rules and equations; therefore, there is a
significant amount of art to it. However, there are equipment and methods common to
almost all pavement construction and there are accepted best practices. This Module
outlines the basics of flexible and rigid pavement construction in the following sections:
Flexible
Pavements
Rigid Pavements
surface preparation
surface preparation
plant operations
plant operations
mix transport
mix transport
mix placement
steel placement
compaction
general procedures
fixed form paving
slipform paving
joints
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
Compiled by: Jurie SK
2 SURFACE PREPARATION
Major Topics on this Page
Before a pavement is actually placed at the
construction site the surface to be paved must be 2.1 Subgrade Preparation for
New Pavements
prepared. Adequate surface preparation is
essential to long-term pavement performance. 2.2 Existing Surface Preparation
Pavements constructed without adequate surface
for Overlays
preparation
may
not
meet
smoothness
specifications, may not bond to the existing 2.3 Summary
pavement (in the case of overlays) or may fail because of inadequate subgrade support.
Surface preparation generally takes one of two forms:
1. Preparing the subgrade and granular base course for new pavement. This can
involve such activities as subgrade stabilization (e.g., with lime, cement or
emulsified asphalt), over-excavation of poor subgrade, applying a prime coat
or compacting the subgrade.
2. Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay. This can involve such
activities as removing a top layer through milling, applying a leveling course,
applying a tack coat, rubblizing or cracking and seating an underlying rigid
pavement, and replacing localized areas of extreme damage.
Specific actions for each method depend upon the pavement type and purpose,
environmental conditions, subgrade conditions, local experience and specifications.
2.1 Subgrade Preparation for New Pavements
The overall strength and performance of a pavement is dependent not only upon its
design (including both mix design and structural design) but also on the load-bearing
capacity of the subgrade soil. Thus, anything that can be done to increase the loadbearing capacity (or structural support) of the subgrade soil will most likely improve the
pavement load-bearing capacity and thus, pavement strength and performance.
Additionally, greater subgrade structural capacity can result in thinner (but not
excessively thin) and more economical pavement structures. Finally, the finished
subgrade should meet elevations, grades and slopes specified in the contract plans.
This subsection covers:
Increasing subgrade support by compaction

Increasing subgrade support by alternative means
Subgrade elevation
Primecoats for flexible pavements
Other subgrade preparation practices
2.1.1 Increasing Subgrade Support - Compaction

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Source: WSDOT
In order to provide maximum structural

support (as measured by MR, CBR or Rvalue), a subgrade soil must be compacted to
an adequate density (see Figure 7.1). If it is
not, the subgrade will continue to compress,
deform or erode after construction, causing
pavement cracks and deformation. Generally,
adequate density is specified as a relative
density for the top 150 mm (6 inches) of
subgrade of not less than 95 percent of
maximum density determined in the
Figure 7.1: Checking Subgrade
laboratory. In fill areas, subgrade below the
top 150 mm (6 inches) is often considered adequate if it is compacted to 90 percent
relative density. In order to achieve these densities the subgrade must be at or near its
optimum moisture content (the moisture content at which maximum density can be
achieved). Usually compaction of in situ or fill subgrade will result in adequate structural
support.
2.1.2 Increasing Subgrade Support - Alternative Means
If the structural support offered by the in situ compacted subgrade is or is estimated to
be inadequate, there are three options (any one or combination of the three can be
used):
1. Stabilization. The binding characteristics of these materials generally increase
subgrade load-bearing capacity. Typically, lime is used with highly plastic soils
(plasticity index greater than 10), cement is used with less plastic soils
(plasticity index less than 10) and emulsified asphalt can be used with sandy
soils. For flexible pavements, a primecoat is not effective on silty clay or clay
soils because the material cannot be absorbed into such a fine soil (TRB,
2000).
2. Over-excavation. The general principle is to replace poor load-bearing in situ
subgrade with better load-bearing fill. Typically, 0.3 - 0.6 m (1 - 2 ft.) of poor
soil may be excavated and replaced with better load-bearing fill such as gravel
borrow.
3. Add a base course and perhaps a subbase course over the subgrade. A base
course offers additional load-bearing capacity. New pavement structural
designs often use some sort of granular base course unless subgrade
structural support is extremely good and expected loads are extremely low.
Base courses are subjected to the same compaction and elevation
requirements as subgrade soils.
2.1.3 Subgrade Elevation

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Source: WSDOT
After final grading (often called finegrading), the subgrade elevation

should generally conform closely to
the construction plan subgrade
elevation (see Figure 7.2). Large
elevation discrepancies should not be
compensated
for
by
varying
pavement or base thickness because
(1) HMA, PCC and aggregate are
more expensive than subgrade and
(2) in the case of flexible pavements,
HMA compacts differentially thicker
areas compact more than thinner
areas, which will result in the
subgrade elevation discrepancies
affecting final pavement smoothness.
Figure 7.2: Subgrade Elevation Before Paving
2.1.4 Primecoat - Flexible Pavements

For flexible pavements, the graded subgrade or the top granular base layer may be
prepared with a primecoat if necessary. A primecoat is a sprayed application of a
cutback or emulsion asphalt applied to the surface of untreated subgrade or base layers
(Asphalt Institute, 2001). Primecoats have three purposes (Asphalt Institute, 2001):
1. Fill the surface voids and protect the subbase from weather.
2. Stabilize the fines and preserve the subbase material.
3. Promotes bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.
Generally, if a flexible pavement is to be less than 100 mm (4 inches) thick and placed
over an unbound material, a primecoat is recommended (Asphalt Institute, 2001).
2.1.5 Other Subgrade Preparation Practices
Other good subgrade practices are (CAPA, 2000; APAW, 1995):
1. Ensure the compacted subgrade is able to support construction traffic. If the
subgrade ruts excessively under construction traffic it should be repaired
before being paved over. Left unrepaired, subgrade ruts may reflectively
cause premature pavement rutting.
2. Remove all debris, large rocks, vegetation and topsoil from the area to be
paved. These items either do not compact well or cause non-uniform
compaction and mat thickness.
3. Treat the subgrade under the area to be paved with an approved herbicide.
This will prevent or at least retard future vegetation growth, which could affect
subgrade support or lead directly to pavement failure.
In summary, subgrade preparation should result in a material (1) capable of supporting
loads without excessive deformation and (2) graded to specified elevations and slopes.
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
2.2 Existing Surface Preparation for Overlays

Overlays make up a large portion of the roadway paving done today. The degree of
surface preparation for an overlay is dependent on the condition and type of the existing
pavement. Generally, the existing pavement should be structurally sound, level, clean
and capable of bonding to the overlay. To meet these prerequisites, the existing
pavement is usually repaired, leveled (by milling, preleveling or both), cleaned and then
coated with a binding agent. This subsection covers:
Repair
Tack coats
Leveling (both by applying a leveling coarse and by milling)
Flexible overlays on rigid pavement
Rigid overlays on flexible pavement
2.2.1 Repair
Generally, pavement overlays are used to restore surface course (both flexible and rigid)
characteristics (such as smoothness, friction and aesthetics) or add structural support to
an existing pavement. However, even a structural overlay needs to be placed on a
structurally sound base. If an existing pavement is cracked or provides inadequate
structural support these defects will often reflect through even the best-constructed
overlay and cause premature pavement failure in the form of cracks and deformations.
To maximize an overlays useful life, failed sections of the existing pavements should be
patched or replaced and existing pavement cracks should be filled.
At most, overlays are designed to add only some structural support; the remaining
structural support must reside in the existing pavement. Therefore, small areas of
localized structural failure in the existing pavement should be repaired or replaced to
provide this structural support (see Figure 7.3). Often, existing pavement failure may be
caused by inadequate subgrade support or poor subgrade drainage. In these cases, the
existing pavement over the failed area should be removed and the subgrade should be
prepared as it would be for a new pavement.
Existing pavement crack repair methods
depend upon the type and severity of
cracks.
Badly
cracked
pavement
sections,
especially those with pattern cracking
(e.g., fatigue cracking) or severe slab
cracks, must be patched or replaced
because these distresses are often
symptoms of more extensive pavement
or subgrade structural failure (TRB,
2000). Existing cracks other than those
symptomatic of structural failure should
be cleaned out (blown out with
pressurized air and/or swept) and filled
with a crack-sealing material when the
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
Figure 7.3: Repairing Failed Pavement

Sections Before Overlay
cracks are clean and dry (TRB, 2000). Cracks less than about 10 mm (0.375 inches) in
width may be too narrow for crack-sealing material to enter. These narrow cracks can be
widened with a mechanical router before sealing. If the existing pavement has an
excessive amount of fine cracks but is still structurally adequate, it may be more
economical to apply a general bituminous surface treatment (BST) or slurry seal instead
of filling each individual crack.
In all, pavement repair should be extensive enough to provide an existing pavement with
adequate structural support. Pavement management techniques should provide for
overlays before an existing pavement has lost most or all of its structural support
capability.
2.2.2 Tack Coats
Before overlaying, a tack coat should be placed on an existing pavement to ensure
adequate bonding of the overlay to the existing pavement surface. Proper tack coat
application can be critical to long-term pavement performance.
2.2.3 Leveling
The existing pavement should be made as smooth as possible before being overlaid. It
is difficult to make up elevation differences or smooth out ruts by varying overlay
thickness. For flexible overlays, HMA tends to differentially compact; a rule of thumb is
that conventional mixes will compact approximately 6 mm per 25 mm (0.25 inches per 1
inch) of uncompacted thickness (TRB, 2000). Therefore, before applying the final
surface course the existing pavement is typically leveled by one or both of the following
methods:
1. Applying a leveling course (flexible pavements). The first lift applied to the
existing pavement is used to fill in ruts and make up elevation differences.
The top of this lift, which is relatively smooth, is used as the base for the
wearing course.
2. Milling (flexible pavements). A top layer is milled off the existing pavement to
provide a relatively smooth surface on which to pave. Milling is also
commonly used to remove a distressed surface layer from an existing
pavement.
3. Diamond grinding (rigid pavements). A thin top layer can be milled off of an
existing pavement to smooth out relatively small surface distortions prior to
flexible or rigid overlay.
2.2.3.1 Leveling Course - Flexible Pavements
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
Leveling courses (or prelevel)

are initial lifts placed directly on
to the existing pavement to fill
low spots in the pavement (see
Figure 7.4). Typically, pavers
use an automatic screed
control, which keeps the screed
tow point constant regardless
of the tractor units vertical
position. This allows the paver
to drive over a rough, uneven
pavement yet place a relatively
smooth lift with extra HMA
making up for low spots in the
existing pavement.
Leveling course lifts need to be
as thick as the deepest low Figure 7.4: Photo showing the existing pavement
spot but not so thick that they (left, front), a leveling course (left rear), and the
are difficult to compact. final surface course (right). In this particular
Because it is not the final instance, leveling course was only placed periodically
wearing course, leveling course where it was needed along the entire 8 mile job.
elevation and grade are sometimes not tightly specified or controlled. However,
contractors and inspectors alike should pay close attention to leveling course thickness
because an excessively thick leveling course can lead to large overruns in HMA and thus
large overruns in project budget.
Although leveling courses can help produce a smoother pavement, they suffer from the
previously discussed differential compaction and therefore may not entirely solve the
smoothness problem.
2.2.3.2 Milling - Flexible Pavements
Milling (also called grinding or cold planing) can be used to smooth an existing flexible
pavement prior to flexible or rigid overlays. Rather than filling in low spots, as a leveling
course does, milling removes the high points in an existing pavement to produce a
relatively smooth surface. For flexible pavements, milling can help eliminate differential
compaction problems.
Milling machines are the primary method for removing old flexible pavement surface
material prior to overlay (Roberts et al., 1996). They can be fitted with automatic grade
control to restore both longitudinal and transverse grade and can remove most existing
pavement distortions such as rutting, bumps, deteriorated surface material or stripping.
The primary advantages of milling are (Roberts et al., 1996):
1. Eliminates the need for complicated leveling courses and problems with
quantity estimates for irregular leveling course thicknesses used to fill existing
pavement depressions.
2. Provides RAP for recycling operations.
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
3. Allows efficient removal of deteriorated flexible pavement material that is

unsuitable for retention in the pavement structure.
4. Provides a highly skid resistant surface suitable for temporary use by traffic
until the final surface can be placed.
5. Allows curb and gutter lines to be maintained or reestablished before flexible
overlays.
6. Provides an efficient removal technique for material near overhead structures
in order to maintain clearances for bridge structures, traffic signals and
overhead utilities.
The basic components of a milling machine are a cutting drum to mill the existing
pavement, a vacuum to collect the milled particles and a conveyance system to transport
the milled particles to a dump truck for hauling (see Figure 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7). Table 7.1
shows ranges for some key milling machine parameters, Figures 7.8 and 7.9 show two
milling machine examples, Figures 7.10 and 7.11 show milled pavements.
Specification
Typical Range
Comments
Cut Width
75 mm (3 inches) to
4.5 m (14 feet)
Drums come in specific widths.

Varying widths can be made with
multiple passes.
Cut Depth
up to 250 mm
(10 inches) per pass
It is easier to make several

shallow passes than one deep
pass.
Production Rate
100 to 200 tons/hr

for large machines
Depends on machine and

pavement conditions.
Material Size After

Milling
95% passing the

50 mm (2-inch) sieve
Typical size.
Table 7.1: Milling Machine Parameter Ranges (from ARRA, 2001)
7.5: Milling Machine Components
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Source: WSDOT
Figure 7.6: Milling Machine Cutting Drum
Figure 7.7: Milling Machine Cutting Teeth
Figure 7.8: Small Milling Machine
Figure 7.9: Large Milling Machine
Figure 7.10: Milled road showing complete

removal of the HMA overlay, which exposes the
PCC slabs beneath.
Figure 7.11: Milled road in preparation for HMA

overlay. Notice some areas of the previous
HMA overlay remain.
Road Construction
Source: WSDOT
After a pavement has been milled the resulting surface is quite dirty and dusty. The
surface should be cleaned off by sweeping or washing before any overlay is placed
otherwise the dirt and dust will decrease the bond between the new overlay and the
existing pavement (see Figure 7.12 and 7.13). When sweeping, more than one pass is
typically needed to remove all the dirt and dust. If the milled surface is washed, the
pavement must be allowed to dry prior to paving.
Figure 7.12: Sweeping the Existing Surface Prior to

Overlay
Figure 7.13: Washing the Existing Surface Prior to

Overlay
Milling also produces a rough, grooved surface, which will increase the existing
pavements surface area when compared to an ungrooved surface. The surface area
increase is dependent on the type, number, condition and spacing of cutting drum teeth
but is typically in the range of 20 to 30 percent, which requires a corresponding increase
in tack coat (20 to 30 percent more) when compared to an unmilled surface (TRB, 2000).
2.2.3.3 Leveling Course vs. Milling
For many situations, milling may be a superior alternative to a leveling course. Leveling
course quantities are difficult to accurately estimate and leveling course thicknesses are
usually small, precluding the use of nuclear gauge density testing. Thus, adequate mix
density is difficult to achieve and measure. In some overlay projects a combination of
milling and leveling course application may be best.
2.2.3.4 Diamond Grinding - Rigid Pavements
Although typically used for rigid pavement surface restoration, diamond grinding can be
used to eliminate relatively small surface distortions in existing rigid pavement prior to
flexible or rigid overlays. Because it roughens the existing rigid pavement surface,
diamond grinding also improves the bond between the existing pavement and the
overlay.
2.2.4 Flexible Overlays on Rigid Pavement
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Source: WSDOT
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Placing a flexible overlay on a jointed rigid pavement involves some special

considerations in addition to the usual repair and leveling. jointed plain concrete
pavement (JPCP) is placed in discrete slabs and both JPCP and continuously reinforced
concrete pavement (CRCP) tend to crack into discrete sections. These slabs/sections
tend to move as individual units. Although flexible overlays can accommodate small
differential subgrade movement without cracking, the large differential movement at slab
and crack interfaces is great enough to crack a flexible overlay (called reflection
cracking). There are several techniques to prevent (or at least delay the onset of)
reflection cracking:
Prevent the slabs or sections from moving by stabilizing the material beneath
them. This involves drilling holes in an unstable PCC slab or section and
injecting an asphaltic or cementitious material to fill any underlying voids.
Typically, this method is only an option for isolated instances of instability. It
does not work well as a general roadway treatment.
Make the flexible structure strong enough to resist cracking. This usually
involves extra granular base layers between the flexible overlay and the
existing rigid pavement or extremely thick flexible layers, both of which are
often not cost effective. Even if these types of preventative measures are
used, they still cannot be guaranteed to prevent reflective cracking.
Crack/break and seat the underlying rigid pavement. This involves breaking
the underlying rigid pavement into relatively small pieces (on the order of
about 0.3 m2 to 0.6 m2 (1 ft2 to 2 ft2) by repeatedly dropping a large weight (see
Figure 7.14). The pieces are then seated by 2 to 3 passes of a large rubber
tired roller. The result is a pavement made of small firmly-seated pieces (see
Figure 7.15). Video 7.2 briefly shows the process.
Rubblize the underlying rigid pavement. This involves reducing the underlying
rigid pavement to rubble. This rubble is then used as a high quality base
course to support the flexible overlay. Rubblizing is typically done with one of
the following two pieces of equipment:
o Resonant pavement breaker (see Figure 7.16 and Video 7.3). This
equipment strikes the rigid pavement at low amplitude with a small plate at
the resonant frequency of the slab (usually about 44 Hz) causing the slab
to break apart (see Figure 7.17) (Roberts et al., 1996). Usually it takes
about 14 to 18 passes for a resonant pavement breaker to rubblize an
entire 3.6 m (12 ft.) lane (NCAT, 2001).
o Multi-head breaker (MHB) (see Figures 7.18, 7.19 and Video 7.4). This
equipment uses a series of independently controlled high amplitude drop
hammers to smash the slab. Typically, there are between 12 and 16
hammers, each weighing between 450 - 680 kg (1000 - 1500 lbs.).
Hammers can be dropped from variable heights (0.3 - 1.5 m (1 - 5 ft.)) to
create impact energies between 2,700 - 16,300 N-m (2,000 - 12,000 ft.lbs.). Hammers cycle at a rate of 30 - 35 impacts per minute. MHBs can
rubblize an entire lane (up to 4 m (13 ft.)) in a single pass (Antigo
Construction, 2001).
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Source: WSDOT
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Figure 7.14: Drop Hammer Used for Cracking and Figure 7.15: PCC Pavement After Cracking and
Seating PCC
Seating with Drop Hammer
Figure 7.16: Resonant Pavement Breaker Used to Figure 7.17: PCC Pavement After Rubblization With
Rubblize PCC Pavement
a Resonant Pavement Breaker
Figure 7.18: Multi-Head Breaker
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Source: WSDOT
Figure 7.19: Multi-Head Breaker with Following

"Grid" Roller Used to Crush and Compact the
Resulting Rubble
12
A 38-state survey published in 1999 (Ksaibati, Miley and Armaghani, 1999) revealed the
following about rigid pavement rubblizing:
Distresses in the subsequent flexible overlay such as fatigue cracking and

rutting are most often traced to a weak subgrade. This subgrade is also the
most likely cause of the original rigid pavement distress. Rubblization is risky
when subgrade support conditions are not well known.
A majority of rubblized particles are in the 25.4 - 76.2 mm (1 - 3 inch) range,
although particles near pavement edged or under existing reinforcing steel can
be as large as 380 mm (15 inches).
Rubblizing is generally better than cracking and seating for reducing reflective
cracking.
Given the expense of these techniques, some agencies just choose to live with joint
reflection cracking rather than prevent it. This is especially true on low volume, low
speed roads where ride smoothness and structural integrity may not be given the high
priority they are on high volume, high speed roads like interstates.
2.2.5 Rigid Overlays on Flexible Pavement (from ACPA, 2001b)
2.2.5.1 Unbonded Overlays
Unbonded rigid overlays do not require much surface preparation, which is one of the
principal reasons they are used.
2.2.5.2 Bonded Overlays
Bonded rigid overlays of flexible pavement require several additional considerations.
First, the success of a bonded overlay is contingent on a good bond between the rigid
overlay and the underlying flexible pavement. In order to develop this bond, the
underlying flexible pavement must have a clean, rough surface. Preferably, the flexible
pavement should be milled, however, as a minimum, water or abrasive blasting should
be used to clean the HMA surface. If water blasting is used, the surface must be allowed
to air dry before the PCC is placed.
Once the flexible pavement surface is clean, it must be kept clean until the bonded
overlay is placed. Dust, dirt and debris that falls or blows onto the asphalt surface must
be removed. If the surface is cleaned on the day prior to paving, air cleaning may be
required on the day of paving to remove dirt and dust. If traffic is allowed on the milled
surface, the surface must be cleaned again prior to paving.
2.3 Summary
Pavements should be placed only on properly prepared surfaces to ensure they perform
properly. Pavements constructed on inadequately prepared surfaces may be
excessively rough, may not bond to the existing pavement (in the case of overlays) or
may fail because of inadequate subgrade support. For a new pavement, surface
preparation involves compacting, grading and possibly stabilizing the underlying
subgrade. For an overlay, surface preparation involves repairing, leveling and cleaning
the existing pavement.
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3 FLEXIBLE - PLANT OPERATIONS

HMA production is the first step in construction. The basic purpose of an HMA plant is to
properly proportion, blend, and heat aggregate and asphalt to produce an HMA that
meets the requirements of the job mix formula (JMF) (Roberts et al., 1996). There are
two basic types of HMA plants commonly in use
today: the batch plant, and the drum mix plant.
Batch plants produce HMA in individual batches
3.1 Batch Plants
while drum plants produce HMA in a continuous
operation. Each type of plant can produce the 3.2 Drum Plants
same types of HMA and neither type of plant
should impart any significant plant-specific HMA characteristics. The choice of a batch
or drum mix plant depends upon business factors such as purchase price, operating
costs, production requirements and the need for flexibility in local markets; both can
produce quality HMA. This section gives a brief overview of batch and drum mix plants.
More detailed information on plant operations can be found in:
Transportation Research Board (TRB). (2000). Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving

Handbook 2000. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.
Washington, D.C.
Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S., Brown, E.R., Lee, D.Y., and Kennedy, T.W.
(1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design, and Construction. National
Asphalt Pavement Association Research and Education Foundation. Lanham,
MD.
3.1 Batch Plants

Batch plants, which produce HMA in individual batches, are the older of the two types of
HMA production facilities. HMA was originally made in batches; it was not until the
1970s that drum plants became a popular HMA production option. Currently about 70
percent of all operational HMA plants in the U.S. are batch plants while about 95 percent
of all newly manufactured plants in the U.S. are drum plants (Roberts, et al., 1996). This
means that as older batch plants are retired they are more than likely to be replaced by
new drum plants, which can provide greater mobility and production capacity. Typical
batch quantities range from 1.5 to 5 tons of HMA. Figure 7.18 shows the basic
components of a batch plant and their functions.
3.2 Drum Plants
Drum plants, which produce HMA in a continuous manner, generally offer higher
production rates than batch plants for comparable cost. Typical production rates for
drum plants vary between about 100 tons/hr up to over 900 tons/hr depending upon
drum design. Figure 7.19 shows the basic components of a drum plant and their
functions.
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Figure 7.20: Batch Plant

Interactive Picture
(click figure to launch)
Figure 7.21: Drum Plant

Interactive Picture
(click figure to launch)
Figure 7.22: Infrared View of a Drum Mix Plant
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4 FLEXIBLE - TRANSPORT
Mix transport involves all actions and equipment required to convey HMA from a
production facility to a paving site including truck
loading, weighing and ticketing, hauling to the Major Topics on this Page
paving site, dumping of the mix into the paver or 4.1 Truck Types
material transfer vehicle hopper, and truck return to
4.2 Operational Considerations
the HMA production facility (Roberts et al., 1996).
Ideally, the goal of mix transport should be to 4.3 Summary
maintain mix characteristics between the
production facility and the paving site. Transport practices can have a profound effect on
mix temperature at the paving site, aggregate and/or temperature segregation of the mix
and mat quality. This section will discuss the types of trucks used for mix transport and
the various considerations involved with mix transport.
4.1 Truck Types
There are three basic truck types used for mix transport classified by their respective
HMA discharge methods:
End dump
Bottom dump (or belly dump
Live bottom (or flo-boy)
4.1.1 End Dump Truck

End dump trucks unload their payload by raising the front end and letting the payload
slide down the bottom of the bed and out the back through the tailgate (see Figure 7.23
and Video 7.6). End dump trucks are the most popular transport vehicle type because
they are plentiful, maneuverable and versatile. Some general considerations associated
with end dump trucks are:
1. When the bed is raised it should not contact the paver. Bed contact with the
paver may affect the screed tow point elevation, which can affect mat
smoothness.
2. The truck bed should be raised slightly before the tailgate is opened. This
allows the HMA to slide back against the tailgate, which will cause it to flood
into the paver hopper when the tailgate is opened. HMA that trickles into the
paver hopper is more susceptible to aggregate segregation.
3. Truck-paver contact should be established by allowing the paver to move
forward into a stationary truck. This ensures that the truck does not bump the
paver too hard and cause the paver to lurch to a sudden stop, which could
cause a rough spot in the mat.
4. Once the paver and truck are in contact, they should remain in contact. This
ensures that no HMA is accidentally spilled in front of the paver because of a
gap between the truck and paver. Usually the truck driver will apply the trucks
brakes hard enough to offer some resistance to the paver but light enough so
as not to cause the paver tracks to slip from excessive resistance. Most
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pavers can also be

coupled
to
an
unloading
truck
using truck hitches
located on or near
the push rollers.
Figure 7.23: End Dump Truck
4.1.2 Bottom Dump Truck

Bottom dump trucks (see Figure 7.24) unload their payload by opening gates on the
bottom of the bed. Internal bed walls are sloped to direct the entire payload out through
the opened gates. Discharge rates can be controlled by the degree of gate opening and
the speed of the truck during discharge. The discharge is usually placed in an elongated
pile, called a windrow (see Figure 7.25), in front of the paver by driving the truck forward
during discharge.
A windrow elevator is used to pick up HMA from the windrow and feed it into the paver
hopper. Windrow elevators do not have any method of regulating material flow, which
makes it necessary to place the correct amount of HMA in the windrow to match the
paving width and depth being placed without allowing the paver hopper to run out of mix
or become overloaded (TRB, 2000).
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Figure 7.24: Bottom Dump Truck in an Urban Setting
Figure 7.25: Windrow made by emptying a bottom

dump truck
4.1.3 Live Bottom Dump Truck

Live bottom (or flo-boy) dump trucks (see Figure 7.26) have a conveyor system at the
bottom of their bed to unload their payload. HMA is discharged out the back of the bed
without raising the bed (see Video 7.7). Live bottom trucks are more expensive to use
and maintain because of the conveyor system but they also can reduce segregation
problems (because the HMA is moved in a large mass) and can eliminate potential truck
bed paver contact (because the bed is not raised during discharge).
Figure 7.26: Live Bottom Truck
Each truck type is capable of adequately delivering HMA from a production facility to a
paving site. However, certain situations such as the ones listed in Table 7.2 below, may
make one truck type advantageous over another.
Table 7.2: Truck Type Situations
Situation
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Possible Truck Type Reason
18
Paving on congested city

streets
End Dump
Paving using a mix highly
Live Bottom
vulnerable to segregation
Paving on rural highways
Bottom Dump
Better
maneuverability
because it has no trailer and
is smaller than a bottom
dump or live bottom truck.
Live bottom trucks deliver the
HMA by conveyor, which
minimizes segregation.
Usually has a larger capacity
than
end
dump
trucks
(therefore fewer trucks are
needed) but requires space
and equipment for windrows.

There are several mix transport considerations, or best practices, that are essential to
maintaining HMA characteristics between the production facility and the paving site.
These considerations can generally be placed into four categories:
Loading at the production facility

Transport within the truck
Unloading at the paving site
Operation synchronization
4.2.1 Loading at the Production Facility

Loading at the production facility involves transferring HMA from the storage silo or
batcher (for batch plants) to the transport truck. There are two potential issues with this
transfer:
1. Truck bed cleanliness and lubrication. Truck beds should be clean and
lubricated to prevent the introduction of foreign substances into the HMA and
to prevent the HMA from sticking to the truck bed. Non-petroleum based
products should be used for lubrication such as lime water, soapy water or
other suitable commercial products (Roberts et al., 1996). Petroleum based
products, such as diesel fuel, should not be used because of environmental
issues and because they tend to break down the asphalt binder.
2. Aggregate segregation. HMA should be discharged into the truck bed so as to
minimize segregation. Dropping HMA from the storage silo or batcher (for
batch plants) in one large mass creates a single pile of HMA in the truck bed
(see Figure 7.27 and Video 7.8). Large-sized aggregate tends to roll off this
pile and collect around the base. Dropping HMA in several smaller masses
(three is typical) at different points in the truck bed will largely prevent the
collection of large aggregate in one area and thus minimize aggregate
segregation.
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Figure 7.27: Truck Loading Under a Storage Silo
4.2.2 Truck Transport

Truck transport affects HMA characteristics through cooling. HMA is usually loaded into
a truck at a fairly uniform temperature between 250F to 350F (see Figure 7.28).
During transport, heat is transferred to the surrounding environment by convection and
radiation and the HMA surface temperature drops. This cooler HMA surface insulates
the interior mass and thus transported HMA tends to develop a cool thin crust on the
surface that surrounds a much hotter core (see Figures 7.29 and 7.30 and Video 7.9).
Things such as air temperature, rain, wind and length of haul can affect the
characteristics and temperature of this crust. Several measures that can be taken to
minimize HMA cooling during transport are:
1. Minimize haul distance. This can be accomplished by choosing an HMA
production facility as close as possible to the paving site. Closer production
facilities create shorter haul times and result in less HMA cooling during
transport. Unfortunately, many paving locations may not be near any existing
production facilities and economics may prohibit the use of a mobile
production facility.
2. Insulate truck beds. This can decrease HMA heat loss during transport.
Insulation as simple as a sheet of plywood has been used.
3. Place a tarpaulin over the truck bed. A tarp over the truck bed (see Figure
7.31) provides additional insulation, protects the HMA from rain and decreases
heat loss. A study by the Quality Improvement Committee of the National
Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) studied truck tarping and found that the
HMA surface temperatures of tarped loads dropped more slowly than untarped
loads but temperatures 100 mm (4 inches) below the surface between tarped
and untarped loads were not significantly different (Minor, 1980).
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Figure 7.28: Infrared picture of an HMA storage silo

loading a truck showing the hot uniform temperature
of the mix
Figure 7.29: Infrared picture of a truck dumping HMA

showing the cold surface layer crust (blue) and the hot
inner mass (red)
Figure 7.30: Infrared picture of a truck dumping HMA

showing the cold surface layer crust (blue) and the hot
inner mass (red)
Figure 7.31: Driver covering his truck bed with a

tarpaulin
In most cases, truck transport appears to cool only the surface of the transported HMA
mass, however this cool surface crust can have detrimental effects on overall mat quality
if not properly dealt with. Actions such as reducing transport time, insulating truck beds
or tarping trucks can decrease HMA surface cooling rate. Additionally, since the majority
of the HMA mass is still at or near its original temperature at loading, mixing the crust
and interior mass together at the paving site (remixing) will produce a uniform mix near
the original temperature at loading.
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4.2.3 Unloading at the Paving Site

HMA unloading involves those procedures discussed in Section 4.1.1, End Dump Truck
as well as a few other basic considerations such as:
1. HMA should be unloaded quickly when it arrives at the paving site. This will
minimize mix cooling before it is placed.
2. Before HMA is loaded into the paver, the inspector and/or foreman should be
certain it is the correct mix. Occasionally, paving jobs require several different
mix designs (i.e., one for the leveling course and one for the wearing course)
and these mixes should not be interchanged.
4.2.4 Operation Synchronization
Ideally, HMA production at the plant, truck transport and laydown at the paving machine
should be synchronized to the same rate to minimize accumulation of excess HMA in
any one of the three segments. Realistically, however, this synchronization can be quite
difficult because of varying laydown rates, unpredictable truck travel times and variable
plant production. Detailed information on operation synchronization can be found in:
National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (1996). Balancing

Production Rates in Hot Mix Asphalt Operations, IS 120. National Asphalt
Pavement Association. Landham, MD.
Ideally, all operations are designed to meet optimal mat laydown rates. However, these
rates can vary based on paving width and lift thickness. Also, complicated paving
locations such as intersections or near manholes and utility vaults can temporarily
increase or decrease the laydown rate.
Truck transport should be planned such that the HMA transport rate (expressed in
tons/hr) closely matches plant production rate and laydown rate. Some factors to
consider are:
Number of trucks to be used.

Truck type.
Average truck hauling capacity.
Production facility output rate.
Availability and condition of storage silos at the production facility.
Time to lubricate the truck bed before transport.
Waiting time at the production facility.
Loading, weighing and ticketing time at the production facility.
Time to cover the load (when tarpaulins are used).
Distance between the production facility and the paving site.
Average truck speed.
Traffic plays a large role in HMA delivery rates because it affects truck speed. Especially
in congested urban areas, heavy and/or unpredictable traffic may substantially increase,
or at least vary, truck travel time. As truck travel time increases, more trucks are needed
to provide a given HMA delivery rate. Therefore, as traffic gets worse, trucking costs
increase. Additionally, the unpredictability of traffic may result in either long paver idle
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22
times as it waits for the next truckload of HMA or large truck backups as several trucks
all reach the paving site or production facility at the same time.
Finally, production facility output is typically controlled to match haul or laydown rate.
However, this can result in suboptimal plant efficiency or HMA uniformity, which may
increase plant exhaust output, shorten emission control device lifetimes, and affect
contractual payment if payment is tied to HMA uniformity. It may often be more
economical to run the production facility at maximum rate and store excess material in
storage silos for discharge into trucks as they arrive. Storage silo insulation has
progressed to a state where dense-graded HMA can be stored in them for up to a week
at a time without significantly affecting HMA characteristics. However, gap graded mixes
such as SMA or OGFC should still not be stored for more than about 2 to 3 hours.
In sum, synchronization should be the goal but it is often difficult to achieve (based on
varying laydown rates, haul time and traffic) and may result in plant inefficiency and HMA
quality degradation. If a production facility has modern well-insulated, airtight storage
silos and is producing a dense-graded HMA, it may be beneficial to run the plant at
maximum production rate and store the mix until needed rather than try and match haul
or laydown rate.
4.3 Summary
Mix transport can have a large impact on flexible pavement construction quality and
efficiency. Mix characteristics such as laydown temperature, aggregate segregation and
temperature differentials are largely determined by transport practices. In general, there
are three types of HMA transport trucks: the end dump, bottom dump and live bottom
dump (flo boy). End dump trucks are most common, however bottom dumps and live
bottom dumps are well-suited for certain situations. Key considerations in mix transport
are:
Truck bed cleanliness and lubrication.

Proper mix loading techniques in order to prevent aggregate segregation.
Haul distance and mix temperature.
Timely mix unloading and unloading of the correct mix.
If properly managed, mix transport can successfully move HMA from the production
facility to the paving site with little or no change in mix characteristics.
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23
5 FLEXIBLE - PLACEMENT
Mix placement and compaction are the two most Major Topics on this Page
important
elements
in
HMA
pavement 5.1 Placement Considerations
construction.
Mix placement involves any
5.2 Asphalt Paver
equipment or procedures used to place the
delivered HMA on the desired surface at the 5.3 Material Transfer Vehicles
(MTV)
desired thickness. Mix placement can involve
complicated asphalt paver operations or simple 5.4 Summary
manual shoveling. This section provides a basic
description of HMA placement operations. The Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook (TRB,
2000) and the Asphalt Institute's HMA Construction manual (2001) contains detailed
information on asphalt paver components.
5.1 Placement Considerations
There are, of course, many considerations to take into account when placing HMA.
Many are dependent upon local materials, weather, crew knowledge and training, and
individual experience. This subsection presents a few of the basic considerations that
apply in virtually all situations:
Lift thickness. A "lift" refers to a layer of pavement as placed by the asphalt

paver. In order to avoid mat tearing (which generally shows up as a series of
longitudinal streaks) a good rule-of-thumb is that the depth of the compacted
lift should be at least twice the maximum aggregate size or three times the
nominal maximum aggregate size (TRB, 2000).
Longitudinal joints. The interface between two adjacent and parallel HMA
mats. Improperly constructed longitudinal joints can cause premature
deterioration of multilane HMA pavements in the form of cracking and raveling.
Handwork. HMA can be placed by hand in situations where the paver cannot
place it adequately. This can often occur around utilities, around intersection
corners and in other tight spaces. Hand-placing should be minimized because
it is prone to aggregate segregation and results in a slightly rough surface
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24
texture. If hand placement is necessary the following precautions should be

taken (Asphalt Institute, 2001):
o Place the HMA in a pile far enough away from the placement area
that the whole pile must be moved. If the pile is located in the
placement area its appearance, density or aggregate distribution
may be slightly different than the surrounding handworked mat.
o Carefully deposit the material with shovels and then spread with
lutes. Do not broadcast (scoop and pitch) the HMA with shovels this is likely to cause aggregate segregation.
o All material should be thoroughly loosened and evenly distributed.
Chunks of HMA that do not easily break apart should be removed
and discarded.
o Check the handworked surface with a straightedge or template
before rolling to ensure uniformity.
SMA. SMA mixes behave differently than dense-graded mixes during
placement and compaction. Experience and understanding of dense-graded
mix placement should be augmented with specific training and precautions
before attempting to place an SMA mix for the first time. SMAs are generally
stickier and more difficult to work with than dense-graded mixes because (1)
they have more asphalt binder, (2) the asphalt binder is modified, and (3) the
binder and filler combination creates a viscous mastic. Also, it is not
uncommon for large amounts of mastic (the combination of asphalt binder and
mineral filler) to collect on paving equipment. If not carefully monitored, this
mastic will release from the equipment into the mat leaving an over-asphalted
area - commonly referred to as a "fat spot". These considerations only scratch
the surface of SMA construction. A more thorough treatment can be found in:
o National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (1999). Designing
and Constructing SMA Mixtures - State-of-the-Practice, Quality
Improvement Series 122. National Asphalt Pavement Association.
Landham, MD.
Mat problems. The asphalt paver, MTV, rollers, mix design and manufacturing
introduce many variables into flexible pavement construction. A familiarity with
common causes of the more typical mat problems can help improve
construction quality. Some common mat problems are microcracking, fat
spots, joint problems, non-uniform texture, roller marks, shoving, surface
waves, tearing (streaks) and transverse screed marks.
5.2 Asphalt Paver

In 1934 Barber-Greene introduced the Model 79 asphalt laydown machine, a selfpropelled formless laydown machine with a floating screed (Tunnicliff, Beaty and Holt,
1974). Since then, the basic concept of the asphalt paver has remained relatively
unchanged: HMA is loaded in the front, carried to the rear by a set of flight feeders
(conveyor belts), spread out by a set of augers, then leveled and compacted by a
screed. This set of functions can be divided into two main systems:
the tractor (or material feed system)

The screed
5.2.1 Tractor (Material Feed System)

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25
The tractor contains the material feed system, which accepts the HMA at the front of the
paver, moves it to the rear and spreads it out to the desired width in preparation for
screed leveling and compaction. The basic tractor components are:
Push Roller and Truck Hitch. The push roller is the portion of the paver that
contacts the transport vehicle and the truck hitch holds the transport vehicle in
contact with the paver (see Figures 7.32 and 7.33). They are located on the
front of the hopper.
Figure 7.32: Push Roller and Truck Hitch
Figure 7.33: Truck Hitch Engaged
Hopper. The hopper is used as a temporary storage area for HMA delivered
by the transport vehicle. Therefore, the paver can accept more material than
is immediately needed and can use the volume in the hopper to compensate
for fluctuating material demands created by such things as paving over
irregular grades, utility access openings or irregular intersection shapes.
Hopper sides (or wings) can be tilted up (or folded) to force material to the
middle where it is carried to the rear by the conveyor system (see Figure 7.34).
Hoppers can also be fit with inserts to allow them to carry more HMA (see
Figure 7.35). These inserts are typically used in conjunction with a material
transfer vehicle (MTV).
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26
Figure 7.34: Hopper with Wings Folded Up
Conveyor. The conveyor mechanism carries the HMA from the hopper, under
the chassis and engine, then to the augers (see Figure 7.36 and 7.37). The
amount of HMA carried back by the conveyors is regulated by either variable
speed conveyors and augers or flow gates, which can be raised or lowered by
the operator or, more often, by an automatic feed control system.
Figure 7.36: Conveyors
Figure 7.35: Caterpillar AP-1055B with Hopper

Insert
Figure 7.37: Conveyors (seen from the rear of a

partially built paver)
Auger. The auger receives HMA from the conveyor and spreads it out evenly
over the width to be paved (see Figure 7.38). There is one auger for each side
of the paver and they can be operated independently. Some pavers allow the
augers to be operated in reverse direction so that one can be operated
forward and the other in reverse to send all the received HMA to one side of
the paver. The auger gearbox can either be located in the middle (between
the augers as shown in Figure 7.39) or on the outside edge of each auger. If
an inadequate amount of HMA is distributed under a middle-located gearbox
the result can be a thin longitudinal strip of mat aligned with the gearbox that
exhibits lower densities from aggregate segregation and/or temperature
differentials (see Figures 7.40 and 7.41).
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27
Figure 7.38: Augers Distributing HMA
Figure 7.40: Gearbox Streak
Figure 7.39: Paver Augers (note gear box in

between augers)
Figure 7.41: Gearbox Streak in a New Mat
Operation of the tractor, and specifically the material feed system, can have significant
effects on overall construction quality and thus long-term pavement performance.
Although there are many detailed operational concerns, the two broad statements below
encompass most of the detailed concerns:
1. HMA must be delivered to maintain a relatively constant head of material in
front of the screed. This involves maintaining a minimum amount of HMA in
the hopper, regulating HMA feed rate by controlling conveyor/auger speed and
flow gate openings (if present), and maintaining a constant paving speed. As
the next section will discuss, a fluctuating HMA head in front of the screed will
affect the screed angle of attack and produce bumps and waves in the finished
mat.
2. The hopper should never be allowed to empty during paving. This results in
the leftover cold, large aggregate in the hopper sliding onto the conveyor in a
concentrated mass and then being placed on the mat without mixing with any
hot or fine aggregate. This can produce aggregate segregation or temperature
differentials, which will cause isolated low mat densities. If there are no
transport vehicles immediately available to refill the hopper it is better to stop
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28
the paving machine than to continue operating and empty the hopper (TRB,
2000).
5.2.2 Screed
The most critical feature of the paver is the self-leveling screed unit, which determines
the profile of the HMA being placed (Roberts et al., 1996). The screed takes the head of
HMA from the material delivery system, strikes it off at the correct thickness and provides
initial mat compaction. This section describes:
Screed terminology
The basic forces acting on the screed
Screed factors affecting mat thickness and smoothness
Automatic screed control
Screed operation summary
5.2.2.1 Screed Terminology

The following is a list of basic screed components and terms (see Figure 7.44):
1. Screed plate. The flat bottom portion of the screed assembly that flattens and
compresses the HMA.
2. Screed angle (angle of attack). The angle the screed makes with the ground
surface.
3. Strike-off plate. The vertical plate just above the leading edge of the screed
used to strike off excess HMA and protect the screeds leading edge from
excessive wear.
4. Screed arms.
Figure 7.42).
Long beams that attach the screed to the tractor unit (see
5. Tow point. Point at which the screed arm is attached to the tractor unit (see
Figure 7.43).
6. Depth crank. The manual control device used to set screed angle and
ultimately, mat thickness (see Figure 7.42).
7. Screed heater. Heaters used to preheat the screed to HMA temperature.
HMA may stick to a cold screed and cause mat tearing. After the screed has
been in contact with the HMA for a short while (usually about 10 minutes) its
temperature can be maintained by the HMA passing beneath it and the heater
can be turned off. If the screed is removed from contact with HMA for an
extended period of time, it may need to be pre-heated again before resuming
paving.
8. Screed vibrator. Device located within the screed used to increase the
screeds compactive effort. Screed compaction depends upon screed weight,
vibration frequency and vibration amplitude.
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29
9. Screed extensions. Fixed or adjustable additions to the screed to make it

longer (see Figures 7.44 and 7.45). Basic screed widths are between 2.4 m (8
ft.) and 3.0 m (10 ft.). However, often it is economical to use wider screeds or
adjustable width screeds.
Therefore, several manufacturers offer rigid
extensions that can be attached to a basic screed or hydraulically extendable
screeds that can be adjusted on the fly.
Figure 7.42: Screed Close-Up Showing the Screed Arm

and Depth Crank
Figure 7.44: Hydraulic Screed Extension
Figure 7.43: Tow Point
Figure 7.45: Screed Extension
This screed is extended too far (resulting in poor mix

delivery and placement) and the tack coat is sub par.
5.2.2.2 Screed Forces

There are six basic forces (see Figure 7.46) acting on the screed that determine its
position and angle (Roberts et al., 1996):
1. Towing force. This is provided by the tractor and exerted at the tow point.
Thus, towing force is controlled by paver speed.
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30
2. Force from the HMA head resisting the towing force. This is provided by the
HMA in front of the screed and is controlled by the material feed rate and HMA
characteristics.
3. Weight of the screed acting vertically downward. This is obviously controlled
by screed weight.
4. Resistive upward vertical force from the material being compacted under the
screed. This is also a function of HMA characteristics and screed weight.
5. Additional downward force applied by the screeds tamping bars or vibrators.
This is controlled by vibratory amplitude and frequency or tamping bar force.
6. Frictional force between the screed and the HMA under the screed. This is
controlled by HMA and screed characteristics.
5.2.2.3 Factors Affecting Mat Thickness and Smoothness
Since the screed is free floating it will slide across the HMA at an angle and height that
will place these six forces in equilibrium. When any one of these forces is changed, the
screed angle and elevation will change (which will change the mat thickness) to bring
these forces back into equilibrium. Therefore, changing anything on the paver that
affects these forces (such as paver speed, material feed rate or screed tow point) will
affect mat thickness. Furthermore, since mat thickness needs to be closely controlled,
pavers have controls to manually set screed angle rather than rely on a natural
equilibrium to determine mat thickness. In typical paving operations the screed angle is
adjusted to control mat thickness. In order to understand how a manually controlled
screed angle affects mat thickness, a brief discussion of how the paver parameters of
speed, material feed rate and tow point elevation affect screed angle, screed height and
therefore mat thickness is provided.
Speed
Paver speed affects mat thickness by changing the screed angle. If a paver speeds up
and all other forces on the screed remain constant, the screed angle decreases to
restore equilibrium, which decreases mat thickness. Similarly, as paver speed
decreases, screed angle increases, which increases mat thickness.
Material Feed Rate
The amount of HMA in front of the screed (the material head) can also affect screed
angle and thus mat thickness. If the material head increases (either due to an increase
in material feed rate or a reduction in paver speed), screed angle will increase to restore
equilibrium, which increases mat thickness. Similarly, if the material head decreases
(either due to a decrease in material feed rate or an increase in paver speed), screed
angle will decrease to restore equilibrium, which decreases mat thickness (TRB, 2000).
Therefore, in order to maintain a constant mat thickness for a change in paver speed or
material head in front of the screed, the natural equilibrium of forces on the screed
cannot be relied upon and the screed angle must be manually adjusted using a
thickness control screw or depth crank. Screed angle adjustments do not immediately
change mat thickness but rather require a finite amount of time and tow distance to take
effect. Figure 7.47 shows that it typically takes five tow lengths (the length between the
tow point and the screed) after a desired level is input for a screed to arrive at the new
level.
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Figure 7.47: Screed Reaction to a Manual Decrease in Screed Angle (after TRB, 2000)
Because of this screed reaction time, a screed operator who constantly adjusts screed
level to produce a desired mat thickness will actually produce an excessively wavy,
unsmooth pavement.
Tow Point Elevation
Finally, tow point elevation will affect screed angle and thus mat thickness. As a rule-ofthumb, a 25 mm (1-inch) movement in tow point elevation translates to about a 3 mm
(0.125 inch) movement in the screed's leading edge. Without automatic screed control,
tow point elevation will change as tractor elevation changes. Tractor elevation typically
changes due to roughness in the surface over which it drives. As the tow point rises in
elevation, the screed angle increases, resulting in a thicker mat. Similarly, as the tow
point lowers in elevation, the screed angle decreases, resulting in a thinner mat.
Locating the screed tow point near the middle of the tractor significantly reduces the
transmission of small elevation changes in the front and rear of the tractor to the screed.
Moreover, because the screed elevation responds slowly to changes in screed angle, the
paver naturally places a thinner mat over high points in the existing surface and a thicker
mat over low points in the existing surface (TRB, 2000).
The interaction of paver speed, material feed rate and tow point elevation determine the
screed position without the need for direct manual input. This is why screeds are
sometimes referred to as "floating" screeds.
5.2.2.4 Automatic Screed Control
As discussed previously, the screed angle can be manipulated manually to control mat
thickness. However, tow point elevation is not practical to manually control. Therefore,
pavers usually operate using an automatic screed control, which controls tow point
elevation using a reference other than the tractor body. Since these references assist in
controlling HMA pavement grade, they are called grade reference systems and are
listed below (Roberts et al., 1996):
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1. Erected stringline. This consists of stringline erected to specified elevations

that are independent of existing ground elevation. Most often this is done
using a survey crew and a detailed elevation/grade plan. Although the
stringline method provides the correct elevation (to within surveying and
erecting tolerances), stringlines are fragile and easily broken, knocked over or
inadvertently misaligned. Lasers can be used to overcome the difficulties
associated with stringlines because they do not require any fragile material
near the pavement construction area. Lasers can establish multiple elevation
or grade planes even in dusty or high-electronic and light-noise areas and are
therefore sometimes used to construct near-constant elevation airport
runways. The laser method becomes quite complicated, however, when
frequent pavement grade changes are required.
2. Mobile reference. This consists of a reference system that travels with the
paver such as a long beam or tube attached to the paver (called a "contact"
device since it actually touches the road - see Figure 7.48) or an ultrasonic
device (called a "non-contact" device since it relies on ultrasonic pulses and
not physical contact to determine road elevation). The mobile reference
system averages the effect of deviations in the existing pavement surface over
a distance greater that the wheelbase of the tractor unit. Minimum ski length
for a contact device is normally about 7.5 m (25 ft.) with a typical ski lengths
being on the order of 12 to 18 m (40 to 60 ft.) (Asphalt Institute, 2001).
3. Joint matching shoe. This usually consists of a small shoe or ski attached to
the paver that slides on an existing surface (such as a curb) near the paver.
Ultra sonic sensors accomplish the same task without touching the existing
surface by using sound pulses to determine elevation. This type of grade
control results in the paver duplicating the reference surface on which the
shoe or ski is placed or ultra sonic sensor is aimed.
Figure 7.48: Automatic Grade Control Using a Mobile Reference Beam
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In addition to grade control, the screed can also be set to control pavement slope and/or
crown. A slope controller uses a slope sensor mounted on a transverse beam attached
to the screed to determine screed slope, then adjusts screed slope to the desired
amount. Generally, one side of the screed is set up to control grade and the opposite
side is set up to control slope based on that grade. The usual practice is to run grade
control on the side of the screed nearest the pavement centerline and run slope control
on the screed side nearest the pavement edge because it is easier to match the
centerline joint if grade control is used on that side of the paver (TRB, 2000).
Screed crown (the elevation of the middle in relation to the edges) can also be
controlled. Typically screeds offer separate front and rear crown controls. If crown
control is used, the front control is usually set to a slightly more severe crown than the
rear control to allow for easier passage of HMA under the screed.
5.2.2.5 Screed Operation Summary
The floating screeds used by todays pavers are acted upon by six basic forces, which
when left undisturbed result in an equilibrium screed angle and elevation that determines
mat thickness. Adjusting paver speed, material feed rate or tow point elevation will
change these forces and result in a new equilibrium screed angle and elevation and
eventually a new mat thickness. In order to achieve the most consistent thickness and
smoothest possible surface, pavers attempt to maintain a constant speed, use automatic
feed controls to maintain a consistent head of material in front of the paver, and use
automatic screed control to maintain a consistent tow point. Although the screed angle
can be adjusted manually to change mat thickness, excessive adjustments will result in a
wavy, unsmooth mat. In addition to grade, screeds can also control mat slope and crown
to provide almost complete control over mat elevation at any location.
5.3 Material Transfer Vehicles (MTVs)
Material transfer vehicles (MTVs) are used to assist the paver in accepting HMA. Most
pavers are equipped to receive HMA directly from end dump or live bottom trucks,
however in certain situations it can be necessary or advantageous to use an MTV.
Paving using bottom dump trucks and windrows requires a windrow elevator MTV (see
Figure 7.49 and 7.50), while other MTVs are used to provide additional surge volume,
which is advantageous because it allows the paver to operate continuously without
stopping, minimizes truck waiting time at the paving site and may minimize aggregate
segregation and temperature differentials. This subsection covers:
Windrow elevators
Surge volume and remixing MTVs
5.3.1 Windrow Elevators

Windrow elevators are positioned directly in front of pavers and are designed to pick up
HMA placed in a windrow and transfer it to the paver hopper. This allows for (1)
windrows to be used and (2) virtually continuous paving without stopping. When using
windrows and windrow elevators, the windrow laydown rate must match the paver
laydown rate. If the amount of material in the windrow is too little or too much, the paver
may become overloaded or may run dry and have to stop. To avoid this, windrow paving
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34
operations typically have some method (e.g., a loader) available to add or subtract
material from the windrow. Some windrow paving operations establish a windrow
laydown rate slightly less than the paver laydown rate then periodically add material to
the windrow with an end dump truck. Other windrow paving operations leave periodic
spaces in the windrow to control avoid paver overloading.
Figure 7.49: Windrow Paving
Figure 7.50: Windrow Elevator
Other MTVs are used to provide an additional surge volume for the paver (see Figures
7.51 through 7.54). This surge volume allows for continuous paver operations because
with an MTV the paver no longer has to stop while one truck leaves and the next truck
backs up. Additionally, the MTV serves as a buffer between the paver and the haul
trucks, which eliminates most truck bumping problems. Finally, most MTVs offer some
sort of remixing capability that remixes the cool HMA crust formed during transport with
the hot interior HMA to produce a more uniform mix entering the paver. This remixing
can essentially eliminate aggregate segregation and temperature differentials. Some states
have actually implemented specifications that require a remixing MTV for paving
contracts where segregation and temperature differentials are of concern.
5.3.2 Surge Volume and Remixing MTVs
Surge volume / remixing MTVs are typically used in tandem with a paver hopper insert
that increases the capacity of the paver hopper (see Figure 7.35). The insert is
removable and sometimes contains remixing apparatus (such as a pugmill) near the
bottom. At least one manufacturer has developed a paver solely for use with an MTV.
The Roadtec Stealth paver uses gravity feed and does not contain conveyors, hopper
wings or push rollers, which reduces initial cost as well as maintenance costs (Roadtec,
2001).
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Figure 7.51: Blaw Knox MC-30 MTV
Figure 7.52: Cedarapids MS-3 MTV
Figure 753: Roadtec Shuttle Buggy MTV
Figure 754: Roadtec Shuttle Buggy Front View

Showing Loading Hopper for End Dump and Live
Bottom Trucks
Remixing thoroughness varies from one type of MTV

to the next. One idea that seems to work well is the
Roadtec Shuttle Buggys patented remixing auger
(see Figure 7.55). The auger employs three different
pitches that get progressively bigger towards the
center of the MTV. This allows for additional material
to enter the auger area each time the pitch is
increased resulting in thorough remixing.
Figure 7.55: Roadtec Shuttle Buggy Patented

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Remixing Auger
In summary, MTVs assist with the transfer of HMA from the transport trucks to the paver.
There are two basic types of MTVs: windrow elevator MTVs and surge volume / remix
MTVs. Windrow elevator MTVs are used to pick up HMA from a windrow and place it
into the paver hopper while surge volume / remix MTVs provide an additional material
surge volume that allows for continuous paving and/or a remix capability that can reduce
aggregate/temperature segregation. MTV use costs money and will increase the per ton
cost of HMA paving but can help provide superior mat quality. However, MTVs should
not be used as a substitute for good production and laydown practices, which are
fundamental to good mat quality.
5.4 Summary
Mix placement is one of the most important elements in HMA pavement construction.
The key piece of equipment in mix placement, the asphalt paver, consists of two major
systems: the tractor system and the screed system. Proper operation of these systems
results in an independent machine that is capable of placing a smooth, continuous HMA
pavement. MTVs can be used to augment mix transfer to the asphalt paver. Proper
employment of MTVs can increase laydown rates, streamline mix transfer and help
reduce segregation problems.
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6 FLEXIBLE - COMPACTION
It has been said that the top three factors in real
estate are location, location, location. It can also Major Topics on this Page
be said that the top three factors in HMA pavement 6.1 Compaction
Measurement
construction
are
compaction,
compaction,
and Reporting
compaction. Compaction is the process by which
the volume of air in an HMA mixture is reduced by 6.2 Compaction Importance
using external forces to reorient the constituent 6.3 Factors Affecting Compaction
aggregate particles into a more closely spaced
6.4 Compaction Equipment
arrangement. This reduction of air volume in a
mixture produces a corresponding increase in 6.5 Roller Variables
HMA unit weight, or density (Roberts et al., 1996). 6.6 Summary
Numerous
researchers
have
stated
that
compaction is the greatest determining factor in dense graded pavement performance
(Scherocman and Martenson, 1984; Scherocman, 1984; Geller, 1984; Brown, 1984; Bell
et. al., 1984; Hughes, 1984; Hughes, 1989). Inadequate compaction results in a
pavement with decreased stiffness, reduced fatigue life, accelerated aging/decreased
durability, rutting, raveling, and moisture damage (Hughes, 1984; Hughes, 1989).
6.1 Compaction Measurement and Reporting
Compaction reduces the volume of air in HMA. Therefore, the characteristic of concern
is the volume of air within the compacted pavement. This volume is typically quantified
as a percentage of air voids by volume and expressed as percent air voids. Percent air
voids is calculated by comparing a test specimens bulk density with its theoretical
maximum density (TMD) and assuming the difference is due to air. Once TMD is known,
portable devices can be used to measure HMA density in-place. The terms percent air
voids and density are often used interchangeably. Although this is not wrong, since
density is used to calculate percent air voids, the fundamental parameter of concern is
always percent air voids.
Percent air voids is typically calculated by using AASHTO T 269, ASTM D 3203 or an
equivalent procedure (AASHTO, 2000). These procedures all use laboratory-determined
bulk specific gravity and theoretical maximum specific gravity in the following equation:
G Gmb
Percent Air Voids 100 mm

Gmm
where:
Gmm
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theoretical maximum specific gravity of the particular HMA in

question
38
Gmb
= bulk specific gravity of the HMA in question
These procedures require a small pavement core (usually 100 - 150 mm (4 - 6 inches) in
diameter), which is extracted from the compacted HMA (see Figure 7.56 and 7.57). This
type of air voids testing is generally considered the most accurate but is also the most
time consuming and expensive.
Figure 7.56: Core Extraction
Figure 7.57: Two Cores The Core on the Right

has Significantly Higher Air Voids
Since core extraction is time consuming and expensive, air voids are often measured
indirectly using a portable density-measuring device such as a nuclear density gauge
(see Figure 7.58) or electrical density gauge (see Figure 7.59).
Figure 7.58: Nuclear Density Gauge
Figure 7.59: Electrical Density Gauge

(Trans Tech PQI pictured)
Each contracting agency usually specifies the compaction measurement methods and
equipment to be used on contracts under their jurisdiction. Most agencies stipulate
some sort of extracted core density testing and usually allow testing by nuclear gauge.
Electric density gauges are relatively new on the market (in the last five years).
Accurate calibration of these devices is essential for their proper use.
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Although percent air voids is the HMA characteristic of interest, measurements are
usually reported as a measured density in relation to a reference density. This is done
by reporting density as a (1) percent of TMD (sometimes called Rice density), (2) percent
of a laboratory density or (3) percent of a control strip density (a control strip is a short
pavement strip that is compacted to the desired value under close scrutiny then used as
the compaction standard for a particular job).
In sum, percent air voids is the critical HMA characteristic with which compaction is
concerned. It can be measured using pavement cores or portable nuclear or electric
gauges; measurement specifications vary from one contracting agency to the next.
Percent air voids is usually reported as a density in one of three forms: (1) percent TMD,
(2) percent of laboratory density or (3) percent of control strip density. Regardless of the
measurement device or reporting method, the key characteristic is percent air voids.
6.2 Compaction Importance
The volume of air in an HMA pavement is important because it has a profound effect on
long-term pavement performance. An approximate "rule-of-thumb" is for every 1 percent
increase in air voids (above 6-7 percent), about 10 percent of the pavement life may be
lost (Linden et al., 1989). Keep in mind that this rule-of-thumb was developed using
limited project data, should be used with extreme caution and applies to air voids above
6 - 7 percent. According to Roberts et al. (1996), there is considerable evidence that
dense graded mixes should not exceed 8 percent nor fall below 3 percent air voids
during their service life. This is because high air void content (above 8 percent) or low
air void content (below 3 percent) can cause the following pavement distresses (this list
applies to dense-graded HMA and not open-graded HMA or SMA):
1. Decreased stiffness and strength. Kennedy et al. (1984) concluded that
tensile strength, static and resilient moduli, and stability are reduced at high air
void content.
2. Reduced Fatigue Life. Several researchers have reported the relationship
between increased air voids and reduced fatigue life (Pell and Taylor, 1969;
Epps and Monismith, 1969; Linden et. al., 1989). Finn et al. (1973) concluded
...fatigue properties can be reduced by 30 to 40 percent for each one percent
increase in air void content. Another study concluded that a reduction in air
voids from eight percent to three percent could more than double pavement
fatigue life (Scherocman, 1984a).
3. Accelerated Aging/Decreased Durability. In his Highway Research Board
paper, McLeod (1967) concluded compacting a well-designed paving mixture
to low air voids retards the rate of hardening of the asphalt binder, and results
in longer pavement life, lower pavement maintenance, and better all-around
pavement performance.
4. Raveling. Kandhal and Koehler (1984) found that raveling becomes a
significant problem above about eight percent air voids and becomes a severe
problem above approximately 15 percent air voids.
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5. Rutting. The amount of rutting which occurs in an asphalt pavement is

inversely proportional to the air void content (Scherocman, 1984a). Rutting
can be caused by two different mechanisms: vertical consolidation and lateral
distortion. Vertical consolidation results from continued pavement compaction
(reduction of air voids) by traffic after construction. Lateral distortion shoving
of the pavement material sideways and a humping-up of the asphalt concrete
mixture outside the wheelpaths is usually due to a mix design problem. Both
types of rutting can occur more quickly if the HMA air void content is too low
(Scherocman, 1984a).
6. Moisture Damage. Air voids in insufficiently compacted HMA are high and
tend to be interconnected with each other. Numerous and interconnected air
voids allow for easy water entry (Kandhal and Koehler, 1984; Cooley et al.,
2002) which increases the likelihood of significant moisture damage. The
relationship between permeability, nominal maximum aggregate size and lift
thickness is quite important and can change significantly as these parameters
change.
Air voids that are either too great or too low can cause a significant reduction in
pavement life. For dense graded HMA, air voids between 3 and 8 percent generally
produce the best compromise of pavement strength, fatigue life, durability, raveling,
rutting and moisture damage susceptibility.
6.3 Factors Affecting Compaction
HMA compaction is influenced by a myriad of factors; some related to the environment,
some determined by mix and structural design and some under contractor and agency
control during construction (see Table 7.4)
Table 7.4: Factors Affecting Compaction
Environmental Factors
Temperature
Ground temperature
Air temperature
Wind speed
Solar flux
Mix Property Factors

Aggregate
Gradation
Size
Shape
Fractured faces
Volume
Asphalt Binder
Chemical properties
Physical properties
Amount
Construction Factors
Rollers
Type
Number
Speed and timing
Number of passes
Lift thickness
Other
HMA production
temperature
Haul distance
Haul time
Foundation support
Environmental factors are determined by when and where paving occurs. Paving
operations may have some float time, which allows a limited choice of when but paving
location is determined by road location so there is essentially no choice of where. Mix
and structural design factors are determined before construction and although they
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should account for construction practices and the anticipated environment, they often
must compromise ease of construction and compaction to achieve design objectives.
Obviously construction factors are the most controllable and adaptable of all the factors
affecting compaction. Although some factors like haul distance/time, HMA production
temperature, lift thickness and type/number of rollers may be somewhat predetermined,
other factors associated with roller timing, speed, pattern and number of passes can be
manipulated as necessary to produce an adequately compacted mat. This subsection
discusses:
Temperature (the environmental factor)

Mix property factors
Section 6.4, Compaction Equipment and 6.5, Roller Variables discuss construction
factors.
6.3.1 Temperature
HMA temperature has a direct effect on the viscosity of the asphalt cement binder and
thus compaction. As HMA temperature decreases, its asphalt cement binder becomes
more viscous and resistant to deformation, which results in a smaller reduction in air
voids for a given compactive effort. As the mix cools, the asphalt binder eventually
becomes stiff enough to effectively prevent any further reduction in air voids regardless
of the applied compactive effort. The temperature at which this occurs, commonly
referred to as cessation temperature, is a function of the mix property factors in Table
7.4. In some literature it is reported to be about 79oC (175F) for dense-graded HMA
(Scherocman, 1984b; Hughes, 1989). Below cessation temperature rollers can still be
operated on the mat to improve smoothness and surface texture but further compaction
will generally not occur. Conversely, if the binder is too fluid and the aggregate structure
is weak (e.g., at high temperatures), roller loads will simply displace, or shove the mat
rather than compact it. In general, the combination of asphalt cement binder and
aggregate needs to be viscous enough to allow compaction but stiff enough to prevent
excessive shoving.
Mat temperature then, is crucial to both the actual amount of air void reduction for a
given compactive effort, and the overall time available for compaction. If the initial
temperature and cool-down rate are known, the temperature of the mat at any time after
laydown can be calculated. Based on this calculation rolling equipment and patterns can
be employed to:
1. Take maximum advantage of available roller compactive effort. Rollers can be
used where the mat is most receptive to compaction and avoided where the
mat is susceptible to excessive shoving.
2. Ensure the mat is compacted to the desired air void content before cessation
temperature is reached. This can be done by calculating the time it takes the
mat to cool from initial temperature to cessation temperature. All compaction
must be accomplished within this time available for compaction.
The major factors affecting time available for compaction are (Roberts et al., 1996):
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Initial mat temperature. Higher initial mat temperatures require more time to
cool down to cessation temperature, thus increasing the time available for
compaction. However, overheating the HMA will damage the asphalt binder
and cause emissions.
Mat or lift thickness. Thicker lifts have a smaller surface-to-volume ratio and
thus lose heat more slowly, which increases the time available for compaction.
Temperature of the surface on which the mat is placed. Hotter surfaces will
remove heat from the mat at a slower rate, increasing the time available for
compaction.
Ambient temperature. Hotter air temperatures will remove heat from the mat
at a slower rate, increasing the time available for compaction.
Wind speed. Lower wind speeds will decrease mat heat loss by convection,
which will increase the time available for compaction.
Jordan and Thomas (1976) point out additional factors affecting mat cool-down rate that
include mat density, pavement layer thermal conductivity, specific heat, convection
coefficient, incident solar radiation and coefficients of emission and absorption of solar
radiation for the pavement surface.
Table 7.5 is a sampling of MultiCool output for some representative values of pavement
thickness and ambient temperature.
Table 7.5: Sample MultiCool Calculations
Mat Thickness
Base Temperature
Mix Temperature
Approximate Time
to Cool to
79 C (175 F)
25 mm
(1 inch)
25 mm
(1 inch)
50 mm
(2 inches)
50 mm
(2 inches)
149 C
(300 F)
149 C
(300 F)
121 C
(250 F)
121 C
(250 F)
16 C
(60 F)
-4 C
(25 F)
16 C
(60 F)
-4 C
(25 F)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
121 C
(250 F)
16 C
(60 F)
54 minutes
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
121 C
(250 F)
-4 C
(25 F)
39 minutes
9 minutes
7 minutes
16 minutes
12 minutes
Table 7.5 Assumptions:

1.
Wind velocity is 16 km/h (10 mph)
2.
Air temperature same as base temperature.
3.
Morning paving (10:00 a.m.)
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4.
Paving location is at 48 N latitude
5.
6.
Weather is clear and dry

Paving is an overlay over an existing asphalt concrete pavement
43
7.
8.
9.
Dense graded HMA

Binder type is PG 64-22
Single lift
MultiCool is quick and powerful. It can easily be installed on a laptop and used by
contractors or inspectors to give a general idea of the time available for compaction
on a given job site, which can be quite helpful in determining roller use and patterns.
Figure 7.60 relates HMA temperature with typical aspects of compaction.
Figure 7.60: HMA Temperature vs. Compaction Aspects
HMA temperature affects its binder viscosity, which affects compaction in two ways: (1)
the colder and more viscous the binder, the less actual amount of air void reduction for a
given compactive effort, and (2) HMA can only be compacted until it reaches cessation
temperature, therefore initial HMA temperature and mat cool-down rate establish a
fundamental compaction parameter the overall time available for compaction. Many
factors influence HMA temperature and cool-down rate including initial mat temperature,
mat thickness, temperature of the surface on which the mat is placed, ambient
temperature and wind speed. Using these factors as inputs, MultiCool, a program
developed at the University of Minnesota, can easily produce a mat cool-down curve and
calculate the time available for compaction.
6.3.2 Mix Properties
Mix aggregate and binder properties can also affect compaction. They do so by affecting
(1) the ease with which aggregate will rearrange under roller loads and (2) the viscosity
of the binder at any given temperature.
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Gradation affects the way aggregate interlocks and thus the ease with which aggregate
can be rearranged under roller loads. In general, aggregate effects on compaction can
be broken down by aggregate size (TRB, 2000):
1. Coarse aggregate. Surface texture, particle shape and the number of
fractured faces can affect compaction. Rough surface textures, cubical or
block shaped aggregate (as opposed to round aggregate) and highly angular
particles (high percentage of fractured faces) will all increase the required
compactive effort to achieve a specific density.
2. Midsize fine aggregate (between the 0.60 and 0.30-mm (No. 30 and No. 50)
sieves). High amounts of midsize fine, rounded aggregate (natural sand)
cause a mix to displace laterally or shove under roller loads. This occurs
because the excess midsize fine, rounded aggregate results in a mix with
insufficient voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA). This gives only a small void
volume available for the asphalt cement to fill. Therefore, if the binder content
is just a bit high it completely fills the voids and the excess serves to (1) resist
compaction by forcing the aggregate apart and (2) lubricate the aggregate
making it easy for the mix to laterally displace.
3. Fines or dust (aggregate passing the 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve). Generally,
a mix with a high fines content will be more difficult to compact than a mix with
a low fines content.
The asphalt binder grade affects compaction through its viscosity. A binder that is higher
in viscosity will generally result in a mix that is more resistant to compaction.
Additionally, the more a binder hardens (or ages) during production, the more resistant
the mix is to compaction.
Asphalt binder content also affects compaction. Asphalt binder lubricates the aggregate
during compaction and therefore, mixes with low asphalt content are generally difficult to
compact because of inadequate lubrication, whereas mixes with high asphalt content will
compact easily but may shove under roller loads (TRB, 2000).
Sometimes, a combination of mix design factors produces what is known as a tender
mix. Tender mixes are internally unstable mixes that tend to displace laterally and shove
rather than compact under roller loads.
6.4 Compaction Equipment
There are three basic pieces of equipment available for HMA compaction: (1) the paver
screed, (2) the steel wheeled roller and (3) the pneumatic tire roller. Each piece of
equipment compacts the HMA by two principal means:
1. By applying its weight to the HMA surface and compressing the material
underneath the ground contact area. Since this compression will be greater
for longer periods of contact, lower equipment speeds will produce more
compression.
Obviously, higher equipment weight will also increase
compression.
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2. By creating a shear stress between the compressed material underneath the

ground contact area and the adjacent uncompressed material. When
combined with equipment speed, this produces a shear rate. Lowering
equipment speed can decrease the shear rate, which increases the shearing
stress. Higher shearing stresses are more capable of rearranging aggregate
into more dense configurations.
These two means of densifying HMA are often referred to collectively as compactive
effort. This section discusses the paver screed, the steel wheeled roller (both static and
vibratory) and the pneumatic tire roller as they apply to HMA compaction. Section 6.5.1,
Compaction Sequence discusses how each one of these pieces of compaction
equipment work together in a typical construction scenario. This subsection covers:
The paver screed

Steel wheel rollers (including vibratory rollers)
Pneumatic tire rollers
6.4.1 Paver Screed

The paver screed has previously been discussed in Section 5.1.2, Screed. Of additional
note here is that approximately 75 to 85 percent of the theoretical maximum density of
the HMA will be obtained when the mix passes out from under the screed (TRB, 2000).
6.4.2 Steel Wheel Rollers
Steel wheel rollers are self-propelled compaction devices that use steel drums to
compress the underlying HMA. They can have one, two or even three drums, although
tandem (2 drum) rollers are most often used. The drums can be either static or vibratory
and usually range from 86 to 215 cm (35 to 85 inches) in width and 50 to 150 cm (20 to
60 inches) in diameter. Roller weight is typically between 0.9 and 18 tonnes (1 and 20
tons) (see Figures 7.61 and 7.62).
Figure 7.61: Small Static Steel Wheel Roller

(1.32 tonnes (1.45 tons), 86 cm (34-inch) wide
drum)
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Figure 7.62: Large Vibratory Steel Wheel Roller

(17 tonnes (18.7 tons), 213 cm (84-inch) wide
drum)
46
In addition to their own weight, some steel wheel rollers can be ballasted with either
sand or water to increase their weight and thus, compactive effort. Although this
ballasting is a fairly simple process (see Figure 7.63), it is usually done before rolling
operations start and rarely during rolling operations. Since asphalt cement binder sticks
to steel wheels, most steel wheel rollers spray water on the drums to prevent HMA from
sticking, and are equipped with a transverse bar on each drum to wipe off HMA (see
Video 7.10). Note, however, that this water will cool the HMA and can reduce the time
available for compaction.
Figure 7.63: Filling up with water
6.4.2.1 Vibratory Steel Wheel Rollers

Some steel wheel rollers are equipped with vibratory drums. Drum vibration adds a
dynamic load to the static roller weight to create a greater total compactive effort. Drum
vibration also reduces friction and aggregate interlock during compaction, which allows
aggregate particles to move into final positions that produce greater friction and interlock
than could be achieved without vibration. Roller drum vibration is produced using a
rotating eccentric weight located in the vibrating drum (or drums) and the force it creates
is proportional to the eccentric moment of the rotating weight and the speed of rotation
(TRB, 2000). Operators can turn the vibrations on or off and can also control amplitude
(eccentric moment) and frequency (speed of rotation). Vibration frequency and
amplitude have a direct effect on the dynamic force (and thus the compactive force) as
shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Vibratory Steel Wheel Roller Parameters (after TRB, 2000)
Parameter
Typical Values
Effect on Dynamic Force
Frequency
1,600 to 3,600 vibrations per minute Frequency (Dynamic Force)2
Amplitude
0.25 to 1.02 mm (0.01 to 0.04 inches)Amplitude Dynamic Force
The ideal vibratory frequency and amplitude settings are a compromise based on
desired mat smoothness, HMA characteristics and lift thickness. Low vibration
frequencies combined with high roller speeds will increase the distance between surface
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impacts and create a rippled, unsmooth surface. In general, higher frequencies and
lower roller speeds are preferred because they decrease the distance between surface
impacts, which (1) increases the compactive effort (more impacts per unit of length) and
(2) provides a smoother mat. The recommended impact spacing is 3 - 4 impacts per
meter (10 - 12 impacts per foot). Table 7.7 shows basic guidance for vibratory settings.
Table 7.7: Typical Vibratory Settings (from TRB, 2000)
HMA / Mat Characteristic
Frequency
Amplitude
Operate in static mode. Under vibratory mode, as the

pavement increases in density the drums may begin to
bounce, which may cause the HMA to shove and become
less dense. Also, some of the aggregates may be
crushed.
Thin Lifts
(< about 30mm (1.25
inches))
Lifts between 30 mm and 65

mm
High frequency
(1.25 and 2.5 inches)
Low amplitude
Lifts
beyond
(2.5 inches)
High frequency
Higher amplitude
High frequency
Higher amplitude
65
Stiff (more viscous) HMA
mm
As a general rule-of-thumb, a combination of speed and frequency that results in 3 - 3.5

impacts per meter (10 - 12 impacts per foot) is good. At 3000 vibrations/minute that
gives a speed of 4.5 - 5.5 km/hr (2.8 - 3.4 mph).
When density is difficult to quickly achieve with a vibratory steel wheel roller, the
tendency may be to increase vibratory amplitude to increase compactive effort.
However, high amplitude is only advisable on stiff mixes or very thick lifts that can
support the increased amplitude without fracturing the constituent aggregate particles.
For typical mix types and lift thicknesses a better solution is usually to maintain low
amplitude vibrations and increase the number of roller passes at low amplitude.
Vibratory steel wheel rollers offer potential compaction advantages over static steel
wheel rollers but they also require the operator to control more compaction variables
(amplitude, frequency and vibratory mode use) and there are certain situations under
which they must be used with caution (e.g., over shallow underground utilities, in
residential areas, thin overlays).
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In general, steel wheel rollers provide the smoothest mat finish of all compaction
equipment. When operated in the vibratory mode, they also provide substantial
compactive effort.
6.4.3 Pneumatic Tire Rollers
The pneumatic tire roller is a self-propelled compaction device that uses pneumatic tires
to compact the underlying HMA. Pneumatic tire rollers employ a set of smooth (no
tread) tires on each axle; typically four on one axle and five on the other. The tires on
the front axle are aligned with the gaps between tires on the rear axel to give complete
and uniform compaction coverage over the width of the roller. Compactive effort is
controlled by varying tire pressure, which is typically set between 400 kPa (60 psi) and
800 kPa (120 psi) (TRB, 2000).
Asphalt binder tends to stick to cold pneumatic tires but not to hot pneumatic tires. A
release agent (like water) can be used to minimize this sticking, however if asphalt
binder pickup (the asphalt binder sticking to the tires) is not permanently damaging the
mat it is better to run the roller on the hot mat and let the tires heat up to near mat
temperature. Tires near mat temperature will not pick up an appreciable amount of
asphalt binder. Insulating the tire area with rubber matting or plywood helps maintain the
tires near mat temperature while rolling (see Figure 7.64).
Figure 7.64: Pneumatic Tire Roller (notice rubber matting insulation around tire area as well as
tire marks left in the new mat in front of the roller)
In addition to a static compressive force, pneumatic tire rollers also develop a kneading
action between the tires that tends to realign aggregate within the HMA. This results in
both advantages and disadvantages when compared to steel wheel rollers:
Advantages (Brown, 1984)
1. They provide a more uniform degree of compaction than steel wheel rollers.
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2. They provide a tighter, denser surface thus decreasing permeability of the

layer.
3. They provide increased density that many times cannot be obtained with steel
wheeled rollers.
4. They compact the mixture without causing checking (hairline surface cracks)
and they help to remove any checking that is caused with steel wheeled
rollers.
Disadvantages
1. The individual tire arrangement may cause deformations in the mat that are
difficult or impossible to remove with further rolling. Thus, they should not be
used for finish rolling.
2. If the HMA binder contains a rubber modifier, HMA pickup (mix sticking to the
tires) may be so severe as to warrant discontinuing use of the roller.
In summary, pneumatic tire rollers offer a slightly different type of compaction than steel
wheel rollers. The arrangement of multiple tires on both axles serves to both compress
and kneed the mat, which may or may not be advantageous over steel wheel rollers.
6.5 Roller Variables
There are several variables associated with rollers that can be adjusted from job to job.
These variables are:
The sequence and number of rollers

Roller speed
The number of roller passes over a given area of the mat
The location at which each roller works
The pattern that each roller uses
Not all these variables are infinitely adjustable, but by adjusting a combination of them a
rolling plan can be developed that will optimize mat compaction.
6.5.1 Compaction Sequence
HMA compaction is typically accomplished by a sequential train of compaction
equipment (see Figure 7.65). This allows each piece of equipment to be used only in its
most advantageous situation resulting in a higher quality mat (both in density and in
smoothness) than could be produced with just a single method of compaction.
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Figure 7.65: Breakdown and Intermediate Rollers
A typical compaction train consists of the following (in order of use):

1. Screed. The screed is the first device used to compact the mat and may be
operated in the vibratory mode.
2. Breakdown Roller. The breakdown roller is the first roller behind the screed
and therefore, generally effects the most density gain of any roller in the
sequence. Breakdown rollers can be of any type but are most often vibratory
steel wheel and sometimes pneumatic tire.
3. Intermediate Roller. The intermediate roller is used behind the breakdown
roller if additional compaction is needed. Pneumatic tire rollers are sometimes
used as intermediate rollers because they provide a different type of
compaction (kneading action) than a breakdown steel wheel vibratory roller.
This can help further compact the mat or at the very least, rearrange the
aggregate within the mat to make it receptive to further compaction.
4. Finish Roller. The finish roller is last in the sequence and is used to provide a
smooth mat surface. Although the finish roller does apply compactive effort,
by the time it comes in contact with the mat, the mat may have cooled below
cessation temperature. Static steel wheel rollers are almost always used as
finishing rollers because they can produce the smoothest surface of any roller
type.
5. Traffic. After the rollers have compacted the mat to the desired density and
produced the desired smoothness, the new pavement is opened to traffic.
Traffic loading will provide further compaction in the wheel paths of a finished
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mat. For instance, a mat compacted to eight percent air voids and then
opened to heavy traffic (e.g., an interstate freeway) may further compact to
about three to five percent air voids in the wheelpaths over time.
Each position in the roller train (breakdown, intermediate and finish) may be performed
by one roller or several rollers in parallel. For instance, a large paving project may use
two vibratory steel wheel rollers for breakdown rolling, one pneumatic tire roller for
intermediate rolling and two static steel wheel rollers for finish rolling. The determination
of the best rolling sequence and the number of rollers is generally made on a case by
case basis and depends upon the desired final air voids, available rollers and their
operating parameters, rolling patterns, mix properties, and environmental conditions.
6.5.2 Roller Speed
Rollers are slow; for the fastest, operating speeds may reach about 11 km/h (7 mph). In
order to provide complete and uniform mat compaction, rollers should be operated at a
slow, constant speed. Operating at high speeds will reduce compactive effort while
varying roller speed can cause non-uniform compaction. Table 7.8 shows typical roller
speeds.
Table 7.8: Typical Roller Speed Ranges (from TRB, 2000)
Type of Roller
Breakdown
3.2 5.6 km/h
Static Steel Wheel
(2.0 3.5 mph)
3.2 5.6 km/h
Pneumatic
(2.0 3.5 mph)
Vibratory
Steel 3.2 4.8 km/h
Wheel
(2.0 3.0 mph)
Intermediate
Finish
4.0 6.5 km/h

(2.5 4.0 mph)
4.0 6.5 km/h
(2.5 4.0 mph)
4.0
5.6km/h
(2.5 3.5 mph)
4.8 8.0 km/h

(3.0 5.0 mph)
6.4 11.2 km/h
(4.0 7.0 mph)
not used
As mentioned previously, roller compactive effort comes in two forms: (1) material
compression under the ground contact area and (2) shear stress between the
compressed area and adjacent uncompressed areas. Operating at lower speeds allows
the roller to remain in contact with a particular mat location longer than it would at higher
speeds. This results in more compression per roller pass and therefore increases
compactive effort. Speed also affects the magnitude of shear stress developed. Lower
speeds result in the shearing force between compressed and uncompressed areas
being applied for a longer period of time for a particular area (giving a lower shear rate),
which results in a higher shear stress. The higher the shear stress, the better able it is to
rearrange aggregate into a denser configuration. Therefore, as roller speed decreases,
shear stress increases and compactive effort increases.
Because speed affects compactive effort, varying roller speed will vary compactive effort
resulting in uneven compaction. Varying roller speed typically occurs when operators
are not closely monitoring their speed or when they speed up to roll an area more quickly
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so that they can catch up to the paver. If the mat is being laid down at a faster rate than
it can be rolled, the solution should not be to speed up the rollers but rather should
involve one of the following options (TRB, 2000):
1. Slow down the paver.
delivery rate as well.
This may involve adjusting production and material
2. Use more rollers. Adding rollers can increase the number of roller passes in a
given time without reducing the compactive effort per pass.
3. Use larger, wider rollers. Wider rollers allow greater coverage per pass.
Finally, rollers should not be stopped on a fresh mat because they can cause large
indentations that are difficult, if not impossible, to remove.
Roller speed directly affects compactive effort. The best compactive effort and most
uniform densities are achieved by slow, consistent roller speeds. If rollers cannot keep
up with the pace of the paving operation, they should not be operated at higher speeds
because this reduces compactive effort. Rather, the paving operation should be slowed
or more/larger rollers should be used.
6.5.3 Number of Roller Passes

Generally, it takes more than one roller pass over a particular area to achieve
satisfactory compaction. A roller pass over a specific mat area is defined as one
complete trip over the area in question by the entire roller. This means that if the roller
uses two steel drums, both drums must travel over the area in question to make one
pass. In general, earlier passes over hotter HMA will increase density (decrease air
voids) more than later passes over cooler HMA (see Figure 7.66).
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Supporting Data:
Dense graded HMA
64-mm (2.5-inch) lift thickness
16 km/h (10 mph) wind speed
Graph and data taken

from Chadbourn et al.
(1998).
19.4C air temperature

Existing surface is milled HMA
22.7C surface temperature
50% cloud cover
Figure 7.66: Density and Measured Mat Temperature vs. Time (note the increase in density for
each roller pass). From Chadbourn et al., 1998.
Test Strip
Contractors will often (and are sometimes required to) construct a test strip to help
determine the necessary number of passes. A test strip is a small section of mat laid out
at the beginning of a project with the purpose of determining the best roller type,
sequence, number of passes and rolling pattern to use.
6.5.4 Rolling Location

Determining where the different rollers in the train should physically be is actually a
question of mat temperature and roller characteristics and not one of physical distance.
Section 6.5.1, Compaction Sequence described the roller sequence and its reasoning
while this section describes some more general rules-of-thumb.
In general, the greatest compaction per roller pass can be achieved right behind the
paver because the mat is the hottest and least viscous in that position. Therefore, the
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breakdown roller(s) should operate as close to the paver as possible to achieve the most
compaction per roller pass. Likewise, the intermediate roller(s) and finish roller(s) should
be placed on the mat at a safe distance from the roller in front of them and begin rolling
as soon as possible. Sometimes when a tender mix is placed, these general rules do
not apply.
6.5.5 Roller Pattern
The roller pattern combines roller sequence, speed, number of passes and location to
provide complete coverage of the entire mat in such a manner that results in (1) uniform
compaction to a specified level of air voids, (2) acceptable surface smoothness and (3)
complete compaction before cessation temperature is reached.
Uniform compaction depends on getting the same number of roller passes over each
area of the mat. This means that a pattern must be developed that covers the entire mat
with an equal number of roller passes from each type of roller. For example, if two
vibratory steel wheel rollers are operating as the breakdown rollers they must work
together so each portion of the mat receives the same number of passes, but since they
are the same type of roller it is not necessary for each roller to cover the entire mat. If
two different rollers such as a vibratory steel wheel roller and a pneumatic tire roller are
performing breakdown rolling, each roller should cover the entire mat an equal number
of times, otherwise compaction may be non-uniform. Although roller patterns can vary
widely, some general rules-of-thumb are:
Overlap between two successive passes should be at least 15 cm (6 inches)

(Roberts et al., 1996; Ingersoll-Rand, 2001). This ensures that small steering
inaccuracies do not leave gaps between successive passes.
The roller should be turned slightly to the side when reversing directions or
stopping. Rollers tend to create a slight bow hump (see Video 7.11) when
moving and will leave this hump in place when reversing directions or
stopping. Often, it is difficult to flatten out this hump on subsequent passes if it
is perpendicular to the direction of roller travel. By turning the roller slightly
before changing direction or stopping, the resulting hump will be diagonal to
the direction of roller travel and easier to flatten out with subsequent passes.
However, hard steering should be avoided because it can tear or shove the
mat.
Roller passes should end at different points to prevent developing a hump
(caused by the direction change) that spans the entire transverse length of the
mat.
Where there is an unconfined edge on the mat, the first roller pass should stay
about 0.15 - 0.30 m (0.5 - 1 ft.) away from the mat edge. The small resultant
strip of uncompacted mat helps confine the rest of the mat and minimize
lateral displacement near mat edges. This strip should then be compacted on
the next roller pass (Ingersoll-Rand, 2001).
Do not roll over a designed crown in the road. Rolling over a crown will flatten
it out.
When compacting a longitudinal joint, the first roller pass should be entirely on
the hot mat about 0.15 - 0.30 m (0.5 - 1 ft.) away from the joint. On
subsequent passes, the roller should travel mostly on the newly constructed
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mat and only overlap the older mat by about 0.15 m (0.5 ft.) (Roberts et al.,
1996; Ingersoll-Rand, 2001).
Joints should be compacted with the roller operating parallel to the joint.
Although transverse joints cannot always be compacted this way,
perpendicular rolling does not compact the hot/new side as well.
For steel wheeled rollers, operate the powered wheel on the paver side. This
will minimize humps that can be caused by the drive wheel.
The above thumb-rules are just general guidance; other methods may work. However,
without a clear roller pattern, the center of a lane typically receives more roller passes
than the outsides. This is of particular concern because most wheel loads occur nearer
the edges of any particular lane in the wheelpaths. In summary, any method that
achieves uniform coverage, acceptable density and acceptable smoothness without
damaging the mat can be considered a good method.
6.6 Summary
Although compaction looks like a simple job, it is far from it. Variables such as
sequence, speed, number of passes, location, pattern and mat temperature make it quite
complex. All these variables have a profound effect on air voids and thus pavement
performance. Simply put, good compaction is essential to quality pavement.
7 RIGID - PLANT OPERATIONS

All PCC intended for pavement use is ready-mixed concrete. Ready-mixed concrete
refers to PCC that is delivered to the customer in a freshly mixed and unhardened state
(NRMCA, 2002). Therefore, PCC production Major Topics on this Page
involves the batching and mixing of portland
cement, aggregate, water and admixtures to form a 7.1 Truck Mixed PCC
ready-mixed concrete in accordance with the 7.2 Central Mixed PCC
approved mix design. There are three basic
production methods: truck mixing, central mixing 7.3 Shrink Mixed PCC
and shrink mixing. Other methods of PCC mixing do exist but they are not common in
pavement applications and are therefore not covered in this Guide. Truck mixed PCC is
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dry batched into a concrete mixing truck then blended in the truck either at the batching
plant or in route to the job site. Central mixed PCC is batched and mixed in a central
facility and then loaded into a truck for transport to the job site. Shrink mixed PCC is
partially mixed in a plant mixer and then discharged into a truck mixer where the mixing
is completed. This section provides a brief overview of truck, central and shrink mixing.
More detailed information on plant operations can be found in:
American Concrete Pavement Association. (1995). Construction of Portland

Cement Concrete Pavements. National Highway Institute Course No. 13133.
AASHTO/FHWA/Industry joint training. Federal Highway Administration,
Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C.
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA). (2002). NRMCA web
site, Concrete Basics home page. National Ready Mixed Concrete
Association. Silver Spring, MD. http://www.nrmca.org.
7.1 Truck Mixed PCC

Truck mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients directly
into the concrete mixing truck. The ingredients are usually charged in a certain order to
ensure good mixing of all ingredients. Although the specific order depends upon local
practice, mixing plant procedures and possibly job specifications, a typical charging
order is shown in Figure 7.67.
Figure 7.67: Typical Charging Order for Truck Mixed PCC (redrawn from ACPA, 1995)
Truck mixed PCC (see figure 7.68) is appropriate for all types of pavement construction,
but is particularly well-suited for instances that can take advantage of a concrete mixing
truck's monitored, continuously agitated storage volume (the mixing drum) and its ability
to precisely deliver PCC through its chute (see Figure 7.69). These situations might
include: intersection paving, street paving, pavement repair, urban environments, high
traffic areas and staged/phased construction. Disadvantages of truck mixed PCC are
longer load and unload times (due to the nature and opening size of the mixing drum)
and the higher operating cost of a concrete mixing truck when compared to an end or
bottom dump truck. Truck mixer specifics are covered in Section 8, Mix Transport.
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Figure 7.68: Loading PCC for Truck Mixing
Figure 7.69: Using the Mixing Truck Chute to

Deliver PCC to a Precise Location
7.2 Central Mixed PCC

Central mixed PCC is usually proportioned by batching the separate ingredients into a
central plant mixer (see Figures 7.70 through 7.73) where they are completely mixed
before discharge into a transport vehicle. Transport vehicles can be concrete mixing
trucks or conventional end and bottom dump trucks depending upon travel distance and
other requirements. About 20 percent of the concrete plants in the U.S. use a central
mixer (NRMCA, 2002). Central mixing plants can either be permanent or mobile (see
Figure 7.74) and offer the following advantages (NRMCA, 2002):
High production volume. A high production volume would be on the order of

3000 m3/day (3950 yd3/day). Most central mix drums can mix about 9 m 3 (12
yd3) in a single batch and produce fully mixed PCC in excess of 150 m 3/hr (200
yd3/hr). Mixing times are on the order of 30 to 90 seconds (ACPA, 1995).
Improved quality control. Since mixing is controlled by a central facility and
not by individual truck, PCC quality can be more closely monitored and
controlled.
Reduced wear on truck mixer drums. If used, concrete mixing trucks are used
as an agitating haul unit rather than a mixing unit. Agitating rotation speeds
are much slower than mixing speeds and thus, produce less wear on drum
components.
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Figure 7.70: Central Mixing Plant
Figure 7.71: Tilting Drum Mixer Showing Material

Charging Apparatus
Figure 7.72: Aggregate Feed Bins
Figure 7.73: Loading a Bottom Dump Truck from a

Central Mixing Plant
Figure 7.74: Mobile Central Mixing Plant

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7.3 Shrink Mixed PCC

Shrink mixed PCC is partially mixed in a plant mixer before discharging into a truck
mixer. The short mixing period in the plant mixer reduces the bulk volume of the overall
ingredients by allowing fine aggregate, portland cement and water to fill the large void
space in bulk coarse aggregate. Typically, 1 m3 (1.3 yd 3) of fully mixed PCC requires
about 1.58 m3 (2.07 yd3) of individual ingredients (ACPA, 1995). Thus, with shrink
mixing, more PCC can be loaded into each truck mixer. Many central mixing plants use
a stationary plant-mounted mixer to shrink mix PCC before charging their truck mixers.
The amount of mixing that is needed in the truck mixer varies in these applications and
should be determined via mixer uniformity tests. Generally, about thirty turns in the truck
drum, or about two minutes at mixing speed, is sufficient to completely mix shrink-mixed
concrete (NRMCA, 2002).
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8 RIGID - TRANSPORT
Mix transport involves all actions and equipment required to convey PCC from a
batching facility to a paving site including truck Major Topics on this Page
loading, weighing and ticketing, hauling to the
paving site, mixing (if required), agitation, placing, 8.1 Truck Types
truck washing and truck return to the batching 8.2 Operational Considerations
facility. The goal of mix transport is to delivery
PCC to the paving job site that conforms to the 8.3 Summary
specified mix design. Transport practices can affect such mix characteristics as (1)
homogeneity, (2) workability, (3) water content and (4) air content. This section will
discuss the types of trucks used for mix transport and the various considerations
involved with mix transport.
8.1 Truck Types
There are two basic truck types used for mix transport:
Truck mixer. Truck mixers, use a truck-mounted rotating drum that is capable
of mixing (if necessary) and agitating the ready mixed PCC.
Non-agitating truck. Non-agitating trucks are not able to mix or agitate their
payload and usually consist of end dump, bottom dump or side-dump trucks.
Standard transport truck requirements are contained in:
AASHTO M 157 and ASTM C 94: Ready-Mixed Concrete
8.1.1 Truck Mixer

Truck mixers are the most common mode of PCC transport. They consist of a truckmounted drum that rotates on an inclined axis. A typical mixing truck (see Figures 7.75
and 7.76) uses a 6.9 - 9.2 m3 (9 - 12 yd3) mixing drum, the size being limited due to
gross vehicle weight of the loaded truck. When used to transport truck mixed PCC,
drums can be filled to a maximum of 63 percent of their total volume. When used to
transport central mixed PCC, drums can be filled to a maximum of 80 percent of their
total volume (AASHTO, 2000). Generally, ready mixed concrete producers, load their
trucks with a quantity at or near the rated mixer capacity (NRMCA, 2002). Mixing drums
contain helical blades on their inside walls that are designed to push PCC to the bottom
of the drum when rotated in the "mixing" direction and out to the discharge point when
rotated in the opposite, or "discharge" direction. Most truck mixers discharge to the rear,
however, front discharging truck mixers are gaining in popularity because the driver can
drive directly onto a site and mechanically control the positioning of the discharge chute
without the help of contractor personnel (NRMCA, 2002). Discharge is typically via a 3 6 m (10 - 20 ft.) chute. Truck mixers use revolution counters to keep track of total drum
revolutions and may also be equipped with slump meters (usually accurate to about 12.5
mm (0.5 inches)) and digital water meters to monitor water usage (ACPA, 1995).
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Figure 7.75: Typical Truck Mixer
Figure 7.76: Large Truck Mixer
Drum rotation (see Video 7.12) is used for two purposes: mixing and agitation. High
speed rotation (on the order of 12 - 15 rpm) is used to mix PCC ingredients into a
homogenous material. This type of mixing typically takes between 50 and 100
revolutions depending upon PCC characteristics and environmental factors. After this
period of mixing, the PCC is usually required to meet at least 5 of the 6 homogeneity
specifications listed in Table 7.9. Samples for these specifications should be taken from
widely separated portions but should also come from the middle 15 - 85 percent of the
load so as not to be influenced by beginning and end of load abnormalities.
Table 7.9: Ready-Mix Concrete Homogeneity Test Requirements from AASHTO M 157 and ASTM C
94
Parameter
Maximum Permissible
Difference in Results of Tests
Taken from Two Locations in
the PCC Batch
Metric
English
Weight per unit volume calculated to an air-free basis
16 kg/m3
1 lb/ft3
Air content
1.0 %
1.0 %
If average slump < 102 mm (4 inches)
25 mm
1.0 inch
If average slump is 102 - 152 mm (4 - 6 inches)
38 mm
1.5 inches
Coarse aggregate content

(percent by weight retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve)
6.0 %
6.0 %
Unit weight of air-free mortar

(based on an average of all comparative samples tested)
1.6 %
1.6 %
Average 7-day compressive strength for each sample (based on
7.5 %
7.5 %
Slump
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an average of all comparative test specimens)
Low speed rotation (about 2 rpm) is used to agitate the PCC to (1) maintain its
homogeneity and (2) prevent slump loss while in transit. Truck mixers are equipped with
a revolution counter to help maintain tight control over the total number of drum
revolutions. Mixing, which is generally short in duration, is usually planned for a specific
time or place. If not mixing, truck mixers usually operate in the low speed agitation
mode. Mixing is typically done using one of the following three methods (NRMCA,
2002):
Mixing at the batching facility. The drum is turned at high speed (12 - 15 rpm)
for about 50 revolutions while at the production facility, which allows for a quick
check of batch characteristics. The PCC is then agitated (< 2 rpm) while in
transit to the paving site.
Mixing in transit. The drum is turned at medium speed (about 8 rpm) for 70
revolutions while driving to the job site. The PCC is agitated (< 2 rpm) until
discharge.
Mixing at the paving site. The PCC is agitated (< 2 rpm) while in transit to the
paving site. Upon arrival, the PCC is mixed (12 - 15 rpm) for 70 to 100
revolutions, or about five minutes.
In general, short times between mixing and placement can better avoid the problems of
premature hardening and slump loss that result from potential delays in transit.
Regardless of the mixing mode, PCC is a perishable construction material. First, if it
begins to set before being placed and consolidated it is of little use. Second, if it is
mixed and agitated excessively it can loose its air entrainment or the effects of certain
admixtures can diminish. Therefore, a typical specification will require that ready mixed
PCC delivered to the paving site meet the following criteria:
A minimum time (often 1 to 2 hours) between the time at which when the
mixing water was introduced to the portland cement and aggregates and
discharge at the site.
A maximum number of revolutions (typically around 300) between the time at
which when the mixing water was introduced to the portland cement and
aggregates and discharge at the site.
8.1.2 Non-Agitating Trucks

Non-agitating trucks (see Figure 7.77 and 7.78) can be of any form but are typically end,
bottom and side dump trucks. These trucks are not specifically designed to transport
PCC but often work well for central mixed PCC when haul distances are short and
mixing requirements are simple. Their chief advantages are:
Quick Loading and discharge. Unlike truck mixers, which have a relatively
small loading hopper and discharge chute, the loading and discharge areas for
a dump truck are quite large.
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Quick cycle times. Because of their quicker loading and unloading times,
dump truck cycle times are shorter than mixing truck cycle times, thus
requiring fewer trucks to maintain a particular delivery rate.
Lower maintenance/cost. Fewer moving parts and greater accessibility make
dump trucks less expensive to maintain and use than truck mixers.
Because they are not designed to transport PCC, dump trucks also have some severe
disadvantages, which limit their use:
No mixing/agitating ability. Dump trucks can only be used with central mixed
PCC. Further, the lack of agitation over long haul distances may allow
segregate and excessive slump loss.
No integral cover. Although most dump trucks can be covered with a tarp, the
tarp is not integral to the bed and usually allows some water into the bed.
Thus, when operating in the rain, rainwater can unintentionally increase the
water-cement ratio of the transported PCC. Additionally, hot weather may
cause excessive water evaporation, which can also change the water-cement
ratio.
Limited placing ability. Dump trucks can only place PCC at their discharge
point. They are not practical on small jobs (such as sidewalks) nor can they
place material in confined areas.
Figure 7.77: End Dump Truck Discharging PCC in

Front of a Paver
Figure 7.78: End Dump Trucks Discharging PCC

into Placer/Spreaders

There are several mix transport considerations or best practices that are essential to
maintaining PCC characteristics between the production facility and the paving site.
These considerations can generally be placed into four categories:
Loading at the production facility

Truck drum/bed and chute cleanliness
Water management
Unloading at the paving site
Operation synchronization
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8.2.1 Loading at the Production Facility

Loading at the production facility involves either batching ingredients into the mixing
truck (for truck mixed PCC) or loading freshly mixed PCC into a transport truck (for
central mixed or shrink mixed PCC). There are two potential issues with this transfer:
1. Inadequate or improper material mixing. If the order of material batching is not
carefully controlled, it is possible that they will be introduced in such an order
that they do not adequately mix. Typically this happens when liquid
admixtures are not mixed in with the water and fine aggregate, or when the
portland cement and mixing water are introduced simultaneously. Also, certain
admixtures should not come into contact with one another until they are in the
mixing drum.
2. Head packs. A head pack occurs when fine aggregate and portland cement
become lodged in the drum entrance and are not mixed with the rest of the
PCC. Head packs need to be detected during charging because they can
frequently break away during discharge and end up in the finished pavement
without being noticed.
3. Cementitious balls. These are 60 - 75 mm (2.4 - 3 inch) balls of fine
aggregate, portland cement and perhaps some coarse aggregate that do not
get thoroughly mixed with the rest of the PCC. They are more prevalent in
batches mixed for a small number of revolutions and can generally be avoided
by a proper material loading sequence (one that starts loading water before
the other ingredients and one that starts loading coarse aggregates before fine
aggregates).
8.2.2 Truck Drum/Bed and Chute Cleanliness
Truck drums/beds and chutes should be kept clean to prevent the introduction of foreign
substances into the PCC. Old PCC that remains in the drum/bed can reduce mixing
efficiency and possibly break off during discharge and be incorporated into the pavement
causing a potential weak spot (ACPA, 1995). Water is used to maintain cleanliness at
three different stages of mix transport (ACPA, 1995):
At the production facility after loading (called "wash off"). Applicable to mixing
trucks, the driver should "wash off" the back of the mixer to prevent buildup of
materials. The driver must take care to minimize water entry into the drum.
Generally, a consistent amount of water (such as 20 liters or 5 gallons) is used
to wash off the back hopper and fins because this water will run off into the
drum. If the volume is known, it can be counted as part of the mixing water.
After unloading at the paving site (called "wash down"). Applicable to mixing
trucks, the chute and discharge hopper should be washed to prevent buildup
of materials. Wash down locations need to be determined in advance
because wash water should not be discharged into catch basins, road ditches
or environmentally sensitive areas. PCC left in the drum after discharge can
be either washed out or recycled.
At the production facility at the end of the day (called "washout"). The
drum/bed should be washed out at the end of the day to prevent material
buildup. Prior to loading the next day, the drum should be run discharged or
the bed dumped to eliminate any remaining water. See Figure 7.79.
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Figure 7.79: Washout
8.2.3 Water Management

Water is a relatively plentiful resource in the U.S. In rigid pavement construction it is
used in PCC, for transport truck washing, dust control and PCC curing. Additionally, rain
at the job site or along the PCC haul route can be a source of water. Finally, water can
also be used to control PCC workability.
PCC performance is closely tied to its water-cement ratio and the amount of mixing
water. Therefore, adding water to the mix between batching at the plant and final
placement and consolidation must be a conscious decision that carefully considers all
the potential consequences. All water inputs to the mix should be closely controlled, or
managed. As an example, truck mixers are equipped with water tanks for water addition
and cleaning, so it may be tempting to use this water to adjust PCC slump on the fly to
account for a long haul time. If this type of addition is not in accordance with the water
management plan (and it most often is not), avoid it - excess water can result in a
multitude of untraceable problems such as excessive slump, mix segregation, poor
finishing characteristics, bleeding and scaling. They key to water management is to
use a consistent process and keep careful control of all water sources that go into
the mix (ACPA, 1995).
8.2.4 Unloading at the Paving Site
PCC unloading involves removing the mix from the transport vehicle and placing it for
use by the appropriate paving machinery. There are a couple of items to consider when
unloading PCC:
1. PCC should be unloaded quickly when it arrives at the paving site. This will
minimize the time available for water evaporation and excessive agitation.
2. PCC should be unloaded as close as possible to its final placement spot. This
will prevent mix segregation that can occur if PCC is moved excessively.
Paving machines are not designed to move PCC but rather to finish it.
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8.2.5 Operation Synchronization

Ideally, PCC plant production, truck transport and placement should be synchronized to
the same rate to minimize accumulation of excess material in any one of these three
segments. Realistically, however, this synchronization can be quite difficult because of
varying laydown rates, unpredictable truck travel times and variable batching
operations. Detailed information on operation synchronization can be found in:
American Concrete Pavement Association. (1995). Construction of Portland

Cement Concrete Pavements. National Highway Institute Course No. 13133.
AASHTO/FHWA/Industry joint training. Federal Highway Administration,
Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C.
Ideally, all operations are designed to meet optimal PCC placement rates because a
consistently moving PCC paver can, in general, produce a smoother pavement than one
that must constantly start and stop while trying to match its paving rate to the material
delivery rate. Truck transport should be planned such that the PCC transport rate
(expressed in m3/hr or yd3/hr) closely matches plant production rate and paving rate.
Some factors to consider are:
Number of trucks to be used.

Truck type.
Average truck hauling capacity.
Production facility output rate.
Availability and condition of materials at the production facility.
Time to wash off, down and out the transport truck.
Waiting time at the production facility.
Loading, weighing and ticketing time at the production facility.
Distance between the production facility and the paving site.
Average truck speed.
Traffic plays a large role in PCC delivery rates because it affects truck speed. Especially
in congested urban areas, heavy and/or unpredictable traffic may substantially increase
or at least vary truck travel time. As truck travel time increases more trucks are needed
to provide a given PCC delivery rate. Additionally, PCC usually must be delivered within
a specified amount of time. Therefore, as traffic gets worse, trucking costs increase.
Additionally, the unpredictability of traffic may result in either long paver idle times as it
waits for the next truckload of PCC or large truck backups as several trucks all reach the
paving site or production facility at the same time.
In sum, synchronization should be the goal but it is often difficult to achieve (based on
varying paving rates, haul time and traffic) and may result in paving inefficiency and
degraded PCC quality.
8.3 Summary
Mix transport can have a large impact on rigid pavement construction quality and
efficiency. Mix characteristics such as homogeneity, workability, water content and air
content are all affected by mix transport practices. In general, there are two types of mix
transport trucks: the truck mixer and the non-agitated truck. The most common one, the
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truck mixer, hauls the mix in a large rotating drum giving it the capability to actually
perform PCC mixing as well as the ability to agitate the PCC while in transport. Nonagitating trucks, which are typically dump trucks, are much simpler in design and are
often used to transport central mixed PCC over short haul distances.
Key
considerations in mix transport are proper mixing and batch at the production facility,
truck cleanliness, water management, unloading timeliness and location, and operation
synchronization. If properly managed, mix transport can successfully move PCC over
long distances with no impact to final pavement quality.
9 RIGID - STEEL PLACEMENT

Steel placement involves the positioning of dowel
bars, tie bars and reinforcing steel during rigid
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9.1 Dowel Bars
9.2 Tie Bars
9.3 Reinforcing Steel
68
pavement construction. This section discuss the placement of dowel bars, tie bars, and
reinforcing steel during the construction process.
9.1 Dowel Bars
Dowel bars can be placed either before PCC placement by using dowel baskets, or after
PCC placement by using an automatic dowel bar inserter. Their placement is crucial to
proper joint load transfer. Skewed, shallow or excessively corroded dowels can fail
causing faulting and/or cracking at the joint. This subsection covers:
Dowel bar preparation

Dowel baskets
Dowel bar inserters for slipform paving
9.1.1 Dowel Bar Preparation

Dowel bars must be protected from corrosion (see Figure 7.80); although joints are
sealed to keep water penetration to a minimum, water will seep in over time and,
combined with deicing salts, may corrode unprotected bars. Typically dowel bars are
protected from corrosion by the application of epoxy coating or stainless steel cladding
(see Figure 7.81). Additionally, dowels should be lightly coated with a lubricant such as
grease or oil to prevent bonding with the PCC. The FHWA notes "...The dowel must be
free to slide in the concrete so that the two pavement slabs move independently, thus
preventing excessive pavement stresses. Only a thin coating should be used, as a thick
coating may result in large voids in the concrete around the dowels" (FHWA, 1990a).
Figure 7.82 shows dowel bars with excessive lubricant (notice how it is dripping off the
dowel bars), while Figure 7.83 shows one with the correct amount of lubricant.
Figure 7.80: Corroded Dowel Bars
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Figure 7.81: Stainless Steel Clad Dowel Bars
69
Figure 7.82: Dowel Bars with

Excessive Grease
Figure 7.83: Properly Lubricated Dowel Bars
9.1.2 Dowel Baskets

Dowel baskets (see Figures 7.84 and 7.85) are simple truss structures used to hold
dowel bars at the appropriate height before PCC placement. Typically, dowel baskets
span an entire lane width and are fabricated from thick gauge wire. They are left in place
after the PCC is placed but do not contribute to the pavement structure.
When using dowel baskets, the dowels must be properly aligned and the dowel basket
firmly anchored to the base course. The FHWA recommends that the dowel baskets be
secured with steel stakes with a minimum diameter of 8 mm (0.3 inches) embedded at
least 100 mm (4 inches) in stabilized bases, 150 mm (6 inches) in treated permeable
bases and 250 mm (10 inches) for untreated bases or subgrade. Further, a minimum of
8 stakes per basket is recommended.
Figure 7.84: Dowel Basket Figure 7.85: Dowel Baskets Placed on a Lean Concrete
Placed on an HMA Base
Base in Advance of PCC Placement
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9.1.2 Dowel Bar Inserters (Slipform Paving)

Dowel bar inserters are automated attachments to slipform pavers that allow the paver to
insert transverse joint dowel bars as part of the slipform paving process. Dowel bar
insertion usually occurs after the vibrator but before the tamper bar. Dowel bars are
placed on the fresh PCC surface then pushed down to the correct elevation by a series
forked rods. The rods are usually vibrated while they insert the dowel bar in order to (1)
ease insertion and (2) help move the PCC back into the space created by the insertion.
9.2 Tie Bars
Tie bars are typically placed after PCC placement either by hand or using a tie bar
inserter attachment (slipform paving only). When one lane at a time is paved, tie bars
are inserted at mid-slab depth and bent back until the adjacent lane is ready to be paved
(see Figure 7.86). On slipform pavers, tie bars are inserted on slab edges that will
become longitudinal joints (see Figure 7.87 and 7.88) and, if two lanes at once are being
paved, pushed into a mid-slab area (similar to dowel bar insertion) that will later be cut
as a longitudinal joint (see Figure 7.89 and 7.90). Like dowel bars, tie bars should be
protected from corrosion.
Figure 7.86 (Top): Bent Tie Bars

Figure 7.87 (Right): Side Tie Bar Inserter
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Figure 7.88: Tie Bar Insertion Equipment for Side Tie Bars
Figure 7.89: Inserter for Mid-Slab Tie Bars (the

area in which the tie bars are inserted will later be
cut as a longitudinal joint)
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Figure 7.90: Tie Bar Insertion Cartridge Protruding

Upward from the Center of a
Slipform Paver
72
9.3 Reinforcing Steel (CRCP)

Proper reinforcing steel
placement is crucial to
CRCP performance. CRCP
failures
are
usually
associated with insufficient
reinforcement bar lapping,
unconsolidated PCC around
the steel, improper position
of the steel in the slab and
extreme hot weather during
construction. In general,
CRCP seems to be less
forgiving of construction
errors than other types of
rigid
pavement
(Burke,
1983). Reinforcing steel for
CRCP can be placed by two
general methods:
Manual method
Mechanical
method
Figure 7.91: Manual Reinforcing Steel Placement
9.3.1 Manual Method

The most common method, the manual method (see Figure 7.91), involves hand-placing
the reinforcing steel before the PCC is placed. Since the steel is located at mid-depth or
higher in the finished slab, the reinforcing steel must be supported by small metal or
plastic "chairs" in order to achieve this elevation before PCC placement. These chairs
must be strong enough to hold the reinforcing steel in place during PCC placement,
consolidation and finishing.
The typical placement process involves (1) placing the transverse bars (which function
only as placement aids) on chairs (see Figure 7.92), (2) arranging the longitudinal bars
on top, and then (3) tying the longitudinal bars to the transverse bars. Typically, they are
tied or clipped to the transverse bars every 1.2 - 1.8 m (4 - 6 ft.) (Burke, 1983). Figure
7.93 shows reinforcing bars in their final position before PCC placement.
The chief advantage of the manual method is that it allows for easy checking of bar
placement, height and lap distance. However, the manual method is slower and more
labor intensive than mechanical methods.
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Figure 7.92: Reinforcing Bar in Place

(white items are support chairs)
Figure 7.93: Reinforcing Bar in Place
9.3.2 Mechanical Method

Reinforcing steel can also be placed mechanically. There are many variations of
mechanical placement, however most of them involve picking up prepositioned, but not
precisely spaced, reinforcing bars with a placer/spreader attachment and then holding
the bars at a preset depth as the PCC is placed around them (see Figure 7.94).
However, a number of states have found longitudinal steel placement deviations of 75
mm (3 inches) in the vertical plane when tube feeders were used to position the steel
(FHWA, 1990).
Figure 7.94: Mechanical Reinforcing Steel Placement
Additionally, CRCP pavements (and JRCP pavements when they were more routinely
constructed) can be placed in two lifts. First, the bottom lift is placed, followed by
reinforcing bar placement, and then finished with a second PCC lift. Although feasible,
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this method can be costly as it usually requires two passes of the PCC paver. However,
some equipment companies offer pavers capable of placing two lifts simultaneously.
10 RIGID - GENERAL PROCEDURE
The general rigid pavement construction
procedure involves placement, consolidation,
10.1 Placement
finishing, curing and jointing in rapid succession.
"Placement" involves any equipment or 10.2 Screeding (Strikeoff)
procedures used to place the delivered PCC on
the desired surface at the desired thickness; 10.3 Consolidation
"consolidation" involves any means used to 10.4 Finishing
eliminate undesirable voids; "finishing" involves
any equipment or procedures used to impart 10.5 Curing
desirable surface characteristics; "curing" is the 10.6 Joints
maintenance of satisfactory moisture and
10.7 Summary
temperature in PCC as it sets and hardens such
that the desired properties can develop; and "jointing" involves all those actions used to
insert purposeful discontinuities in the pavement and seal them appropriately. This
section provides a generic description of these six steps and any associated
considerations. Specifics of how they are accomplished in fixed form and slipform
paving are shown in the next two sections. More detailed information can be found in:
American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). (1995). Construction of

Portland Cement Concrete Pavements. National Highway Institute Course
No. 13133. AASHTO/FHWA/Industry joint training. Federal Highway
Administration, Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C.
10.1 Placement
PCC can be placed directly in the desired location by truck or truck attachments (see
Figures 7.95 and 7.96), or can be fed into a placement machine for more accurate and
even placement. PCC that is moved excessively once it has been unloaded from the
transport truck will tend to segregate (become less homogeneous).
Figure 7.95: Placement Over Dowel Bars in an

Intersection
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Figure 7.96: Placement in Front of a

Rolling Screed
75
10.2 Screeding (Strikeoff)

During the screeding (or strikeoff) process, excess portions of the roughly placed PCC
are cut off in order to bring the slab to the required elevation. This is usually done by
dragging a straightedge across the slab at the required elevation.
10.3 Consolidation
Consolidation is the process of making the freshly placed PCC into a more uniform and
compact mass by eliminating undesirable air voids and causing it to move around
potential obstructions (such as reinforcing steel). Consolidation is usually accomplished
using long, slender vibration rods called vibrators. Vibrators work by rotating an
eccentric weight which causes the entire vibrator to move back and forth. This
movement excites particles within the PCC mass, causing them to move closer together
and better flow around obstructions.
Vibrators can be defined by the amount of energy the impart to the surrounding PCC
mass. This energy transmission is defined by two processes. First, the amount of
energy generated by the vibrator is proportional to the size and speed of the rotating
weight. Usually, the size is fixed and the speed is variable. Second, the energy
transmitted from the vibrator to the surrounding PCC mass is related to paver speed (the
faster the paver runs, the less time the vibrator has in a particular volume of PCC) and
vibrator location within the PCC mass. All of these factors together comprise and control
the size and shape of an "influence zone" - the volume of PCC mass around a vibrator
that receives its energy (see Figure 7.97). This influence zone is usually conical in
shape and varies in size depending on the previously mentioned factors.
Figure 7.97: Vibrator Influence Zone
Proper consolidation by vibration is critical to rigid pavement performance. In particular:
Too much vibration, either by allowing vibrators to operate too long in one area
or by using to high a vibration rate, can result in (1) non-uniform distribution of
coarse aggregate particles, (2) loss of entrained air, and (3) bleeding (water
accumulation on the surface). All of these results can greatly reduce PCC
durability.
Too little vibration, either by not allowing vibrators enough time to operate in
one area or by using to low a vibration rate, can result in (1) non-uniform
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distribution of coarse aggregate particles, and/or (2) large air voids within the
PCC mass. Again, either result can greatly reduce PCC durability.
Vibrator static head (amount of PCC above the vibrator) influences efficiency.
Higher static heads will help push coarse aggregate particles together behind
the vibrator as it travels along.
10.4 Finishing
Finishing involves all processes and equipment used to create the final surface finish
and texture of fresh PCC. Generally, finishing can be divided into floating and texturing:
Floating. A flat surface is run across the PCC in order to eliminate high and
low spots, embed larger aggregate particles beneath the surface, remove
slight imperfections and to compact the mortar at the surface in preparation for
texturing (PCA, 1988). Floating can involve a number of different tools and
may involve multiple passes over the same surface.
Texturing. After floating, fresh PCC is usually quite smooth. In order to create
a slip resistant surface for traffic, a rough pattern is usually imparted by
dragging a broom, rough-textured item, or tined instrument across the
surface. Typically, texturing is divided into the following two categories
(FHWA, 1999):
o Microtexture (Figure 7.98). This is achieved by dragging a section
of burlap or artificial turf behind the paver. Microtexture enhances
friction between vehicle tires and the pavement surface, and
enhances safety at low speeds.
o Macrotexture (Figure 7.99). This is generally achieved by tining the
pavement surface. Macrotexture permits water to escape from
between tires and the pavement surface and enhances safety at
high speeds. Typically, an average texture depth of 0.7 mm (0.03 in)
will substantially reduce both total and wet weather accident rates.
Tining practices vary by agency, but many states require transverse
grooves on the order of 3 - 5 mm (0.12 - 0.20 inches) deep, 3 mm
(0.12 inches) wide and spaced 12 - 20 mm (0.47 - 0.79 inches)
apart (ACPA, 1995). Sometimes the area over the future joint
locations is not textured in order to provide a good sawing and
sealing surface. Some agencies consider microtexturing sufficient
and
do
not
macrotexture
their
rigid
pavements.
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Figure 7.98 (top): Texturing Using a Piece of

Artificial Turf
Figure 7:99 (right): Tine Texturing
10.5 Curing
Curing refers to the maintenance of satisfactory moisture and temperature within a PCC
mass as it sets and hardens such that the desired properties of strength, durability and
density can develop (PCA, 1988). The desired properties of strength, durability and
density are related to the extent of hydration within the PCC mass; the more complete
the hydration, the better a PCC's properties. The extent and rate of hydration depend on
two critical construction-controlled parameters: moisture and temperature. This
subsection covers:
Moisture considerations for curing

Temperature considerations for curing
Curing methods
10.5.1 Moisture
Hydration requires portland cement and water. The extent of hydration is controlled by
the limiting ingredient, which is usually portland cement. However, if any substantial
portion of water is lost to evaporation, hydration may be limited by a lack of water,
causing it to slow or virtually stop. Thus, inadequate moisture will inhibit hydration, which
results in a weaker, less durable PCC. Rapid moisture loss will also cause excessive
shrinking and cracking. Therefore, a high relative humidity around a hydrating PCC
mass will ensure an adequate water supply for hydration and limit shrinkage cracking.
Generally, some method of curing is specified in order to maintain the relative humidity
within the hydrating PCC at an adequate level.
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10.5.2 Temperature
Hydration rate is also dependent upon temperature. Higher temperatures speed up
hydration's chemical reactions, while lower temperatures slow them down. Therefore,
temperature will affect PCC strength gain. Often, minimum ambient temperatures for
PCC construction are specified to ensure an adequate hydration rate and thus, strength
gain.
Maturity
Since hydration progresses over time, and the rate of this progression is dependent on
temperature, it should be possible to estimate the extent of hydration by tracking time
and temperature. "Maturity" is the term used to describe this concept. Most maturity
measures are expressed as a function of the product of curing time and temperature
(see Figure 7.100). For example, the Nurse-Saul expression is:
t
M T T0 t
0
= maturity (usually in C-hours or C-days)
= time interval being considered
where:
t = time interval
T
= average temperature of the PCC during

the time interval, t, being considered
T0
= datum temperature - the temperature

below which PCC shows no strength gain
with time (-10C is most commonly used)
Figure 7.100: Compressive Strength vs. Maturity
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Often, maturity is correlated to PCC strength gain by laboratory testing prior to PCC
placement. A non-destructive maturity measurement can then be used to estimate
strength and avoid destructive strength tests during construction. ASTM C 1074 defines
the maturity method as "...a technique for estimating concrete strength that is based on
the assumption that samples of a given concrete mixture attain equal strengths if they
attain equal values of maturity index." The maturity method is useful because it can
provide strength estimates of in-place PCC subject to actual environmental temperatures
rather than relying solely on controlled-environment laboratory tests. There are also a
number of significant limitations when using maturity to estimate strength (Mindess and
Young, 1981):
The maturity method requires establishment of strength-maturity relationship

in the laboratory prior to any field measurements. Because different PCC
mixes mature at different rates, maturity meters are typically calibrated to
actual compressive strength using laboratory test cylinders. Thus, any change
in mix proportions from the laboratory design used for calibration will require a
new calibration.
Other characteristics affecting PCC strength. Items such as moisture content,
portland cement chemical composition and fineness, and construction
practices (e.g., consolidation, finishing, air content) are not accounted for.
Maturity only accounts for ambient temperature. In large concrete volumes,
the heat of hydration contributes significantly to the PCC mass temperature,
and thus, strength gain. In typical PCC pavements, which are relatively thin,
this heat is quickly lost to the environment and can be ignored.
Maturity functions are not accurate at low maturities. This is probably because
the point at which time should be measured from is poorly defined. Probably,
the best time is not the time of mixing or casting, but rather the time that the
PCC actually begins to gain strength.
Maturity does correlate well with strength when there are large temperature
variations during curing. Typically, a low initial curing temperature followed by
a high temperature will lead to higher strengths, while the opposite (high
followed by low) leads to lower strengths.
In sum, the maturity method is not a physical law, but rather a convenient way to
estimate strength gain. In PCC pavement applications, maturity meters (see Figures
7.101 and 7.102) can be used to estimate the appropriate time for form removal, joint
cutting or opening a pavement to traffic, but should not be entirely substituted for basic
laboratory strength tests.
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Figure 7.101: Maturity Meter
Figure 7.102: Measuring Maturity
10.5.3 Curing Methods

Generally, curing is accomplished by one of two methods (Mindess and Young, 1981):
1. Water curing. Methods that prevent moisture loss and supply additional water
to the PCC surface. These methods usually involve ponding water on top of a
slab, continuously spraying a slab with a fine mist or covering a slab with a
water-retaining material such as burlap. These methods are labor intensive
and are generally not used on PCC pavements any more.
2. Sealed curing. Methods that prevent moisture loss but do not supply any
additional water. These methods usually involve placing a waterproof covering
over a slab (such as plastic) or using a liquid membrane-forming chemical
compound. Curing compounds are typically formed using resins, waxes or
synthetic rubbers with a dissolved volatile solvent. Once the solvent
evaporates, the curing compound forms a near-impermeable membrane over
the PCC. Pigments are often added to curing compounds in order to reduce
(white pigment) or increase (dark pigment) heat absorption. Additionally,
pigments allow workers to see where the curing compound has been applied,
which helps to ensure complete coverage.
10.6 Joints
All PCC pavement types use all types of joints, however, CRCP uses longitudinal
reinforcing steel in order to limit the number of transverse contraction joints. This
subsection discusses the basics of transverse contraction joint construction including:
Joint location
Saw cutting timing
Saw cutting depth
Joint sealing
10.6.1 Location
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Typical joint locations are covered in Module 2, Section 6: Rigid Pavement Types, and
are not repeated here. However, it is important to note that joint locations should be
indicated on the construction plans and planned in advance (see Figure 7.103).
Intersection joint locations can be quite complex and should be marked out on the base
in advance (see Figure 7.104).
Figure 7.103: Joint Layout on Base Material
Figure 7.104: Joint Layout in an Intersection
10.6.2 Saw Cutting Timing

The timing of contraction joint sawing depends upon two key factors:
Shrinkage cracking. Since contraction joints are used to control shrinkage

cracking, they should be sawed before slab shrinkage stresses become great
enough to cause uncontrolled cracking. See figure 7.105.
PCC support strength and joint raveling. Sawing must be delayed until the
PCC is strong enough to both support the sawing equipment and to prevent
raveling during the sawing operations. See Figure 7.106.
Figure 7.105: Shrinkage Crack Possibly Due to

Late Sawing
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Figure 7.106: Joint Raveling due to

Early Sawing
82
Thus, as the PCC hydrates and strengthens, there is a short window of time in which
sawing can occur as illustrated by Figure 7.107.
Figure 7.107: Saw Cutting Window
10.6.3 Saw Cutting Depth

Transverse contraction joints are usually cut to a depth of 1/4 - 1/3 of the total slab depth
to ensure cracking occurs at the joint (see Figure 7.108). For example, a 250 mm (10
in.) thick slab would require a joint depth between 63 and 83 mm (2.5 and 3.3 inches).
In no case should the sawcut be less than 1/4 of the slab depth. The FHWA (1990)
recommends that transverse joints be cut in succession rather than skip sawed (e.g.,
initially cutting only one out of every 5 or 6 joints then going back later and cutting the
rest) because skip sawing can result in a wide range of crack widths that form beneath
the sawed joints. These varied crack widths may cause excessive sealant stresses in
the initially sawed joints initially.
Figure 7.108: Contraction Joint Showing Sawcut Depth

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10.6.4 Joint Sealing

Once a joint is cut or otherwise made, it needs to be sealed to minimize water and
incompressible material entry. Sealants may also reduce dowel bar corrosion by
reducing entrance of de-icing chemicals (ACPA, 2001a). Joint sealants used today are
typically one of three types (ACPA, 2001a):
Hot-pour liquid sealants. These sealants are heated up to decrease their

viscosity and then poured. Joints are ready for traffic as soon as the sealant
has cooled. About 25 percent of roadway agencies use hot-pour sealants in
transverse contraction joints. Most hot-pour sealants are used in longitudinal
joints and low-traffic PCC pavements. Figure 7.109 shows joints filled with
hot-pour sealant.
Compression seals. These are preformed rubber compounds placed into a
joint under compression. After they are placed, they form a seal by pushing
against each side of the joint and are immediately ready for traffic.
Compression seals, commonly called neoprene seals after their primary
constituent, are used by about 21 percent of roadway agencies in transverse
contraction joints.
Silicone sealants. These sealants are silicone polymer compounds that are
poured into joints at ambient temperatures. It generally takes about 30
minutes for them to harden and make the joint ready for traffic. About 52
percent of roadway agencies use silicone sealants in transverse contraction
joints.
Figure 7.109: Joints Sealed with Hot-Pour Liquid Sealant on a Freeway On-Ramp
(normally, joints should coincide with lane divisions as they do near the horizon of this
photograph)
10.7 Summary
This section has provided an overview of the basic elements of rigid pavement surface
course construction: placement, consolidation, finishing, curing and jointing. These basic
elements are common to both fixed form and slipform paving; the differences are in the
equipment and methods.
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11 RIGID - FIXED FORM PAVING
In fixed form paving, side forms are used to hold 11.1 Forms and Placement
fresh PCC in place at the proper grade and
alignment until it sets and hardens. These forms 11.2 Screed/Paver
may also serve as tracks for various pieces of 11.3 Consolidation
placing and finishing equipment. Fixed form
paving is most appropriate for small jobs (see 11.4 Finishing
Figure 7.110), complicated geometry pavements 11.5 Curing
or variable width pavements, however it can be
used for large jobs as well (see Figure 7.111). Particular advantages of fixed form
paving are (ACPA, 1995):
Tight tolerances and side clearances. Existing curbs or other features can be
used as forms.
Custom geometry. Forms can be placed in just about any pavement
geometry, which allows for multiple changes in pavement width, smooth
curves, blockouts and other abnormalities.
Better construction staging. Forms can be placed such that staged
construction can be used to maintain traffic flow or intersection use (see Figure
7.112).
Less expensive equipment and mobilization. Forms and equipment are less
expensive than slipform paving equipment. If paving operations are small
enough, this cost savings can more than offset the higher production rates of
slipform paving.
Figure 7.110: Small Fixed Form Job
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Figure 7.111 : Large Fixed Form Job
85
Figure 7.112:
Construction Staging Using Fixed Form Paving
This section presents PCC forms, placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as they
are typically done in fixed form paving. Often more than one of these steps can be
performed by the same piece of equipment, such as a vibrating screed, which serves to
strike off and consolidate the fresh PCC, or a traveling carriage paver which can perform
all three steps.
11.1 Forms and Placement
Fixed form paving uses a series of preset molds (or "forms") to shape a rigid pavement.
These forms are placed on the graded base or subgrade in the desired shape of the final
rigid pavement. They can be made of anything from welded steel sections to simple
lumber. Typically, larger jobs use 3 m (10 ft.) welded steel sections (see Figure 7.113
and 7.115), while small jobs often use stock lumber (see Figure 7.114). The following
lists some general guidance when using forms (ACPA, 1995):
Form depth should be equal to PCC slab thickness. This way PCC slab
elevation can be tightly controlled out to and including the edges.
Forms should have some base width to provide stability. If they do not, they
may fall over when subject to the loading imposed by the fresh PCC.
The top of the form should be straight and true. Specifications vary, but
generally anything more than 3 mm (0.12 inches) every 3 m (10 ft.) is
considered excessive.
Form ends should be able to lock together. If not, they may come apart when
subject to the loading imposed by the fresh PCC.
Forms should be attached to the ground (via stake) every 1 - 2 m (3 - 6 ft.).
Forms that are not staked may move and forms that are infrequently staked
may bow out between stakes.
Forms should be cleaned and oiled before use. Dirty, unlubricated forms will
cause surface defects in the slab sides and may stick to the slab during
removal.
Curves less than about 30 m (100 ft.) in radius should be done with flexible
forms (e.g., wood) or curved metal forms. Above 30 m (100 ft.) straight 3 m
(10 ft.) long metal forms can be laid in a smooth enough curve.
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Figure 7.113: Steel Forms
Figure 7.114: Wood Forms
Figure 7.115: Form Removal
Form placement (or "setting") should be a careful process that is entirely completed
before PCC placement. Forms are quite easy to adjust before PCC is placed and near
impossible to adjust afterwards. Form placement is also crucial to rigid pavement quality
because finishing equipment generally rides on the forms making final pavement
smoothness dependent on form elevation uniformity. Forms can often be removed as
soon as 6 to 8 hours after placement (ACPA, 1995).
11.2 Screed/Paver
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Fixed form screeds vary in complexity from a simple hand screed (sometimes even as
simple as a small piece of lumber) to an automatic self-propelled combination screedfinisher. Often, these combination machines are referred to as "pavers" because of their
multiple functions. Some typical screed/paver types are listed below:
Manual screed (Figure 7.116 and 7.117). Consists of just about anything that
is straight and flat enough to strike off PCC at a desired elevation. Figure
7.117 shows a manual screed consisting of a long-handled metal straightedge.
Figure 7.116: Simple Screed
Figure 7.117: Manual Screed
Roller screed/paver (Figures 7.118 through 7.120). Consists of a steel tube

that rotates up to 250 rpm in the opposite direction of movement. The tube
strikes off PCC and pushes excess PCC forward by the rolling action (see
Figure 7.119). The roller interior can be outfitted with a small vibrating
system. Larger roller screeds can be mounted on a single unit that travels on
fixed form tracks (see Figure 7.120).
Figure 7.118: Roller Screed

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Figure 7.119: Roller Screed in Action
Figure 7.120: Self-Propelled Roller Screed
Truss screed (Figure 7.121). Consists of an aluminum or steel blade mounted

to a truss frame. Typical truss screeds can span up to about 22.9 m (75 ft.).
Usually, truss screeds are vibrated by either a small gasoline engine or air
pressure.
Figure 7.121: Vibrating Truss Screed
Traversing roller tube paver (Figure 7.122 and 7.123). Consists of a traveling
carriage mounted on a truss frame. The carriage travels along the truss frame
from one end to the other, with the machine moving forward after each
carriage pass. Typically, the traveling carriage can screed and finish PCC in
one pass. The truss frame upon which the carriage travels can be set to
provide flat, parabolic, crowned, super-elevated and tapered surfaces.
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Figure 7.122: Traveling Carriage Figure 7.123: Traveling Carriage

Screed
Close-up
11.3 Consolidation
There are three general consolidation options in fixed form
paving:
1. Omit (not recommended). Sometimes, on very
small jobs such as the one pictured in Figure
7.113, vibration is omitted. However, this Figure 7.124: Hand-Operated
Vibrator
increases the risk of leaving large voids in the
PCC mass, which creates a honeycomb-like structure.
2. Hand-operated vibrators. The typical vibrator, sometimes known as a "spud
vibrator" is a long vibrating rod powered by either air pressure or a small 1.53.0 kW (2-4 horsepower) motor (See Figures 7.124 and 7.125).
3. Screed vibration. Equipment like the vibrating truss screed and the traveling
carriage screed will vibrate the placed PCC while striking it off. Vibration is
usually accomplished by mechanical or air power.
Figure 7.125: Small Hand-Operated Vibrator
11.4 Finishing
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Fixed form finishing is usually accomplished by hand tools or form riding equipment.
Typically, after the PCC has been screeded it is floated using hand floats (see Figure
7.126 and 7.128) and straightedges (see Figure 7.126) in order to eliminate any
remaining high/low spots and to embed large aggregate particles. Finally, texturing is
added using a hand tining tool (see Figure 7.129) or a traveling carriage attachment.
Figure 7.126: Channel Float

(used as a float for finishing)
Figure 7.127: Bump Cutter

(used to Cut bumps and fill low areas after a
concrete slab has been floated)
Figure 7.128: Floating
Figure 7.129: Hand Tining
11.5 Curing
Fixed form construction uses both wet and sealed curing. Wet curing is typically limited
to small jobs, while sealed curing, which is more prevalent, can be used on any job size.
Curing seals can be distributed from machines that straddle the finished pavement or
from hand-operated sprayers (see Figure 7.130).
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Figure 7.130: Curing Seal Applied by a Hand-Operated Sprayer
12 RIGID - SLIPFORM PAVING
Slipform paving is defined as a process used to

consolidate, form into geometric shape and
12.1 Placer/Spreader
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12.2 Paver
surface finish a PCC mass by pulling the forms continuously through and surrounding
the plastic concrete mass.
Slipform paving is most appropriate for larger jobs that require high production rates.
Particular advantages of slipform paving are (ACPA, 1995):
Uses low-slump PCC. Low-slump PCC (on the order of 0 - 75 mm (0 - 3

inches)) is necessary so that the fresh PCC is able to hold its shape once the
slipform paver has passed. Low slump PCC can be made with less water and
usually has higher compression and flexural strengths than comparable high
slump mixes.
High productivity. Large jobs generally require high production rates in order
to be profitable. Slipform paving production rates are typically in the range of
65 - 100 m3/hr (85 - 131 yd 3/hr) for mainline paving. That translates into
between 70 - 90 m/hr (230 - 300 ft./hr) of 3.66 m (12 ft.) wide, 250 mm (10
inch) thick PCC surface course.
Smooth riding surface. Automation and computer control allow slipform
pavers to produce very smooth riding surfaces (IRI on the order of 0.90 m/km
or less).
This section presents PCC placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as it is typically
done in slipform paving. Most often, these steps are accomplished by three pieces of
equipment: the placer/spreader (used for rough placement), the concrete paver (used for
final placement, consolidation and initial finishing), and the texturing and curing
machine. These machines usually travel together in series down the length of the
project.
12.1 Placer/Spreader
Although not always used, placer/spreaders are quite common. They place a metered
supply of PCC in front of the paver using a series of conveyor belts, augers, plows and
strikeoff devices (see Figures 7.131 and 7.132). Using a placer/spreader allows the
contractor to receive material from transport vehicles and place a uniform amount of
PCC in front of the entire paver width, while minimizing segregation.
Figure 7.131: Large Placer/Spreader

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Figure 7.132: Smaller Placer/Spreaders

93
12.2 Paver
The paver usually performs screeding, consolidation and initial finishing. A typical trackmounted, self-propelled paver operates at speeds between 1 and 2.5 m/minute (3 and 8
ft./min) (ACPA, 1995). Some pavers are equipped to place reinforcing steel (if needed),
dowel bars and tie rods as well. Figure 7.133 shows the basic slipform paving process
as it occurs underneath the paver. First, an auger spreads the PCC in front of the strike
off plate. Second, the strike off plate (screed) removes excess portions of the augerplaced PCC and brings the slab near its final elevation. Third, the PCC is consolidated
by a group of vibrators. Fourth, a tamper (typically operating between 0 and 150 strokes
per minute), if present, pushes large aggregate particles below the slab surface. Finally,
the profile pans level off the slab at the right elevation and provide initial finishing. The
remainder of this section describes this process in more detail.
Figure 7.133: Typical Slipform Paver Operation Schematic
12.2.1 Screeding
Slipform pavers first use an auger to perform any final material spreading and then strike
off the PCC at the correct elevation using a simple strike off plate, or screed.
12.2.2 Consolidation
After screeding, the paver consolidates the fresh PCC using a series of vibrators (see
Figure 7.134). Typically, the most effective vibrator position is after the strike-off
mechanism and at the final slab elevation. Depending upon mix design and slab depth,
vibrators are usually set in the 7,000 - 9,000 vibrations per minute (VPM) range.
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Vibrators are positioned next to one another such that their influence zones overlap by
about 50 - 75 mm (2 - 3 inches) at normal paver speed (ACPA, 1995). Gaps between
the influence zones (caused by incorrect vibrator settings or excessively fast paver
operation) can cause segregation (ACPA, 1995). Most pavers use fully adjustable
vibrator spacing to account for different conditions and mix types, while still providing
adequate influence zone overlap.
Figure 7.134: PCC Vibrators on the Underside of a Paving Machine
12.2.3 Initial Finishing

Initial finishing is accomplished by
extruding the PCC mass through a
moving form made up of the base
course (bottom), the side forms
(vertical edges of the paver) and the
profile pan (flat paver pieces mounted
behind the vibrator) (see Figure
7.135). Extruding PCC through the
resulting rectangular shape provides
the final slab dimensions and also
serves to imbed larger aggregate
particles below the surface, which
results in a smooth finish. Some
pavers are also equipped with a
hydraulic tamper bar (sometimes called
a "jitterbug"), located just behind the
vibrators. By moving up and down, the
tamper bar is thought to (ACPA, 1995):
1. Assist in consolidation and
finishing by tamping large
aggregate particles below the
slab surface.
2. Keep the large aggregate
moving in an area where it
may have tendencies to stop
or stick.
3. Keep the material moving
around the vibrators so as
not to collect and cause flow
problems.
Figure 7.135: Sideforms and Profile Pan
Figure 7.136: Hand Finishing Behind the Paver
However, a tamper may not be necessary on many jobs. Although it forces the coarse
aggregate away from the surface, making finishing easier, it can also creates a mortarrich surface layer which could scale or craze (USACE, 1995). Usually, a tamper is not
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necessary with a well designed PCC mixture, however, it may be helpful when finishing a
harsh, low-slump mixture.
Additional finishing, when needed, occurs just behind the profile pan and is usually
accomplished using simple floats (see Figure 7.136). Microtexturing is usually
accomplished by dragging a section of burlap (see Figure 7.137) or artificial turf (see
Figure 7.138) behind the paver.
Figure 7.137: Burlap Drag
Figure 7.138: Artificial Turf Drag
12.3 Texturing and Curing Machine

The texturing and curing machine follows the paver and is used to impart macrotexture
(usually by dragging a tined instrument across the fresh pavement - see Figure 7.139)
and apply a curing membrane over the pavement. Sometimes the paver is equipped
with a tining machine, while a separate machine is used for applying the curing
membrane. Although it used to be quite common, slipformed PCC pavement is rarely if
ever water cured due to the high material and labor costs. Figures 7.140 and 7.141
show curing machines in operation.
Curing is typically done once finishing of an area is complete and the original wet sheen
has nearly disappeared. On tined pavements, curing is usually specified to occur in two
passes, one forward and one in reverse, to ensure both sides of the texture ridges are
coated with curing membrane.
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Figure 7.139: Tined Texturing Carriage
Figure 7.140: Spraying the Curing Membrane
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Figure 7.141: Spraying Curing Membrane Close-up
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13 RIGID - JOINTS
Joints are common to all rigid pavements and
both rigid pavement construction methods. Even Major Topics on this Page
CRCP uses longitudinal joints and periodic
13.1 Sawed Joints
transverse joints. Joints can be formed in two
ways. Contraction joints are most often sawed in 13.2 Other Joints
after PCC placement. Others such as expansion,
isolation and construction joints, are created by formwork before the PCC is placed.
Each one of these methods of joint construction has its own method and set of
considerations.
13.1 Sawed Joints
Most sawed joints are contraction joints. This section covers:
Saw blades
Sawing equipment
A general sawing procedure
13.1.1 Saw Blades

Sawed joints are formed using hardtipped rotary saws, which can use
either diamond or other types of
abrasive blades (see Figure 7.142).
13.1.1.1 Diamond Blades
Most joint sawing is done using
Figure 7.142: Saw Blade
industrial diamonds as the primary
abrasion element. Diamond tipped blades will generate high amounts of heat when
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cutting and generally must be cooled by water to prevent the saw blade metal from
overheating and melting. Water also prevents dust formation during sawing.
13.1.1.2 Abrasive Blades
Dry sawing uses abrasive blades that are usually made from fiber reinforced silicone
carbide or carborundum since these types of blades do not require water for cooling
(ACPA, 1995). These abrasive blades have less cutting ability than diamond blades and
are usually used on PCC with softer aggregate (ACPA,
1995). When cutting, these blades will wear down over
time making it important to periodically check the sawed
depth and saw blade diameter to ensure adequate joint
depth (ACPA, 1995). Additionally, unless water is used
to prevent it, these types of blades will generate sawing
dust.
13.1.2 Saw Equipment

Equipment used for sawing can range from small to quite
large. A typical categorization is (ACPA, 1995):
Small saws. 6 - 13 kW in power and most

Figure 7.143: Small Saw
commonly used for dry sawing applications.
Lightweight saws (see Figure 7.143) used for early sawcuts are categorized as
small saws.
Medium saws (see Figure 7.144). 15 - 28 kW in power and most commonly
used for wet sawing applications.
Large saws. 50 - 55 kW in power and most commonly used for wet sawing
applications. These saws are often used for longitudinal joints where their lack
of maneuverability due to size is not critical.
Span saws (see Figure 7.145). 50 - 150 kW in power and are most commonly
used for wet sawing applications. These are usually multi-bladed and used in
high production jobs.
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Figure 7.144: Medium Saws
Figure 7.145: Span Saw
13.1.3 Procedure
Joint sawing is generally accomplished in two passes. First, an initial thin cut is made to
control shrinkage cracking. The timing of this joint cut is critical in order to avoid
permanent slab damage. Later on, a second, wider cut is made over the first cut in order
to make the joint wide enough to accommodate joint filler material. Some joint cutting
considerations are:
Sawing window. This prevents permanent slab damage due to uncontrolled

shrinkage cracking, loading an inadequately set slab, or spalling the cut joint of
an inadequately set slab.
Proper joint location. Contraction joints must be cut over the internal dowel
bar locations. If these locations are not marked, joints may not be cut at the
dowel midpoints, which can result in excessive slab and dowel bar stresses.
Joint cleaning. Joint cutting will result in a fair amount of debris generation.
After sawing, this debris should be washed out to prevent it from contributing
to faulting or joint stresses. Before sealing, joints should be abrasively cleaned
to provide a good textured surface with which the joint sealant can bond.
Finally, the residue from the abrasive cleaning should be blown out to provide
a clean bonding surface.
13.2 Other Joints

Expansion, isolation and construction joints are created by formwork before the PCC is
placed. Since these joints are designed to completely separate adjacent masses of
PCC, they are usually made by inserting a small non-PCC piece of material such as a
strip of wood.
13.2.1 Construction Joints
Construction joints, sometimes called "headers" are usually made to separate
successive construction activities; they do not serve any design purpose. However, with
proper planning, construction joints can often be made to coincide with other planned
joints, such as a transverse contraction joint. For instance, in slipform paving a
construction joint is made at the end of the day as a transverse piece of formwork used
to shape the last slab. If enough PCC is available at the end of the day, the construction
joint can be placed at a planned transverse contraction joint. Construction joint
considerations include:
Ensure adequate PCC is available to finish the last slab of the day. The
construction joint is set before all the PCC is placed. If truck delivery is
stopped to soon, the temptation may be to use the lower-quality PCC that has
been pushed in front of the screed to fill the remaining volume. This lowquality PCC may contain little portland cement, excess water, low air and/or
segregated aggregate.
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Ensure proper consolidation. Typically, the paver does not traverse the
construction joint. Therefore, the construction joint is not consolidated by the
paver vibrators and it should be manually consolidated.
Dowel placement should not segregate or cause air voids in the adjacent
PCC. Sometimes, dowel bars are placed after the PCC has been placed up to
the header. If dowel bars are pounded in by hammer, the resultant vibrations
may cause air pockets or segregated aggregate.
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1 INTRODUCTION

Construction quality is crucial to the long-term pavement performance. Construction

Increasing subgrade support by compaction

2.1.1 Increasing Subgrade Support - Compaction

In order to provide maximum structural

2.1.3 Subgrade Elevation

After final grading (often called finegrading), the subgrade elevation

Figure 7.2: Subgrade Elevation Before Paving

2.1.4 Primecoat - Flexible Pavements

2.2 Existing Surface Preparation for Overlays

Figure 7.3: Repairing Failed Pavement

Leveling courses (or prelevel)

3. Allows efficient removal of deteriorated flexible pavement material that is

Drums come in specific widths.

It is easier to make several

100 to 200 tons/hr

Depends on machine and

Material Size After

95% passing the

Table 7.1: Milling Machine Parameter Ranges (from ARRA, 2001)

7.5: Milling Machine Components

Figure 7.6: Milling Machine Cutting Drum

Figure 7.7: Milling Machine Cutting Teeth

Figure 7.8: Small Milling Machine

Figure 7.9: Large Milling Machine

Figure 7.10: Milled road showing complete

Figure 7.11: Milled road in preparation for HMA

Figure 7.12: Sweeping the Existing Surface Prior to

Figure 7.13: Washing the Existing Surface Prior to

Placing a flexible overlay on a jointed rigid pavement involves some special

Figure 7.18: Multi-Head Breaker

Figure 7.19: Multi-Head Breaker with Following

Distresses in the subsequent flexible overlay such as fatigue cracking and

3 FLEXIBLE - PLANT OPERATIONS

Transportation Research Board (TRB). (2000). Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving

3.1 Batch Plants

Figure 7.20: Batch Plant

Figure 7.21: Drum Plant

Figure 7.22: Infrared View of a Drum Mix Plant

4.1.1 End Dump Truck

pavers can also be

Figure 7.23: End Dump Truck

4.1.2 Bottom Dump Truck

Figure 7.24: Bottom Dump Truck in an Urban Setting

Figure 7.25: Windrow made by emptying a bottom

4.1.3 Live Bottom Dump Truck

Figure 7.26: Live Bottom Truck

Possible Truck Type Reason

Paving on congested city

Paving on rural highways

4.2 Operational Considerations

Loading at the production facility

4.2.1 Loading at the Production Facility

Figure 7.27: Truck Loading Under a Storage Silo

4.2.2 Truck Transport

Figure 7.28: Infrared picture of an HMA storage silo

Figure 7.29: Infrared picture of a truck dumping HMA

Figure 7.30: Infrared picture of a truck dumping HMA

Figure 7.31: Driver covering his truck bed with a

4.2.3 Unloading at the Paving Site

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (1996). Balancing

Number of trucks to be used.

Truck bed cleanliness and lubrication.