WIND INSTALLATION FOR WATER PUMPING, AUTONOMOUS AND

GRID-CONNECTED POWER PRODUCTION

Vladimir A. Dobrovolski
Wind Energy Department of Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI), Director, Molinos Co. Ltd.,
Moscow, Russian Federation, Russia
Keywords: Wind, Wind speed, Wind power, Stand alone turbine, Grid connected turbine,
Wind farm, Hybrid system, Water pumping, Well, Water head, Draw down, Aquifer,
Turbulence, Wake, Wind turbine array
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Agricultural Applications
3. Stand-alone and Wind/diesel Hybrid Systems
4. Water Pumping
5. Wakes and Clusters
6. Siting Large Wind Machines
7. Siting Small Wind Machines
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary
Wind energy can be used for a large gamut of applications. The intermittent character of wind
energy demands that in all cases energy storage or back-up facility should be used. Small
wind mills with capacities less than 1 kW are mostly producing DC electricity and used to
charge a battery, whereas the latter provide power for lighting, refrigeration, communication
etc. Wind electric applications for agriculture require small wind systems ranging in size from
10 to 50 kW. In this case hybrid wind/diesel installations may be advantageous.
A special case represents wind energy use for water pumping. The lifted water from an
underground well can be stored in a vessel at some elevation for the time interval when wind
is insufficient.
Large wind machines in the range of 100 kW and more most probably should be gridconnected, the intermittent income of wind energy being compensated by the large capacity
grid. For these installations economic considerations are of paramount importance. First of all
it means to rely on a representative data-base concerning the wind characteristics and choose
for the wind mill deploying an optimum site. Recommended steps for site selection for a
single wind mill and conditions for a wind-farm construction are described in this Article
1. Introduction
Wind turbine applications vary from large, megawatt-sized utility power plants to small wind
turbines for home, farm or village use. Wind energy systems may be either grid-connected or
stand-alone.
For utility-scale applications, wind turbines operate like utility power plants, feeding
electricity into the grid for distribution to utility customers.

Wind turbines can supplement power delivered by utility lines. The owner of a grid-connected
wind turbine buys and sells electricity from and to the utility. Electricity generated by the
wind system is used on site, and any excess is fed through a meter into the utility grid. When a
home or business requires more electricity than the wind turbine is generating, the demand is
automatically met by power from the utility grid.
Wind turbine generators can meet electrical demand where there is no utility-supplied
electricity. These stand-alone wind turbines are usually small, under 50 kW machines. Small
turbines may operate alone or in hybrid configurations with batteries, diesel generators, and
solar energy systems. For village power installations, mini-grids multiple wind turbines can
supply power, often with diesel generator backup, to isolated communities. Developing
countries provide the most promising markets for small turbines and hybrid systems.
Using wind power plants to supply electricity to utilities is a familiar concept in many
countries of the world. There are large utility companies, which have contracted to buy
significant amount of power from private wind power plant developers in these countries.
Economies of scale and simplified logistics favor the use of wind power farms or arrays for
large utility applications, rather than dispersed individual turbines. Such wind power farms
are connected to high-voltage transmission lines in much the same way as are conventional
power plants, operating as part of the overall generation mix.
Unlike conventional generating sources, the wind is an intermittent resource. Such
intermittence can cause the output of a wind power plant to fluctuate, often within minutes.
Adjusting the output of other conventional generators feeding the grid must compensate for
these changes in output. These effects can be magnified if wind power comprises a large
proportion of the systems generating capacity. However, if the output fluctuations of a wind
power plant are limited or can be anticipated, or if the wind power plant is coupled with
versatile generating sources, the effects of wind power fluctuations on the grid can be reduced
significantly.
A modern wind power farm is a group of wind turbines interconnected through a system of
transformers, transmission lines, and substations. Operation, control, and maintenance
functions are often centralized through a network of computerized monitoring systems,
supplemented by visual inspection and carefully performance monitoring.
The power that can be extracted from the wind varies with machine design and wind power
plant location. Performance data can help the wind industry and potential users by identifying
necessary modifications in machine design, demonstrating reliable operation, and providing
information useful in the selection of a system to meet user needs. Such data usually include
basic features of the machine such as design output, rotor configuration and operating wind
speeds; characteristics and problems of the machine in operation; and result of specific tests
of machine capabilities.
The performance of a wind turbine can be determined by actual power output measurements
obtained through either long-term field testing or short-term wind tunnel testing. Otherwise,
performance can be estimated or predicted through the use of models, especially computer
models.
2.Agricultural Applications
Wind machines have been extracting mechanical energy from the wind to pump water for
thousands of years. There is still a brisk commerce in mechanical water pumping windmills in
some countries. These machines with ten or more blades are well suited to the low-speed,

high-torque requirements of water pumps. Storage tanks are sized to keep water available
when the wind is not blowing.
Wind electric generators, first introduced to farmsteads in the United States in the 1920s, can
provide a greater variety of services for agriculture. Wind-generated electricity can be used
for lighting, heating, pumping, refrigeration, running processing equipment, and producing
hot water.
Most of these wind electric applications for agriculture require small wind systems ranging in
size from 10 kW to 50 kW. Field tests have indicated that, in general, the wind system must be
used throughout the year to be economical. However, some applications that include a storage
system also may be viable.
3. Stand-alone and Wind/diesel Hybrid Systems
Wind energy has traditionally been a source of power for sites where no other power source is
readily available. The most familiar of these traditional applications is the mechanical water
pumping, which is still in use today. But in the first half of the 20th century, there were also
many small (less than 1 kW) electricity-generating machines operating in countries.
The technology available for a small stand-alone installation has improved greatly since the
1940s, and todays modern small machines are used in thousands of installations worldwide.
Very small direct current systems are used to charge batteries, while larger systems (up to 20
kW) are used as stand-alone, alternating current generators for agriculture and remote
settlements.
The applications for stand-alone wind energy systems are almost unlimited. These
applications are - low voltage lighting; telemetry equipment; educational aids; portable TV
and radios; scientific field equipment; navigation aids; water pumps; weather station; small
power tools; cattle-feeders; electric fence units; inverters; batteries chargers; TV repeaters and
so on.
The typical users are: remote home owners; educational departments; explorers; caravan users
(mobile & static); naval departments; scientific establishments; yacht and boat owners;
nomadic tribes; harbor and port authorities; farmers; third world relief organizations; local
water authorities; fish farmers.
Wind machines have also been used to provide power in Antarctic at the South Pole since the
1930s. Wind is supplying power at sites that would be costly to serve with conventional
means or at sites so remote or harsh that other power systems might not work reliably over
long periods.
Wind/diesel hybrid systems are becoming important in areas where it is advantageous to
reduce conventional fuel use and decrease maintenance costs. In many of these hybrid
systems, photo-voltaic (PV) panels that convert sunlight directly into electricity are also
included. In the most common hybrid application, wind turbines and PV panels meet energy
needs and charge batteries when the wind is blowing. If the batteries run low, the diesel
engine-generator runs at full power until they are charged. In some systems, the diesel
generator makes up the difference when electrical demand exceeds the combined output of
wind turbines, PV, and batteries.
4. Water Pumping

Manufacturing of traditional American type farm wind mills went into decline during the
1950s and 1960s and there was little technical development during that period. However, the
oil price increase of the 1970s led to a great revival of interest.
The main pumping end-uses are intended to supply water for human and livestock
consumption, industrial use and crop irrigation. A sketch of basic water pumping wind turbine
is shown in Figure 1. This sketch was prepared by Aeromotor (USA). At one time, the
Aeromotor turbines accounted for 80 to 90 % of all water pumping sales in the United States.
They are now manufactured in Argentina and other countries.

Figure 1. Illustration of key water pumping terms

Normally the wind turbine is installed directly above the well. The turbine is connected to a
gearbox and crankshaft, which converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion of the pump
rod. The pump rod enters the well pipe through a packer head, which allows the motion of the

rod but blocks the water from leaking out. The pump rod then is connected to the pumps
piston at the bottom of the well pipe.
The height of the equivalent column of water that is raised by the piston is referred to as the
total head. It exceeds the discharge level by a quantity accounting for friction losses of water
flowing in the pipe.
The water level in the well is seen to be lower than the standing-water level by the amount of
draw down. This refers to decrease of the water level in the well during pumping and may
vary from an insignificant amount to several meters. Water has to flow back into the well
from the subsurface water-bearing strata of sand and gravel, called aquifers, so the draw down
will generally be proportional to the rate of pumping.
The pump is normally located below the maximum draw down level by an amount adequate
to ensure proper pump-suction operating conditions. This varies with the piston size,
operating speed, flow rate, and pressure, but can be as much as 2 or 3 m.
Wind power has been principally of interest for pumping water in relatively remote areas
where a prime-mover would have to be installed close to the water source. Wind power can be
used very effectively and economically for pumping water, even in areas with very modest
wind speeds, as water can be stored relatively cheaply above the level where it is needed and
gravity fed as and when required. Hence the variability and unpredictability of wind energy
availability at any specific time is not a serious constraint. Since the total wind energy
availability over a year in a particular location does not vary significantly, it is quite
straightforward to size wind pumps and storage tanks in order to provide reliable water
supply.
The traditional farm wind pumps are sufficiently reliable and inexpensive to maintain and
have such long operational lives (commonly many decades) that farmers tend to favor them
for convenience, compared with diesel - the main alternative. They remained in use even
during the 1960s when it was almost certainly cheaper in terms of cost per volume of water
delivered to use diesel powered pumps.
Since convenience and long life were primary considerations (rather than actual cost per unit
of pumped output) there was little incentive, until recently, to obtain enhanced wind pump
performance or increased efficiency.
Water used in remote areas for human or livestock consumption is needed in relatively small
quantities and the value of this water is high; consequently, high pumping costs are quite
acceptable. By contrast, if water is pumped for irrigation of crops, it must be delivered at very
low cost to be economic. In areas with suitable needs and conditions, particularly in the semiarid tropics, wind powered irrigation must be attractive, if not essential.
The operation cost of a wind pumping system depends mainly on the capital investment,
whereas the principal operation cost of a diesel or electricity mains energized systems is the
cost of fuel or electricity. Therefore wind pumping systems are sensitive to financial
constraints, principally discount rate and amortization period. When relatively low discount
rates can be obtained, wind pumps appear to be perhaps one of the most economic options for
lifting water with present day fuel prices, given even a modest wind regime.
4.1. Matching of Wind Rotors and Pumps
All traditional wind pumping installations designs drive pumps with positive displacement,
perhaps bucket pumps, and are relatively inefficient. The power demand of a positive

displacement pump increases linearly with speed of operation, while the power available from
a wind rotor tends to increase as the cube of the wind speed and hence, approximately, as the
cube of the rotational speed. Therefore the efficiency of a wind pump system, driving a
positive displacement pump, is a maximum at the lowest wind speed that will sustain
continuous operation, and declines by a power of two with increasing wind speed.
Since typically a wind pump will operate over a wind speed range from 2.5 to 10 m s-1, the
efficiency at the highest useful wind speed will be reduced to only 6 % of that at the lowest
speed by this inherent mismatch. The average matching efficiency may be only some 25 % of
the optimum system efficiency obtained at start up. It is important that this problem be solved
if wind power is to be used for widespread irrigation.
The direct use of centrifugal pumps driven by wind turbines has been investigated, but there
are problems caused by the need to obtain high speed-up ratio from the wind rotor to the
pump and also because centrifugal pumps do not function efficiently over a wide speed range.
Fortunately, using modern engineering approaches to systems design, and making use of new
technologies and materials, there is every possibility to create a new generation of efficient
pumps with reduced cost.
4.2. Future Potential of Wind powered Pumping
There are many pumping duties combined with water storage that could justify wind pumping
as a fuel saving technique, once sufficiently large and economical wind turbines become
generally available. For larger pumping duties, demanding inputs of the order of 10 kW or
more, it is likely that electricity generating wind turbines driving electric pumps will become
more economic than the traditional mechanical systems. However, it is clear that by far the
largest potential for future expansion in wind pumping is particularly in the arid and semi-arid
tropics.
Mechanized irrigation is perhaps one of the greatest power consumers in agriculture.
However, it can result in very peaky demands that are difficult to satisfy when centralized
electricity generation is used as a means of power supply for irrigation pumps.
Small and medium sized wind-electricity generating systems may well find a substantial
market if these can be effectively matched and optimized to drive electric pumps. This will no
doubt be particularly true for units in the 10 to 50 kW range, where traditional wind pump
designs cannot readily be applied and where the advantages of lower solidity (and hence
lighter weight and lower cost) can be most effectively exploited. Pumping in fact, being
generally less time-dependent than most electrical end-uses, is probably one of the easier
applications for a wind-electric systems since electrical storage, standby generators or
coupling to a grid are not necessary.
5. Wakes and Clusters
The largest wind turbines generate a few megawatts of power while a single modern
conventional power station generates several thousand megawatts. Thus, if the wind is to
make a significant contribution to the power needs of the country, thousands of large wind
turbines will need to be installed. An important question then arises: how close together can
the turbines be sited without interfering unduly with each other, either by taking each others
wind or by creating extra turbulence and buffeting?
To determine the output of an array of wind turbines there are two principal factors, which
must be considered. These are, firstly, the extent to which individual wind turbines operate at
reduced output when situated wholly or partially in the wake of another turbine or turbines

and, secondly, the extent to which the cumulative energy extraction process depletes the
energy available in the boundary layer. There are, in turn, three principal methods of deriving
estimates of array output.
1. Mathematical modeling of the flow pattern using wake decay data and assumptions
concerning interactions between wakes.
2. Studies which treat the wind turbines as roughness elements producing drag thus enabling
surface boundary layer theories to be used.
3. Wind tunnel model studies.
These techniques cannot take into account all the relevant factors enabling to predict the
performance of an array; moreover they all need to be validated by experimental data from
full-scale tests. Since these are usually not available, data from experiments on a smaller scale
are used to support elements of the theory or technique.
As the wind moves through an array of wind mills the mean velocity at any given level above
ground rapidly drops but then reaches an equilibrium value and remains steady. Anyway it is
unlikely to be economic to construct clusters of wind mills with spacing less than some 5
diameters of wind turbines rotors. Apart from the size of the cluster and machine spacing,
another parameter affecting array power output is the incident wind direction, relative to the
array pattern. If the machines are arranged in straight lines and the wind blows along these
lines the output will be at a minimum since each machine will be operating in the center of the
wake, where the velocities are lowest.
Most other variables, in the practical ranges relevant to a full size array, exercise only second
order influences on array output. Increases of rotor size, rotor height and decrease of incident
turbulence level all increase array efficiency; from the other side there is evidence that rotor
type has only a very small influence, probably associated with the variations of turbulence
generated in the wake.
6. Siting Large Wind Machines
Machines with over 100 kW in rated output are more likely to be used to generate power for a
central grid. The geographical area over which these machines may be sited can be fairly
large. It could be worth locating such machines some distance from the load centers if, by
doing so, they would be placed in a significantly better wind resource area.
The larger size of the machines also demands more thorough documentation of the vertical
structure of the lower atmosphere. For small machines, there will be little change in wind
speed or wind direction (i.e. wind shear) across the rotor disk. However, this may not be the
case for machines with rotor disks exceeding about 30 m in diameter. Very large, megawattsized machines having rotor disks of the order of 100 m in diameter may frequently
experience wind speed shears of 10 m s-1 per 100 m or greater.
Wind information with a finer time resolution may also be required for evaluating the
performance of large machines. Machines with active yaw-control or pitch-change
mechanisms will require wind data on a time scale compatible with the characteristics of these
systems if all aspects of their performance are to be evaluated.
The selection strategy is conservative, because large-scale generation of electricity by wind
turbines is a complicated technology. It is assumed that wind characteristics at a site will have
to be thoroughly documented. The nature of the wind at the site not only governs the energy

output of the cluster, but also affects the service life of the wind equipment as well as both
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance costs. Certain steps may be found unnecessary, or
requirements on the quantity and quality of wind data collected at each step may be decreased
since it is recognized that extensive measurements are expensive to make and to interpret;
however, the economic value of wind-generated electricity can be very sensitive to wind
characteristics at a site. Reasonable siting costs should be paid back through improved
machine performance.
There are two approaches to WECS siting: wind prospecting and evaluation of a
predetermined site. The first approach involves screening a large area for places experiencing
suitably high wind speeds with sufficient frequency to make wind power an economically
viable proposition. These places must also satisfy the numerous other criteria (land use,
engineering feasibility, accessibility, etc.), which define an exploitable energy resource. The
second approach is followed when the WECS site is predetermined, and it must be evaluated
for wind energy potential.
The steps involved in each of the two approaches are discussed below.
6.1.Wind Prospecting
Wind prospecting usually contains the following steps:
(a) Large-area analysis: A large region, perhaps as large as 200 000 km2, is screened for
meso-scale areas (~10 000 km2) that appear attractive;
(b) Meso-scale evaluation: A mesoscale area is screened for sub-meso-scale areas (~100 km2)
that experience usable winds and satisfy pertinent land use and accessibility criteria;
(c) Candidate site screening: The sub-meso-scale areas that could contain WECS farms or
clusters are examined;
(d) Site development: A site is chosen and the best locations for individual machines are
identified.
6.2. Evaluation of a Predetermined Site
After the preferred site is chosen some additional steps will be necessary:
(a) Establishing feasibility: A preliminary evaluation is made of the wind-energy potential;
(b) Site evaluation: Wind data are collected at representative locations;
(c) Site development: The best locations are identified for individual machines.
7. Siting Small Wind Machines
Improper siting has been a common cause of dissatisfaction among users of small wind
turbines; i.e., the user did not always get the power output or machine life, which he had
expected. If poor siting decisions were a cause of complaint in the past, they will certainly be
a source of user dissatisfaction in the future. Historically, wind machines were used because
they were the only option available for providing power in remote areas. Thus, the user was
likely to be satisfied with whatever energy he could get. Today, however, in many places,
wind machines must compete with other options for providing power as well as, in some
cases, with central grid power.

The cost of wind power should be known to a reasonable accuracy before the decision is
taken to install a wind machine. Such an assessment requires fairly accurate knowledge of
wind characteristics at the turbine site. Some sites may require on-site measurements for an
accurate analysis of turbine performance.
The decision to purchase a small wind machine depends on many factors other than the
strength of the wind. The most obvious of these factors is economics. However, logistical,
cultural and institutional constraints must be considered as well. In making a decision, the
potential user must also be aware of the available wind-turbine hardware, of the need for
energy storage or back-up systems, and of the costs and characteristics of alternatives to wind
energy.
Purchasing a wind machine will require a different analysis than is customary for
conventional generating equipment because the primary energy supply (the wind) is variable
and site-dependent. Clearly, a detailed plan must be prepared in advance if the analysis is to
be successful. The following outline is a suggested strategy for analysis.
7.1. Determining Feasibility
Assessing the feasibility of the planned wind mill installation it will be necessary:
(a) To estimate the initial wind-resources:
1.Estimate energy needs;
2. Estimate wind-turbine energy production;
3. Survey available wind machines.
(b) To carry out an economic analysis:
1. Determine cost of wind machines;
2. Consider cultural (and other) factors:
3. Formulate working budget.
7.2. Selecting Site and System
The final site selection includes the following steps:
(a) Final wind-resource assessment
1. Select candidate site(s);
2. Determine available power at candidate site(s).
(b) Selection of wind-turbine system
1. Estimate energy needs quantitatively;
2. Estimate energy output quantitatively;
3. Choose machine and storage/back-up system, (if applicable);
4. Estimate costs and compare with alternatives.
An analysis of all available data might provide information on the likelihood of occurrence of
any one of events and thus save hours of trouble shooting.
Related Chapters
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Glossary
Draw down : Decrease of the water level in the well during pumping.
Hybrid
: A system that includes along with a wind mill some back-up installation.
system
: The airflow after a wind turbine or turbine, which is disturbed by passing the
Wake
turbines.
WECS
: Wind energy conversion system.
Wind power : A group of wind turbines interconnected through a system of transformers,
farm
transmission lines, and substations.
Bibliography
Johnson G. L. (1998). Wind Energy Systems, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 07632.
Lipman N. H., Musgrove P.J., P.J. Pontin G. W-W. (1982). Wind Energy for the Eighties. Peter Peregrinus Ltd.
WMO 575 . Meteorological Aspects of the Utilization of Wind as an Energy Source. Technical Note 175.
Biographical Sketch
Professor Vladimir A. Dobrovolski, Ph.D. was born in Moscow, Russia in 1936. He graduated from Moscow
Aviation Institute in 1960 and Ph. D. Degree in 1968.
1960-1963 - test engineer, the USSR Civil Aviation
1963-1970 - researcher, Thermodynamics department of Moscow Aviation Institute
1970-1973 - head of department, Central Aerohydrodinamics Institute
1973-1977 - adviser, International Civil Aviation Organization (Montreal, Canada)
1977
- head of department, Moscow Aviation Institute. His present position is a director of Wind Energy
Department of Moscow Aviation Institute and director, Molinos Co. Ltd. Main activities: Development and
production of small scale wind mills.

To cite this chapter

Vladimir A. Dobrovolski, (2004), WIND INSTALLATION FOR WATER PUMPING, AUTONOMOUS
AND GRID-CONNECTED POWER PRODUCTION, in Renewable Energy Sources Charged with Energy from
the Sun and Originated from Earth-Moon Interaction, [Ed. Evald E. Shpilrain], in Encyclopedia of Life Support
Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK,
[http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved April 12, 2007]