Here are the requirements for an effective cantus firmus:

1. The cantus firmus is traditionally written in alto clef, a member of the movable clef
family known as "C" clefs. C clefs include the alto clef, the tenor clef (both still in use
today), and the soprano clef. In all C clefs, middle C is located where the arms of the
clef meet (example 1).
2. The cantus firmus begins and ends on the tonic of the key or the final of the
mode. The penultimate note should be the note a step above the tonic or final (the
second tonal or modal degree).
3. All notes are of equal length; the whole note is the traditional value.
4. Notes are usually not repeated immediately (although, in treatises of the 16th and
17th centuries, examples can be found which contradict this).
5. The range of the melody is generally limited to an octave. This range is
occasionally stretched as far as a 10th. Most cantus firmi move within a much
smaller range; some are confined to a 6th or even just a 5th above the tonic.
6. Only diatonic notes are used in the cantus firmus.
7. The melody consists of from eight to thirteen notes.
8. Conjunct (stepwise) movement should predominate, interspersed by three or four
judiciously employed leaps.
If the leap is greater than a 3rd, it must be followed immediately by motion,
preferably by step, in the opposite direction to that of the leap. This opposite conjunct
motion is called "recovering the leap."
9. The melody should be conceived in terms of what can be sung easily by the
average musician (example 2).
10. The following melodic intervals are permitted in the cantus firmus: major and
minor 2nds, major and minor 3rds, perfect 4ths, perfect 5ths, minor 6ths (ascending
only), and perfect 8ves.
There is some difference of opinion in the modern literature about the admissability
of ascending major 6ths --this is largely a matter of taste and will be left to your own
discretion.
All other melodic intervals are forbidden. The tritone (A4 or d5) is to be avoided,
even when it is outlined through conjunct motion (example 3).
The chromatic half step (a half step between two notes with the same letter name) is
not used (example 4).

11. Two successive leaps in the same direction are to be avoided, since they suggest
an empty space in the line (example 5).
12. Repetition of groups of notes (a), and sequences (b), are generally forbidden
(example 6).
13. The cantus firmus should have a climax on a high note, which should be
melodically consonant with the first and final notes (i.e. at a distance of a major or
minor 3rd, perfect 4th or 5th, major or minor 6th, perfect 8ve, or major or minor 10th).
Do not repeat this climactic note, since this detracts from its commanding effect
(example 7).
14. There should be a good balance between ascending and descending motion; the
cantus firmus should possess a pleasing shape and should change direction several
times.
As you can see, cantus firmi are highly specialized melodies. While it is easier to
write a counterpoint to a given melody than it is to compose a good cantus firmus, it
is important to develop a sense of what makes a melody work. Furthermore, your
contrapuntal lines, which you will add to cantus firmi, share many characteristics with
a cantus firmus. Therefore, you will experiment with writing your own cantus firmi,
but you will also have a library of cantus firmi composed by others, to use when you
begin to write your contrapuntal lines.
Our work in species counterpoint will use six modes recognized by late 16th-century
composers and theorists. Sing these modes, play them, and memorize their
intervallic characteristics.
Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Ionian
FIRST SPECIES
The first species of counterpoint involves writing a new melody above or below the
cantus firmus, with one note in the counterpoint for every note of the cantus firmus.
The line of counterpoint must be compatible with the cantus firmus, but it must also
maintain its independence from it.
This species is written in whole notes, like the cantus firmus
The line of counterpoint begins on a P5, P8, or P12 if it is above the cantus firmus
(example 2a), and on a P1 or P8 if it is below the cantus firmus (example 2b).
The lower counterpoint cannot begin a P5 below the cantus firmus (while the upper
counterpoint can), because of the modal or tonal confusion that would result. The
P5's root has an irresistible tendency to imply a particular mode or key; thus, its use

in the lower counterpoint at the beginning of the exercise would suggest that the final
or tonic were, in fact, a P5 lower than it should be.
The unison (P1) should only be used on the last interval (with the upper
counterpoint), and on the first and last intervals (lower counterpoint). The P1 is never
permitted in the middle of the exercise, since this would create the impression that
one voice had suddenly disappeared.
The penultimate note of the line of counterpoint must be the leading tone (or the 7th
degree of the mode), and the final note must be the tonic whether it is above or
below the cantus firmus. Thus, the final two intervals will always be 6th - 8ve when
the counterpoint is in the upper voice, and 3rd - P1 or 10th - 8ve when the
counterpoint is in the lower voice (example 3).
In those modes which lack a natural leading tone, like Dorian, Mixolydian, and
Aeolian, a leading tone can be created by raising the mode's 7th degree
chromatically. However, this artificial leading tone should be used only in the
penultimate measure. Use the diatonic form of the scale or mode in all other parts of
the exercise.
The reason for this restriction is twofold:
First, it is desirable to foster a sense of true modality in species counterpoint, and
this can be achieved by maintaining the diatonic integrity of the modes.
Second, the leading tone is a note filled with tension and expectation for its release
into the tonic degree, and therefore, if its use is not restricted the entire brief exercise
will be filled with unbalanced and overwrought intensity
In approaching the leading tone, the augmented second (A2) and the chromatic halfstep are not to be used (example 4).
The Phrygian mode is a special case. Although it lacks a natural leading tone just as
the Dorian, Mixolydian, and Aeolian modes do, it contains a sort of upper leading
tone in its 2nd note -- a note one half-step above the mode's tonic, or final, rather
than below it. This upper leading tone is one of the Phrygian mode's distinctive
characteristics. Because of it, and the tension that it creates, this mode doesn't need
a leading tone on the 7th modal degree at all.
Unlike the cantus firmus, an occasional tied note can be used in the line of
counterpoint. Be aware, though, that you should avoid tying the same note twice in
the same exercise (too much pitch-centeredness may result otherwise). Neither
should there be more than two ties in the same exercise (only one for cantus firmi
which are ten notes in length or shorter), since the result is stasis in the affected
voice (example 5).

The following harmonic (vertical) intervals are permitted between the two lines: P1
(restricted to the first and last interval of the exercise (lower counterpoint only), P5,
P8, P12 (rare), M3, m3, M6, m6, and M10 and m10. Under exceptional
circumstances, the compound 6th (M13 and m13) may be used.

These are all consonant intervals. All other vertical intervals are dissonant, and may
not be used in first species. [Please note: the P4 is classified as a vertical
dissonance in two-part counterpoint, even though it is the inversion of a consonant
interval, the P5. It may always be used as a horizontal, or melodic, interval,
however.]
The so-called imperfect consonances (3rds and 6ths, both major and minor, and
their compounds), should be used more often than the perfect consonances in the
middle of an exercise. This is because the perfect intervals are so stable and so
strong that they have a tendency to impede the flow of the exercise with their purity.
No more than three imperfect consonances of the same type (3-3-3, 6-6-6, e.g.)
should be used in succession, since any more than this runs the risk of inducing a
somnolent daze in the listener (example 6).
The two voices should rarely be more than a 10th apart; extreme separation
between voice parts is not characteristic of species counterpoint.
The cross-relation (following a diatonic pitch in one voice with its chromatic variant in
another, or vice versa) is forbidden (example 7).
There are four types of motion by which one may progress from one interval to
another: parallel, similar, oblique, and contrary.
In parallel motion, both voices move in the same direction by the same melodic
interval (example 8a).
In similar motion, both voices simply move in the same direction (example 8b).
In oblique motion, one voice moves while the other is stationary.
In contrary motion, the voices move in opposite directions (example 9).
Of these four types of motion, contrary motion is best, since it fosters the greatest
sense of independence between lines, and should be used more often than the other
three types.

Parallel perfect intervals (P1s, P5s, P8s, and P12s) are forbidden at all times
(example 10a). These intervallic progressions destroy utterly any sense of
independence between lines. Parallel unisons are the worst offenders in this regard,
followed closely by parallel 8ves and parallel 5ths.
Direct or hidden 5ths and 8ves (approaching a 5th or 8ve by similar motion) are also
forbidden (example 10b), because of the "hidden" 5ths or 8ves that they produce
(these progressions will be permitted in textures of more than 2 voices, however).

Perfect consonances must be approached either by oblique motion, or by contrary

motion. In the latter instance, one voice (usually the upper voice) will generally move
by step (example 11).
When both voices move by contrary motion and by leap into a perfect consonance,
they create so-called "beaten" 5ths or 8ves (quinta battuta, ottava battuta) (example
12). These progressions should be avoided.
Avoid simultaneous leaps (leaps in both the cantus firmus and the line of
counterpoint at the same time) in the same direction when possible, especially large
leaps (equal to or greater than a P4). See example 13a.
Voice crossing (example 13b), a situation in which the higher voice drops below the
lower voice, or vice versa, is also undesirable, as is overlapping (example 13c). In
overlapping, the lower voice moves to a pitch higher than the previous location of the
upper voice, or vice versa.
In the case of both voice-crossing and overlapping, a line's very identity is called into
question, since it is unclear which voice is the higher and which the lower under such
conditions.
SECOND SPECIES
Most of the principles of first species still apply here. In writing two notes in the line of
counterpoint against each whole note in the cantus firmus, the first half note in each
measure must be consonant.
Now, however, it is possible to introduce dissonance in the second half of the
measure in the form of passing tones, and thereby the energy and tension of the line
of counterpoint can be greatly enhanced.

It is still necessary to begin on a perfect consonance, but now the line of

counterpoint may begin either on the first beat (example 1a), or it may begin with a
half-note rest (example 1b). Beginning the line of counterpoint with a half-note rest
encourages the sense of independence between the two lines.
The counterpoint will end on the note an octave or unison away from the final note in
the cantus firmus, as in first species, and the penultimate note must be the leading
tone or seventh modal degree (example 2a).
Occasionally a whole note may be used in the line of counterpoint in the penultimate
measure; in this case it will always be the leading tone or seventh modal degree
(example 2b).
Dissonant intervals, such as the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th, and tritone, can be used on the
second half note of a measure if the line of counterpoint moves up or down by step
from one consonance to another (example 3).

Such dissonances are called passing tones (P or PT). A passing tone is a stepwise
connection between two other tones a third apart.
The neighbor note (N -- a stepwise connection between two instances of the same
note) may be used if and only if it is consonant with the cantus firmus (example 4).
Never let the line of counterpoint leap into or out of a dissonant interval, since this
effectively leaves the dissonance hanging, unfulfilled and unresolved (example 5).
Leaps greater than a 3rd which cross over the barline (from 2nd beat to the
subsequent strong beat) are more problematic than leaps within the measure. The
goal of the leap sounds as though it had been shot out of a cannon.
If you must leap over the barline, follow the leap with an immediate change of
direction -- this will mitigate that dangling sensation.
Large leaps within the measure should also be followed with a change of direction
("recovered"). This keeps the line of counterpoint from extending its register too low
or too high (example 6).
A large melodic interval (P5, major or minor 6th, or P8) can be broken into two
smaller leaps; this is a useful technique for slowing down registral expansion.
A P5 can be traversed by using two consecutive leaps of a 3rd (example 7a); a 6th
can be traversed by using two consecutive leaps of a 3rd and a P4, or a P4 and a

3rd (7b); and finally, a P8 can be traversed by leaping a P5 and a P4, or a P4 and a
P5 (7c).
Any other combination of consecutive leaps (P4 + P4, 3rd + P5, for example) will
result in a dissonant outline (7d), and is therefore forbidden. As always with leaps, all
intervals formed against the cantus firmus must be consonant. When you use two
smaller leaps to gain a larger interval, the first of the two leaps should not be
recovered. Once the goal is reached, however, an immediate change of direction
should occur.
Directly adjacent (parallel) P5s and P8s are, as before, forbidden under any
circumstances (example 8a). P5s and P8s on successive strong beats, mitigated by
only one intervening half note, are to be strenuously avoided (8b). P5s and P8s on
successive weak beats, however, are acceptable, as long as they do not form a
sequence (8c).
The line of counterpoint may move by leap as long as both vertical intervals formed
with the cantus firmus are consonant (example 9).
The unison can now be used, but only on the second half of the measure, in the
middle of an exercise, and it must be left by step in the opposite direction from its
approach (example 10a).
If you leave it with a skip, it is as though the line of counterpoint has fallen
temporarily into a black hole (example 10b).
The leap of a P8 or an ascending m6 (never a descending 6th, nor an ascending M6,
since these are relatively difficult to sing) will prove useful to change the
counterpoint's register from time to time in these exercises, especially when the
voices are getting too close together (example 11).
As in 1st species counterpoint, the 2nd species counterpoint line should achieve a
unique (unrepeated) climax which is not simultaneous with the high point of the
cantus firmus.
Repeated notes (example 12a), tied notes (12b), sequences (12c), and repetitions of
groups of notes (12d) are all off limits in 2nd species.
To summarize, the second half note in the counterpoint has several functions:
consonant (example 13a) and dissonant passing tone (13b); and to change register
quickly within the measure (13c).
The second half note in the counterpoint can also be used to break a large leap into
two smaller and less obtrusive ones (13d); and to avoid potential voice leading errors
like parallel 5ths or 8ves (13e).

THIRD SPECIES
In third species, the line of counterpoint may either begin on the first quarter note of
the measure, or it may begin with a quarter note rest. In either case, the first interval
must be one of the same perfect consonances used in both first and second species
(example 1).
The penultimate note in the line of counterpoint must be the fourth quarter in the
penultimate measure and, as always, this note will be the leading tone or seventh
modal degree (example 2).
The interval on the first quarter note in the measure is always consonant, and the
third quarter is usually consonant, while the second and fourth notes may be
dissonant (example 3).
The third quarter note may be dissonant if the other three are consonant (example
4).
In such cases as the following, where each quarter note in the measure moves by
step to the next, it is possible to have a dissonance on both the second and third
quarter notes (this figure is called the "double passing tone") (example 5).
The unison may now be used in the body of the exercise on any quarter except the
first (it may also be the first and/or last interval in the exercise with the lower
counterpoint, as before).
The dissonant neighbor note may now be used in third species (recall that the
consonant neighbor note was permitted in second species) (example 6).
The double neighbor figure may also be used, and this will sometimes result in a
(legal) leap from a dissonance. This 5-note figure (original tone, N1, N2, original
tone, continuation) sounds best if it begins on the first beat of the measure, and if the
upper neighbor precedes the lower. Follow the 4th tone of the figure with a stepwise
progression in the same direction as that of the last two notes (example 7).
Be careful with neighbor notes, both single and double. They are useful for slowing
down the flow of the counterpoint, but if they are overused, the result will be an
aimlessly meandering line, which runs the risk of inducing terminal ennui in the
listener.
The only other case (besides the double neighbor) in which one may leap from a
dissonance is that of the so-called nota cambiata (example 8).
In example 8, all of the notes of the nota cambiata are consonant with the cantus
firmus, with the exception of the second note, which may be dissonant. The

dissonant note is followed by a leap of a third, after which the melody moves up to
the note which was, in effect, skipped.
The nota cambiata really consists of two passing motions, as shown in example 9,
and therefore must have five notes; the first, third, and fifth intervals formed against
the cantus firmus must be consonant, while the second and fourth intervals may be
dissonant (example 9).
In addition, it is wise to remember that there are only two possible starting intervals
for an upper counterpoint, and two for the lower counterpoint as well: the upper
counterpoint's nota cambiata may begin either with the interval of an 8ve or a 6th,
and the lower counterpoint's nota cambiata may begin either with the interval of a 5th
or a 3rd.
The inverted nota cambiata, although rare, may also be used. It may begin on a 3rd
or a 5th in the upper counterpoint, or on an 8ve or 6th for a lower counterpoint
(example 10).
The nota cambiata usually starts on the first beat of the measure, but it can also start
on the third beat (example 11).
P5s and P8s that occur against two different notes of the cantus firmus should be
separated by at least two quarter notes (three intervening quarter notes are even
better) (example 12).
P5s or P8s with only one intervening quarter note occuring within a measure (i.e.,
over the same cantus firmus note) are fine (example 13).
Avoid having more than two consecutive strong-beat 5ths or 8ves (example 14).
Although two consecutive leaps of a third in the same direction may be used
occasionally, full-octave arpeggiations should be avoided, since they break up the
line and are not, in these relatively rapid note values, truly a vocal idiom (example
15).
Embellishing tones (consonant skips with a return to the original note), are very
useful in third species. This 3-note figure (original note, embellishing tone, original
note) can begin on the first, second, or third beats in the measure. The embellishing
tone must form a consonant interval against the CF, and should not be further than a
P4 away from the original note (example 16a).
The ordinary consonant skip (not including a return to the initial tone in the leaping
pair) is analogous to the leap of second species, and is still useful in third species.
Remember that leaps of a P4 or greater should be followed by a return in the
opposite direction (16b).

Use large leaps (leaps greater than a P4) with restraint and taste, as always. The
shorter the note value, the more difficult it is to sing large leaps.
You should also try to avoid using two consecutive leaps in the same direction unless
they are both 3rds -- with the short note values of third species, such progressions
travel too far in too short a time.
Remember to fill in the "holes" left in the counterpoint by leaps with conjunct motion
in the opposite direction (example 17).
As a rule, the same melodic pattern should not be used twice in a row during the
course of an exercise. Such pattern repetition is called a "sequence."
Since there are so many notes of equal value in this species, it can be difficult to
maintain a sense of direction and purpose in the line. The student should sketch a
solution for the line of counterpoint, including a possible climax on a strong quarter
(first or third), and the last two or three measures. Here is a summary of the
categories of dissonance and embellishment which are now available to you:
1) Passing tone (P): a three-note stepwise figure spanning the melodic interval of a
3rd, moving completely in one direction; first and last intervals must be consonant.
See examples 3-4.
2) Double passing tones (P P): a four-note stepwise figure spanning the melodic
interval of a 4th, moving completely in one direction; first and last intervals must be
consonant. See example 5.
3) Complete upper and lower neighbor note (UN, LN): a three-note stepwise figure
leaving and returning to the same note, moving up by step, then returning down by
step (UN), or the reverse -- moving down by step, then returning up by step (LN);
first and last intervals must be consonant. See example 6.

4) Double neighbor notes (DN): a four-note figure which begins and ends on the
same note. Profile: stable tone, UN, LN, return to stable tone. LN may precede UN in
this figure, but this is less common than UN followed by LN. There is a leap of a 3rd
between the two neighbors. See example 7.

5) Nota cambiata (n.c.): a five-note figure embellishing a stepwise progression from

beat 1 (or 3) to the next beat 1 (or 3). The n.c.'s normal contour moves down a step,
down a 3rd, up a step, up another step. If the n.c. is inverted (rare), the contour is up
a step, up a 3rd, down a step, down another step. 1st, 3rd, and 5th intervals in this
five-note idiom must be consonant. See examples 8-11.
6) Embellishing tones and consonant skips: embellishing tones are consonant
skips which leave and return to the same note (similar to neighbor notes in that
regard). Consonant skips can be used to relieve stepwise motion and to break up
larger skips. The skip itself, and the intervals formed at the beginning and the end of
the skip, must all be consonant. See examples 16a and 16b.
FOURTH SPECIES
The line of counterpoint moves in half notes against the whole notes of the cantus
firmus, but unlike second species, the object of this species is to create as many
suspensions as possible against the cantus firmus. A suspension consists of a
preparation (P), which must be consonant, a strong-beat suspension (S), which is
usually dissonant, and a consonant resolution (R) (example 1).
Thus in fourth species it is possible for the first time to have dissonance on the first
part of the measure, as long as the dissonance is properly prepared and resolved.
The second half of the measure must always contain a consonant interval in fourth
species.
The suspensions used in these exercises will usually resolve down, by step, to a
consonance (examples 2a and 2b).
The only exceptions to this would be the consonant suspension 5 - 6, which resolves
up from the suspended note when the counterpoint is in the upper voice (example
3a) and occasions when a consonant suspension is departed by skip (example 3b).
Remember, though, that all dissonant suspensions must be resolved down by step.
If a consonant suspension is left by leap, the goal of the leap must also form a
consonant interval with the cantus firmus.
You should use as many dissonant suspensions as possible, especially those which
resolve to imperfect, rather than perfect, consonant intervals.
The most desirable and best-sounding suspensions are the 7 - 6 and the 4 - 3
suspensions in the upper voice (example 7a), and the 2 - 3 or 9 - 10 suspension in
the lower voice (example 7b).

The upper-voice 2 - 1 and 9 - 8 suspensions should be used much less frequently,

since they sound rather hollow and leave the impression (as always with octaves
and, especially, unisons) that the texture has been cut in half with one voice
absorbed into the other (example 8).
The lower-voice 4 - 5 suspension should be used very rarely. Its use is only really
justifiable if it is part of a series of suspensions (example 9a). The lower-voice 7 - 8
suspension should not be used at all (9b).
An excellent rule of thumb for fourth species counterpoint comes from J. J. Fux: the
counterpoint should "sound well even if the retardations or ligatures [suspensions]
are removed..."
The following example shows how a pair of 9 - 8 suspensions (example 10a) creates
parallel octaves when the suspensions are removed and the rhythm is normalized
(example 10b).
The syncopation that characterizes fourth species means that the principal type of
motion between the two voices is oblique (the cantus firmus moves to a new note on
the first beat of each measure, while the line of counterpoint is usually suspended
over the barline, moving to a new note only on the second beat of each measure).
Because of this oblique motion, directly adjacent (parallel) 5ths and 8ves are most
unlikely in this species. However, 8ves and 5ths will occasionally occur with one
intervening interval (near-parallel 8ves and 5ths).
When the intervening interval is a dissonance (intervallic progressions like 8 9-8; 5 45; 1 2-1; and 8 7-8 are examples of this kind of situation), the effect is of thinly
disguised parallels, and this is of course unpalatable (example 11a).
If the intervening interval is an imperfect consonance, however, the perfect intervals
on either side of it lose some of their power and the effect is much less problematic.
Therefore, two identical perfect intervals should be interrupted by an imperfect
consonance, not a dissonance (11b).
Occasionally it will be necessary or desirable to "break species", or to refrain,
temporarily, from using suspensions.
Certain types of cantus firmus, if accompanied relentlessly by suspensions, will
encourage the creation a line of counterpoint with no curve or character whatsoever,
a line that does nothing but descend mindlessly to its inevitable conclusion (example
13a).

There is one more reason for breaking species: to avoid a dull and lengthy series of
the same suspension type (i.e., more than three repetitions of a suspension type).

To summarize, then, the only good reasons for breaking species are:
1) To avoid a voice-leading error, like near-parallel 8ves or 5ths (see examples 10a
and 11).
2) To avoid a limp, aimless, and uninteresting descending line (see example 13a);
and
3) To avoid creating a lengthy and tedious series of the same suspension type (see
example 14a).
Try to avoid breaking species -- it can turn into the weakling's way out of a
challenging situation. Often a consonant suspension will solve your problem as
handily as breaking species would. The essence of fourth species is the suspension,
and its resultant syncopation. Resist the temptation to break species whenever you
can.
The Best (and only legal) Dissonant Suspensions
Upper voice: 7-6, 4-3, and (rarely) 9-8
Lower voice: 2-3, 9-10, and (rarely) 4-5
FIFTH SPECIES
Florid counterpoint, the richest species and the one closest to "free" counterpoint, is
a combination of the techniques of the first four species. In addition to these nowfamiliar idioms, a few new techniques will be introduced.
The fifth species counterpoint line should begin slowly with a suspension figure, with
the same interval constraints as always: the upper counterpoint may enter at a 5th,
8ve, or 12th against the cantus firmus, and the lower counterpoint may enter at a
unison or 8ve against the cantus firmus.
The last two measures should also emulate 4th species by providing a suspension
into the leading tone in the penultimate measure, closing in the final measure on a
whole note tonic.

Eighth notes can now be used, but only under controlled conditions. Eighth notes
always occur in pairs, and an eighth-note pair may only be used on the weak 2nd or
4th quarter of a measure. Only one pair of eighth notes should be used within a
single measure; in fact, care should be taken not to overuse this note value.
Never forget that species counterpoint is a vocal genre, and faster note values are
more difficult to sing (more instrumental in nature) than slower note values are.
Eighth notes are not used on strong beats (1st and 3rd) in fifth species, and must
form either a neighbor-note figure (example 1a), or a passing-tone figure connecting
two tones a fourth apart (1b).
These are the only typical eighth-note idioms. Remember that all eighth-note pairs
must be both entered into, and left, by step. Never leap into or out of a pair of eighth
notes! Eighth notes are delicate, sensitive creatures smooth treatment only,
please.
Suspensions can take on a more elegant character in fifth species by way of
embellished resolutions.
The suspension figure can now be embellished in one of several ways: