WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

PCB 4323
FORMATION DAMAGE PART I
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WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

By

Ms. Haizatul Hafizah Hussain

haizatulhafizah.hus@petronas.com.my
Office Ext. : 7373
Office Room : J3-02-25

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to;
Describe the concept of formation damage
Identify the pre-treatment well tests analysis
Explain the sources of formation damage

LECTURE OUTLINES
Formation damage concepts
Pre-treatment well tests analysis
Sources of formation damage fines movement, scale, organic scale,
inorganic scale, pressure reduction, stimulation

FORMATION DAMAGE
CONCEPTS
Formation damage concerns on the formation of a volume of rock with a
reduced permeability in the near well-bore zone.
Formation damage exist from the moment that the drill bit enters the

formation until the well is finally abandoned.

Formation damage can result from many different sources drilling,
cementing, perforating, completion/gravel packing, production, injection,

work over, stimulation, etc.

Any changes from original formation permeability are characterized by the
skin value.

FORMATION DAMAGE
CONCEPTS
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE MECHANISM
Reduced absolute permeability of formation results from plugging of
pore channels by particles.
Reduced relative permeability to oil results from an increase in water
saturation or oil wetting of the rock.
Increased viscosity of reservoir fluid results from emulsions or highviscosity treating fluids.

FORMATION DAMAGE
CONCEPTS
Most oil field fluids consist of two phases - liquid and solids.
Either liquid or solid can cause significant damage through any one of
several possible mechanisms:

Plugging by solids occurs on the formation face, in the perforation, or

in the formation.
Solids may be weighting materials, clays, viscosity builders, fluid

loss control materials, lost circulation materials, drilled solids,

cement particles, perforating charge debris, gravel pack or frac
sand fines, precipitated scales, paraffin or asphaltenes.

FORMATION DAMAGE
CONCEPTS
Liquid may be water containing various types and concentrations of solids,
particles and surfactants.
When liquid is circulated or forced into porous zones by differential
pressure, displaced or commingled with a portion of a virgin reservoir
fluid, it may create blockage due to one of several mechanisms.
And then, i t may reduce the absolute permeability of the pore, or

restrict flow due to relative permeability or viscosity effects.

FORMATION DAMAGE
CONCEPTS
Stimulation treatments are designed to increase the well productivity, either
by:
Reducing or completely removing the formation damage by chemical

matrix treatment (e.g. acidizing) or

Bypassing the formation damage by creation of a high permeability
channel by hydraulic fracturing treatment or deep penetration guns

PRE-TREATMENT WELL TEST

DIAGNOSIS OF FORMATION DAMAGE
It is possible to determine whether formation damage or skin effect exists in
a particular well.
This can be done well performance curve. By comparing the actual well
performance, the poor performance can be identified whether is due to
formation damage or to mechanical problems in the wellbore.
From Production logging surveys may show zones which are not
contributing to the total flow stream.
From pressure build-up or pressure draw-down tests, the magnitude of

damage or skin effect can be determined.

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PRE-TREATMENT WELL TEST

Figure 1 : Well Performance Curve

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PRE-TREATMENT WELL TEST

Figure 2 : Production Logging Survey

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PRE-TREATMENT WELL TEST

Figure 3 : Pressure build-up or Pressure draw-down tests

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE FINES MOVEMENT
The fines or small mineral particles (clays, feldspars
etc) which are found on the surface of the sand grains
which make up the rock fabric have come into
equilibrium with the reservoir fluids during geological

time.
However, this equilibrium state is disturbed once a well is
drilled and placed on production - high fluid flow velocities
are experienced in the near wellbore region. It has been
observed in the field that, particularly for wells located in
Figure 4 : Fines in sand grains

young, unconsolidated sediments that a dramatic reduction

in well productivity can occur when the well production

rate is increased too quickly.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE FINES MOVEMENT
Experiments were carried out in the
laboratory

to

try

to

reproduce

this

phenomenon. A core sample from the

reservoir was subjected to increasing oil and
combined oil/water flow.
It was observed that the permeability to oil
flow remained constant, even at reasonable
flow velocities, while the permeability began
Figure 5 : Relationship between
core permeability and flow velocity

to be reduced at a critical flow velocity when

the core was subjected to a combined
oil/water flow regime.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE FINES MOVEMENT
Further experiments were performed in

which the actual flow through the pore spaces

could be observed visually .
The figure shows that the small, loose
particles present on the sand grain surface
remain in place during oil flow.
Figure 6 : Oil flow between
the sand grains

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE FINES MOVEMENT
However, these fines become mobile once the
wetting phase (water, in this case) is flowing at

a rate greater than this critical value.

Mobilisation of the fines allows them to move
to the pore throats where, if chance dictates
that a number of these particles are present at
the same time, blockage can occur reducing the
Figure 7 : Combined oil/water flow
between the sand grains

permeability and well Productivity Index.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE FINES MOVEMENT
Remedial measures include:
Controlled, slow bean up of the well reduces the number of particles that are
mobilised at any one time, leading to a lower chance of blockage at the pore throats.
Small increases in production rate allow the fines to be cleaned out of the
formation at low rates (and concentrations); so that the desired well production
rate (and drawdown) can be achieved while maintaining the near wellbore rock
permeability by preventing pore throat bridging.
Fines control treatments using surfactants to change the formation wettability.
However, experience shows that many such "wettability treatments have a
limited lifetime and the formation converts to its original wettability.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE SCALE
Scale refers to the precipitation of organic or inorganic
material in the surface facilities, the well itself or the near
wellbore formation.
This scale may block the pores in the formation or even the
perforations (reducing well inflow) or block the tubing (reducing
well outflow) or impede the operation of well accessories e.g.
prevent the operation of the Surface Controlled Sub Surface
Safety Valve (SCSSSV).
The figure shows a tubing which, on recovery from the

Figure 8 : Production tubing

with inorganic scale

producing well, was found to have the area available to flow

reduced by 75% due to an inorganic scale.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE SCALE
In all cases the precipitation is triggered by a chemical instability that has been
created by a change to the original equilibrium conditions achieved with the
formation fluid over geological times. This can be due to:
A decrease in temperature during flow up the tubing
A decrease in pressure during the reservoir depletion or during flow up in the
tubing
Mixing with a chemically incompatible fluid.

Two types of organic scales - wax and asphaltenes - are encountered while a
multitude of inorganic scales have been observed.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE INORGANIC SCALE
A wide range of inorganic scales have been encountered during world wide
production operations. These include:
Precipitation of NaCl salt due to cooling of well fluids and/or evaporation of

the water into the gas phase during production of saturated brines to the
surface.
NaCl (soln) NaCl (solid)
Mixing of two reservoir brines (normally in the production tubing) or between
a reservoir brine (e.g. rich in Barium) and an injected fluid (e.g. sea water) can
lead to precipitation.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE INORGANIC SCALE
Well productivity can only be reestablished by removing the scale material.
This is achieved by:
Dissolving the scale (in the formation, well or facilities) using a suitable solvent. For e.g.

NaCl salt can be dissolved by water.

Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) is very difficult to dissolve; suitable solvents are
expensive and can only dissolve a limited amount of material.
Drilling out the difficult to dissolve scales coupled with, if necessary,
reperforating to bypass perforations blocked by scale; has been found to be
effective.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE ORGANIC SCALE
WAX
Many crude oils will form a solid precipitate when they are cooled. This solid,
known as wax, varies in form from a soft to a brittle solid.

The (solid) wax is dissolved in the crude oil at reservoir temperatures and
forms a crystalline precipitate when the temperature reduces below the cloud
point (the temperature at which the first (micro) seed crystals appear).

The temperature difference between the reservoir temperature and the cloud
point ranges from only a few degrees centigrade to many tens of degrees.
Pressure changes only have a minor effect on the value of the cloud point
temperature.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE ORGANIC SCALE
WAX
The amount of wax dissolved in the crude oil is also highly variable from less
than 1% wt to such high values (> 50% wt) that the complete crude sample
turns into a semi-solid, unpumpable mass.

The wax is normally kept in solution in the crude oil by ensuring that the
temperature is maintained above the cloud point at all times. This involves the
insulation of flow lines, tanks, as well as the use of heaters where appropriate.

The rate of agglomeration of the wax crystals can also be reduced by the addition
of an inhibitor.

The maintenance of this minimum temperature is easiest when the wells are
flowing, - since heat is being continually supplied to the system.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE ORGANIC SCALE
WAX

(Long term) shut downs represent a problem, especially for long flow lines or

pipelines. The long flow lines and low water temperatures (< 4 C)associated

with

satellite developments in deep waters, represent a challenge that is currently being

researched e.g. development of more effective insulation materials.
Wax will typically start to form on the inner surface of the tubing or the flow line;

since this is the coldest point. Once formed, the wax can be removed by:
Mechanical action (scraping)
Dissolving in hot Stock Tank crude oil (cheap and readily available) or in
solvents.
Dissolving in solvents, its more expensive, but can dissolve a higher
concentration of wax.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE ORGANIC SCALE
ASPHALTENES
They are made up of a complex mixture of asphaltenes, resins

and

maltenes which were originally present in the crude oil under original
reservoir conditions.
The precipitation process is triggered by pressure reductions asphaltene precipitation is often first observed near the bubble point.
Laboratory experiments on the effect of pressure on the stability of an
asphaltenic crude have shown that there are two regions of stability. One
of these is normally above the bubble point pressure (as discussed
earlier) while there is a second region of stability at low pressures.
Asphaltenes are thus mainly precipitated at intermediate
pressures.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE ORGANIC SCALE
ASPHALTENES
The following summarises operational field experience from a number of fields:
Asphaltene precipitation may be initially observed in the facilities. Precipitation can also
occur in the reservoir. Despite this, field reports of formation damage due to asphaltene
precipitation in the reservoir are rare.
Solid asphaltene is normally removed mechanically from the well and facilities.
Mechanical removal was until recently necessary because asphaltenes are poorly soluble
in most solvents.
Large scale asphaltene precipitation can occur when the asphaltenic crude oil is contacted
by acid. This effect is particularly severe when the acid contains ferric cations (Fe3+) e.g.

from reaction of the acid with rust.

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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE PRESSURE REDUCTION
The reservoir pressure will be reduced during its producing lifetime. This can trigger a number of
operational problems which result in formation damage.
Sand production
Compaction of the reservoir producing interval. This reservoir drive mechanism is beneficial
since it will lead to an increased recovery of the oil originally in place; but it may also bring extra
operational costs due to damage to the wells themselves. Casing and tubing can be squeezed

into an oval rather than a round shape.

Fault creation or reactivation {i.e. (mini) earthquakes). Creation of extra faults may lead to
improved inflow while fault reactivation may result in previously sealing faults becoming leaky.

Reduced formation permeability. This is normally minor, but catastrophic pore collapse to zero
permeability has been observed for some chalks when a certain rock effective stress value is
exceeded.
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SOURCES OF FORMATION
DAMAGE STIMULATION
Well stimulation can also causing formation damage unless proper thought is given to fluid
selection.
Reaction products generated by the reaction between the injected acid and the formation
rock may precipitate, causing a reduced permeability (formation damage).
The acid may weaken the rock, by attacking the intergrain cement so that (normally
temporary) sand production is observed when the well is returned to production.
The above deconsolidation process may generate fines which can migrate and block
pore throats.
Acid can be incompatible with crude oil leading to formation of a solid sludge which
can block pores or a viscous acid / oil emulsion formation.
A further form of acid/crude oil incompatibility is the formation of a highly viscous
water/oil emulsion.

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HAVE YOU ACHIEVED THE

LEARNING OUTCOMES TODAY?
ANY THOUGHTS?

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THANK YOU
2016 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD
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