Hydrologic cycle

Hydrologic science:

Hydrology is the science dealing with the occurrence, distribution, movement and
properties of the earths waters.

Table 1.1 Estimated World Water Quantities

Item Area Volume Percent of Percent of
(106 km2) (km3) total water fresh water
Oceans 361.3 1,338,000,000 96.5
Groundwater
Fresh 134.8 10,530,000 0.76 30.1
Saline 134.8 12,870,000 0.093
Soil Moisture 82.0 16,500 0.0012 0.05
Polar ice 16.0 24,023,500 1.7 68.6
Other ice/snow 0.3 340,600 0.025 1.0
Lakes
Fresh 1.2 91,000 0.007 0.26
Saline 0.8 85,400 0.006
Marshes 2.7 11,470 0.0008 0.03
Rivers 148.8 2,120 0.0002 0.006
Biological Water 510.0 1,120 0.0001 0.003
Atmospheric Water 510.0 12,900 0.001 0.04
Total water 510.0 1,385,984,610 100
Fresh water 148.8 35,029,210 2.5 100
Table from World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth, Copyright UNESCO, 1978

Table 1.2 Global Annual Water Balance

Ocean Land
Area (km2) 361,300,00 148,800,000
Precitation (mm/yr) 1270 800
(km3/yr) 458,000 119,000

Evaporation (mm/yr) 1400 484

(km3/yr) 505,000 72,000
Runoff to Oceans
Rivers (km3/yr) - 44,700
Groundwater (km3/yr) - 2200
Total runoff (km3/yr) - 47,000
(mm/yr) - 316
Table from World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth. Copyright UNESCO, 1978

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The Hydrological Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a concept that considers the processes of motion, loss and
recharge of the Earths waters. It describes a continuous process by which water is
transported from the oceans, to the atmosphere, to the land and back to the sea,
recognising that many subcycles exist. Globally, the hydrologic cycle is considered a
closed system of cycles and subcycles with many elements. The sun provides the driving
force for the global water transport system.

Precipitation : P = All forms of moisture falling to the earth, e.g. Rainfall.

Evaporation : E = conversion of water to water vapor from a water surface.
Transpiration : T = loss of water vapor through plant tissue and leaves.
Infiltration : F = water enters the soil system, it may enter channels as
interflow or percolate to recharge the ground water.
Surface Runoff : R = remaining portion of precipitation becomes overland flow.
Ground water : G = water flows in porous media in the subsurface.
Condensation : C = water vapor condensed into cloud droplets due to cooling of
moist air.

Precipitation is the major driving force that drives the hydrologic cycle.

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Watershed (Basin, Catchment Area):

Area of land that drains to a single outlet and is separated from other
watersheds by a drainage divide.
Rainfall that falls in a watershed will generate runoff to that watershed outlet.
Topographic elevation is used to define a watershed boundary (land survey)
Catchment area is another term for the surface portion of the watershed.
Watershed divide is the ridge line (border) that separates two adjacent
watersheds which drain into two different outlets.

Watershed Characteristics:

Size
Slope
Shape
Soil type
Storage capacity

Watershed Shapes:

Elongated
Concentrated

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Watershed Response Hydrograph:

As rain falls over a watershed area, a certain portion will infiltrate the soil.
Some water will evaporate to atmosphere.
Rainfall that does not infiltrate or evaporate is available as overland flow and
runs off to the nearest stream.
Smaller streams then begin to flow and contribute their load to the main
channel at confluences.
As accumulation continues, the stream flow rises to a maximum (peak flow)
and a flow moves downstream through the main channel.
The flow eventually recedes or subsides as all areas drain out.

Hydrograph:

It is the hydrologic response of rainfall at the outlet of an area as it is a plot of

discharge in the channel versus time.

Qp = C An

Qp = peak flow, A = watershed area, C & n = regression constants.

K = A / L2
K = form ratio, A = watershed area, L = watershed length measured along the longest
watercourse.
K = 1 for square area and less than 1 for elongated area.

Example: (Al-Rawas, Ghazi A. and Valeo, Caterina (2010). Relationship between wadi drainage characteristics and
peak-flood flows in arid northern Oman', Hydrological Sciences Journal, 55: 3, 377 393)

DA: Watershed drainage area

WS: Wadi slope
BE: Watershed mean elevation
FR: Watersheds farm percentage

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Residence time:

The residence time, Tr , is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through a
subsystem of the hydrologic cycle. The hydraulic residence time may be calculated by
dividing the volume of the water impoundment by the quantity of water leaving the
impoundment.

Problem 1.1 Estimate the residence time of atmospheric moisture

Total atmospheric water = 12,900 km3

Total annual precipitation = 458,000 + 119,000 = 577,000 km3/yr

Tr = V/Q

Tr = V/Q = 12,900/577,000 = 0.022 yrs = 8.2 days (on average)

This explains why weather forecasts are not accurate to more than a few days ahead.

Water Budget (Mass Balance Method):

Steps to conducting a mass balance:

1. Define your control volume (A region that is fixed in space and completely
surrounded by a control surface). Examples: watersheds, basins, catchments are all
parcels of land draining to the same point. Once this is done, the input and outputs of
water to the system can be identified.

2. Use the Continuity Equation on this system. (Mass Balance)

dS
I O
dt
I = input or inflow S = Storage

O = Output or outflow T = Time

S S 2 S1
I O
t t 2 t1

P E T F R = S for a time period