1

2
3
4
 GPRS
General Packet Radio Service
Enhancement to the GSM standard
Utilises:
Multiple Timeslots
Packet Switching
Theoretical Packet Switched Data rates of 171.2kbps for 8 timeslots
Introduces serving GPRS support node - SGSN
EDGE
Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution Sometimes called E-GPRS (Enhanced
GPRS)
Enhancement to the GSM and TDMA standards
Utilises:
8PSK Modulation
Possible 1.6 MHz carrier under IS-136
8 Channel Coding Schemes
Multiple Timeslots (similar frame structure to GSM)
TDMA
Theoretical Packet Switched Data rates of 473.6kbps for 8 timeslots

5
6
7
 GSM offers circuit-switched with good voice quality, but it is providing data rates of 9.6
kbps which is too slow.
In 1999 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) reuses the existing GSM infrastructure
to provide higher data rate
It was lunched to increase the data rate to 115 kbps by:
Dsing the packet-switched in data transmission
Defining new coding scheme.
In 2001 Evolved Data rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE) offers data rate of 384 kbps by
using new modulation scheme(8psk)

At 1985 : ITU started the process of defining the standard for third generation systems,
referred to as International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000)
Some of the features that IMT-2000 3G network must include
1-Circuit and packet oriented services
2-Simultaneous multiple services
3-Symmetrical and Asymmetrical services
4-Migration path from 2G systems
5-Supporting Multimedia services
* Car speed environment: 144kbps
* Walk speed environment: 384kbps
Indoor environment: 2048kbps

N-8
 Lower frequencies:
with longer wavelengths, are better suited to transmission over large distances,
because they bounce on the surface of the earth.
Television and FM radio are examples of applications, which use lower
frequencies.
Higher frequencies:
with shorter wavelengths, are better suited to transmission over small
distances, because they are sensitive to such problems as obstacles in the line of
the transmission path.
Higher frequencies are suited to small areas of coverage, where the receiver is
relatively close to the transmitter.
We use such kind of frequencies in the wireless mobile communication as it
depend on the adjacent small coverage
The WCDMA system uses the following frequency spectrum (bands other than those
specified by 3GPP may also be used): Uplink 1920 MHz ~ 1980 MHz and downlink 2110
MHz ~ 2170 MHz. Each carrier frequency has the 5M band and the duplex spacing is 190
MHz. In America, the used frequency spectrum is 1850 MHz ~ 1910 MHz in the uplink
and 1930 MHz ~ 1990 MHz in the downlink and the duplex spacing is 80 MHz.
Formulated by the European standardization organization 3GPP, the core network
evolves on the basis of GSM/GPRS and can thus be compatible with the existing
GSM/GPRS networks. It can be based on the TDM, ATM and IP technologies to evolve
towards the all-IP network architecture. Based on the ATM technology, the UTRAN
uniformly processes voice and packet services and evolves towards the IP network
architecture.

N-9
 In CDMA system, mutual interference between users or cells is permitted, so
adjacent cells can be distributed with same frequency. That is why the
spectrum efficiency is very high and the capacity is also very large in CDMA
system. But it also cause self-interference, if the interference is out of control,
the capacity and quality of CDMA system will be worse, so many technologies
were invented to control the interference, and it is not easy.
CDMA security feature. After spreading, the narrowband signal of the user
will be changed to broadband signal. It is close to noise, only people who use
the same spreading code can revert it. Of course, it causes the other
shortcoming: more frequency band needed.
CDMA soft capacity feature. Because all of the carrier resource (the main
resource is power) is shared by all of the users, if some users occupy more
power, it will cause the capacity lower. Soft capacity will cause network
planning more complex.

WCDMA radio solution brings advanced capabilities that enable new

services. Such capabilities are:
High bit rates theoretically up to 2 Mbps in 3GPP Release 99, and beyond 10
Mbps in 3GPP Release 5. Practical bit rates are up to 384 kbps initially, and
beyond 2 Mbps with Release 5;
Low delays with packet round trip times below 200 ms;
Seamless mobility also for packet data applications;
Quality of Service differentiation for high efficiency of service delivery
Simultaneous voice and data capability.
Interworking with existing GSM/GPRS networks.
10
11
 Compatible with abundant services and applications of 2G, 3G system has an
open integrated service platform to provide a wide prospect for various 3G
services.
Features of 3G Services
3G services are inherited from 2G services. In a new architecture, new service
capabilities are generated, and more service types are available. Service
characteristics vary greatly, so each service features differently. Generally, there
are several features as follows:
Compatible backward with all the services provided by GSM.
The real-time services (conversational) such as voice service generally
have the QoS requirement.
The concept of multimedia service (streaming, interactive, background)
is introduced.

12
 Speech service:
Real time conversational service require low time delay from end to end, the
uplink and downlink service bandwidth is symmetrical .
Adopt AMR ( adaptive multi rate ) technique (WCDMA).
12.2(GSM), 10.2, 7.95, 7.40(IS-41), 6.70(PDC), 5.90, 5.15 and
4.75kbps.
The bit rate of AMR voice can be controlled by the RAN according to
the
payload of air interface and the quality of voice service .
According to the requirement of the operator, AMR technique can
balance the relationship among network capacity, coverage and service
quality.
Video phone (WCDMA)
The requirement of time delay is similar to the voice service.
Conversational service service are inherited from 2G. VP (Video Phone) is a
new kind of conversational service in 3G. Through this service, people will not
only hear the voice, but also see the picture.

13
 Multimedia data streaming:
Preserve time relation between information entities of the data
streaming.
Data is processed into stable and continuous streaming .
Non-symmetry service
Streaming service is another kind of excited service in 3G, you can use your
mobile phone to see film, watch TV news, or even monitor the traffic to make
you select a better route.

14
 Interactive traffic - fundamental characteristics for QoS:
request response pattern
preserve payload content
Services example :
Location based services
Online game
Web browsing
..
The first expected interactive service is online game, so many young people
will like it; but LCS has more commercial prospect, it is widely accepted in the
industry. LCS has been commercialized in GSM and GPRS networks in some
countries. In the 3G field, because of improvement of location precision and
application of the open system structure, LCS is very attractive. It may become
one of the main killer services in 3G.
There are the following types of LCS:
City sightseeing: Providing direction navigation between touring sites, or
indicating touring sites nearby, and finding the nearest hotel, bank, airport, bus
station or relaxation place.
Location-based content broadcast: It can deliver messages to users in a specific
area. It is mainly used in advertisement services, for example, delivering
advertisements to users in or near a shopping center to attract customers.
Mobile yellow page: It provides contact information of the nearest service
point according to users needs. For example, the customer can input an entry
restaurant or more conditions such as Chinese food and within 3
kilometers to search. The output result can be phone numbers or addresses.
15
 Background traffic - fundamental characteristics for QoS:
the destination is not expecting the data within a certain time
preserve payload content
Service example:
E-mail ( server to server )
SMS
Download of database
Reception of measurement records
Picture and Ring tone download
...
Background service are inherited from 2G.

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 In mobile communication systems, GSM adopts TDMA; WCDMA, cdma2000 and TD-
SCDMA adopt CDMA.

Advantage Defect

FDMA 1. Simple Implementation 1. Frequency Reuse

2. privacy
AMPS, TACS

TDMA 1.Privacy 1. Need synchronized of frame

GSM, PDC

CDMA 1. Reduction the interference 1. Sophisticated power control for

mobile
2. Diversity Hand-over
IS95,
W-CDMA 3. Privacy

N-18
 Frequency Division Multiple Access: frequency division, sometimes called channelization,
means dividing the whole available spectrum into many single radio channels (transmit/receive
carrier pair). Each channel can transmit one-way voice or control information. Under the control
of the system, any user can be accessed to any of these channels. Analog cellular system is a
typical example of FDMA structure. Similarly, FDMA can also be used in a digital cellular system,
except that pure frequency division is not adopted. For example, FDMA is adopted in GSM and
CDMA.
Time Division Multiple Access means that the wireless carrier of one bandwidth is divided into
multiple time division channels in terms of time (or called timeslot). Each user occupies a
timeslot and receives/transmits signals within this specified timeslot. Therefore, it is called time
division multiple access. This multiple access mode is adopted in both a digital cellular system
and a GSM. TDMA is a complex architecture and the simplest case is that a single channel carrier
is divided into many different timeslots, each of which transmits one-way burst-oriented
information. The key part in TDMA is the user part, in which each user is allocated with one
timeslot (allocated when a call begins). The user communicates with a base station in a
synchronous mode and counts the timeslot. When his own timeslot comes, the mobile station
starts a receiving and demodulation circuit to decode the burst-oriented information sent from
the base station. Likewise, when a user wants to send any information, he should first cache the
information and waits for his timeslot to come. After a timeslot begins, the information is
transmitted at a double rate and next burst-oriented transmission begins to be accumulated.
CDMA is a multiple access mode implemented by Spread Spectrum Modulation. Unlike FDMA
and TDMA, both of which separate the user information in terms of time and frequency, CDMA
can transmit the information of multiple users on a channel at the same time. That is to
say,mutual interference between users is permitted. The key is that every information before
transmission should be modulated by different Spread Spectrum Code-Sequence to broadband
signal, then all the signals should be mixed and send. The mixed signal would be demodulated by
different Spread Spectrum Code-Sequence at the different receiver.Because all the Spread
Spectrum Code-Sequence is orthogonal,only the information that was be demodulated by same
Spread Spectrum Code-Sequence can be reverted in mixed signal.

N-19
 In third generation mobile communication systems, WCDMA and cdma2000 adopt
frequency division duplex (FDD), TD-SCDMA adopts time division duplex (TDD).
UMTS Frequency Division Duplexing Mode
Built onto enhanced GSM core network
Utilises:
QPSK modulation (Quadrature phase shift keying)
Multiple channel coding and bearer rates
Variable spreading factors and multi-code transmission
CDMA
FDD
Asynchronous operation
Data up to rates of 2Mbps
UMTS Time Division Duplexing Mode
Built onto enhanced GSM core network
Utilises:
QPSK modulation
Multiple channel coding and bearer rates
CDMA
TDD
Asynchronous operation
Data up to rates of 2Mbps
Will happen after UMTS FDD
N-20
 It should be remembered that the TDD mode of operation can allow a complete
network to be deployed with only 5MHz of frequency spectrum whereas FDD requires at
least 10 MHz. This could be especially useful in areas of the world where the IMT2000
frequency spectrum has already been allocated to another system, as is the case in the
USA where existing PCS operators are using the IMT2000 spectrum. One solution is to
use WCDMA TDD in the unlicensed PCS band between the uplink and downlink (1910
MHz to 1930 MHz).

N-21
22
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 Interoperability with GSM
CS domain elements are able to handle 2G and 3G subscribers.
UTRAN:UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network.
The UTRAN consists of a set of Radio Network Subsystems connected to the Core Network through the Iu.
A RNS consists of a Radio Network Controller and one or more Node Bs. A Node B is connected to the RNC
through the Iub interface.
Inside the UTRAN, the RNCs of the Radio Network Subsystems can be interconnected together through the
Iur. Iu(s) and Iur are logical interfaces. Iur can be conveyed over direct physical connection between RNCs or
virtual networks using any suitable transport network.
Migration to WCDMA will retain the existing core network elements both for circuit and packet switched as
shown above.
The GSM BSS will be replaced by the Radio Network Subsystem (RNS) containing a Radio Network
Controller (RNC) and a number of base stations (BTS). In 3GPP documents the BTS is referred to as a Node B.
This temporary name is used to avoid conflict between vendors over the use of RBS and BTS.
The A interface will be replaced by the Iu interface, Abis with the Iub and a new interface called the Iur will be
added to interconnect RNCs for soft handover. Unlike their GSM predecessors these new interfaces will use
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) to transfer data broken up into cells across the physical links.
It should be remembered that in the beginning, existing GSM operators will have both GSM BSS and WCDMA
RAN connected to the same core network.
The main interfaces of UTRAN are Iu, Iur, and Iub. Iu is the interface between UTRAN and core network.
There are two types of interfaces in the Iu interface. The Iu interface towards the packet-switched (PS) (GPRS)
and the Iu interface towards the circuit-switched (CS) (MSC). The Iu interface supports several functions such
as establishing, maintaining and releasing radio access bearers (RAB), performing intrasystem and
intersystem handover, location services by transferring requests from the CN to UTRAN, and location
information from UTRAN to CN. Iur interfaces radio network controllers and is required to support inter RNC
soft handover. The Iub is a logical interface that connects base station (Node B) to radio network controller.

N-24
 Iub: The Iub is the interface between the RNC and the Node-B
The Node B effectively performs a relay function between the Iub and the Uu
Thus the Iub needs to carry:
Layer 2+ signalling between the UE and the UTRAN
Signalling directly to the Node B
To control radio resource allocation
General control of the Node-B
O&M Functionality
Iur: The Iur is the interface between two RNCs
It enables the transport of air interface signalling between an SRNC and a DRNC
Thus the Iur needs to support:
Basic Inter RNC Mobility
Dedicated Channel Traffic
Common Channel Traffic
Global Resource Management
Iu: The Iu is the interface between the Core Network and the UTRAN
There are two instances of the Iu:
The Iu-ps connecting UTRAN to the Packet Switched Network
The Iu-cs connecting UTRAN to the Circuit Switched Network

N-25
26
 Source coding: the conversion of the source output to a digital form, performed by a
source encoder, which produces a sequence of binary digits, also can increase the
transmitting efficiency as it represent a source with the fewest bits such that best
recovery of the source from the compressed data is possible
Channel coding: is a method to detect and possibly correct errors by introducing
redundancy to the stream of bits to be sent to the channel so it can make the
transmission more reliable.
Spreading: WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to spread the base band data over
~5MHz band so its less effected by interference. Spreading factor in dBs indicates the
process gain
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Modulation: process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine
waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for
example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal).

Bit, Symbol, Chip

Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading

N-27
 AMR is compatible with current mobile communication system (GSM, IS-95, PDC and
so on), thus, it will make multi-mode terminal design easier.
The AMR codec offers the possibility to adapt the coding scheme to the radio channel
conditions. The most robust codec mode is selected in bad propagation conditions. The
codec mode providing the highest source rate is selected in good propagation conditions.
During an AMR communication, the receiver measures the radio link quality and must
return to the transmitter either the quality measurements or the actual codec mode the
transmitter should use during the next frame. That exchange has to be done as fast as
possible in order to better follow the evolution of the channels quality.

N-28
29
 Source coding: the conversion of the source output to a digital form, performed by a
source encoder, which produces a sequence of binary digits, also can increase the
transmitting efficiency as it represent a source with the fewest bits such that best
recovery of the source from the compressed data is possible
Channel coding: is a method to detect and possibly correct errors by introducing
redundancy to the stream of bits to be sent to the channel so it can make the
transmission more reliable.
Spreading: WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to spread the base band data over
~5MHz band so its less effected by interference. Spreading factor in dBs indicates the
process gain
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Modulation: process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine
waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for
example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal).

Bit, Symbol, Chip

Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading

N-30
 During the transmission, there are many interferences and fading. To guarantee
reliable transmission, system should overcome these influence through the channel
coding which includes block coding, channel coding and interleaving.
Block coding: The encoder adds some redundant bits to the block of bits and the
decoder uses them to determine whether an error has occurred during the transmission.
This is used to calculate Block Error Ratio (BLER) used in the outer loop power control.
The CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is used for error checking of the transport blocks at
the receiving end. The CRC length that can be inserted has four different values: 0, 8, 12,
16 and 24 bits. The more bits the CRC contains, the lower is the probability of an
undetected error in the transport block in the receiver.
Note that certain types of block codes can also be used for error correction, although
these are not used in WCDMA.

N-31
 UTRAN employs two FEC schemes: convolutional codes and turbo codes. The idea is to
add redundancy to the transmitted bit stream, so that occasional bit errors can be
corrected in the receiving entity.
The first is convolution that is used for anti-interference. Through the technology,
many redundant bits will be inserted in original information. When error code is caused
by interference, the redundant bits can be used to recover the original information.
Convolutional codes are typically used when the timing constraints are tight. The coded
data must contain enough redundant information to make it possible to correct some of
the detected errors without asking for repeats.
Turbo codes are found to be very efficient because they can perform close to the
theoretical limit set by the Shannons Law. Their efficiency is best with high data rate
services, but poor on low rate services. At higher bit rates, turbo coding is more efficient
than convolutional coding.
In WCDMA network, both Convolution code and Turbo code are used. Convolution
code applies to voice service while Turbo code applies to high rate data service.
Note that both block codes and channel codes are used in the UTRAN. The idea behind
this arrangement is that the channel decoder (either a convolutional or turbo decoder)
tries to correct as many errors as possible, and then the block decoder (CRC check) offers
its judgment on whether the resulting information is good enough to be used in the
higher layers.

N-32
P-33
 Channel coding works well against random errors, but it is quite vulnerable to bursts of
errors, which are typical in mobile radio systems. The especially fast moving UE in CDMA
systems can cause consecutive errors if the power control is not fast enough to manage
the interference. Most coding schemes perform better on random data errors than on
blocks of errors. This problem can be eased with interleaving, which spreads the
erroneous bits over a longer period of time. By interleaving, no two adjacent bits are
transmitted near to each other, and the data errors are randomized.
The longer the interleaving period, the better the protection provided by the time
diversity. However, longer interleaving increases transmission delays and a balance must
be found between the error resistance capabilities and the delay introduced.

N-34
35
 Source coding: the conversion of the source output to a digital form, performed by a
source encoder, which produces a sequence of binary digits, also can increase the
transmitting efficiency as it represent a source with the fewest bits such that best
recovery of the source from the compressed data is possible
Channel coding: is a method to detect and possibly correct errors by introducing
redundancy to the stream of bits to be sent to the channel so it can make the
transmission more reliable.
Spreading: WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to spread the base band data over
~5MHz band so its less effected by interference. Spreading factor in dBs indicates the
process gain
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Modulation: process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine
waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for
example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal).

Bit, Symbol, Chip

Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading

N-36
 By spreading, each symbol is multiplied with all the chips in the orthogonal sequence
assigned to the user. The resulting sequence is processed and is then transmitted over
the physical channel along with other spread symbols. In this figure, 4-digit codes are
used. The product of the user symbols and the spreading code is a sequence of digits
that must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the original encoded binary signal.
The receiver dispreads the chips by using the same code used in the transmitter.
Notice that under no-noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered
without any error. In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but CDMA system employ
Forward Error Correction techniques to combat the effects of noise and enhance the
performance of the system.
When the wrong code is used for dispreading, the resulting correlation yields an
average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonal
property of the codes. Whether the wrong code is mistakenly used by the target user or
other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is always
zero because of the orthogonal property of codes.

37
 By spreading, each symbol is multiplied with all the chips in the orthogonal sequence
assigned to the user. The resulting sequence is processed and is then transmitted over
the physical channel along with other spread symbols. In this figure, 4-digit codes are
used. The product of the user symbols and the spreading code is a sequence of digits
that must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the original encoded binary signal.
The receiver dispreads the chips by using the same code used in the transmitter.
Notice that under no-noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered
without any error. In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but CDMA system employ
Forward Error Correction techniques to combat the effects of noise and enhance the
performance of the system.
When the wrong code is used for dispreading, the resulting correlation yields an
average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonal
property of the codes. Whether the wrong code is mistakenly used by the target user or
other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is always
zero because of the orthogonal property of codes.

38
 Correlation is used to measure similarity of any two arbitrary signals. It is computed by
multiplying the two signals and then summing (integrating) the result over a defined
time windows. The two signals of figure (a) are identical and therefore their correlation
is 1 or 100 percent. In figure (b) , however, the two signals are uncorrelated, and
therefore knowing one of them does not provide any information on the other.

39
 Correlation is used to measure similarity of any two arbitrary signals. It is computed by
multiplying the two signals and then summing (integrating) the result over a defined
time windows. The two signals of figure (a) are identical and therefore their correlation
is 1 or 100 percent. In figure (b) , however, the two signals are uncorrelated, and
therefore knowing one of them does not provide any information on the other.

40
 If we had 100 users, in order for each of them to produce 1% if the received power,
thermal (background) noise would have to be negligible. This is impossible.
A more typical situation is that the thermal noise approximately equals the power
from the users. This means that 50% of the power comes from users limiting the
number of users to 50.
Noise generated by users of other cells cannot be ignored. This further reduces the
capacity to approximately 30 voice connections.
Typically, the wideband power of a cell is approximately 10-13 W. Half of this would be
thermal noise, 30% would be from users and 20% would be from users of
neighbouring cells.
Traditional radio communication systems transmit data using the minimum bandwidth
required to carry it as a narrowband signal. CDMA system mix their input data with a fast
spreading sequence and transmit a wideband signal. The spreading sequence is
independently regenerated at the receiver and mixed with the incoming wideband signal
to recover the original data. The dispreading gives substantial gain proportional to the
bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal. The gain can be used to increase system
performance and range, or allow multiple coded users, or both. A digital bit stream sent
over a radio link requires a definite bandwidth to be successfully transmitted and
received.

41
42
N-43
 For common services, the bit rate of voice call is 12.2kbps, the bit rate of video phone
is 64kbps, and the highest packet service bit rate is 384kbps(R99). After the spreading,
the chip rate of different service all become 3.84Mcps.

N-44
 Spreading means increasing the bandwidth of the signal beyond the bandwidth
normally required to accommodate the information. The spreading process in UTRAN
consists of two separate operations: channelization and scrambling.
The first operation is the channelization operation, which transforms every data
symbol into a number of chips, thus increasing the bandwidth of the signal. The number
of chips per data symbol is called the Spreading Factor (SF). Channelization codes are
orthogonal codes, meaning that in ideal environment they do not interfere each other.
The second operation is the scrambling operation. Scrambling is used on top of
spreading, so it does not change the signal bandwidth but only makes the signals from
different sources separable from each other. As the chip rate is already achieved in
channelization by the channelization codes, the chip rate is not affected by the
scrambling.

N-45
 Orthogonal codes are easily generated by starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1
horizontally and vertically, and then complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is to
be continued with the newly generated block until the desired codes with the proper
length are generated. Sequences created in this way are referred as Walsh code.
Channelization uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different subscriber
physical channels. OVSF can be defined as the code tree illustrated in the following
diagram.
Channelization code is defined as Cch SF, k,, where, SF is the spreading factor of the
code, and k is the sequence of code, 0kSF-1. Each level definition length of code tree is
SF channelization code, and the left most value of each spreading code character is
corresponding to the chip which is transmitted earliest.

Generation of Orthogonal (Walsh) Codes

N-46
 The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes.
They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical channels. They also
increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps. The OVSF codes are defined using a code tree.
In the code tree, the channelization codes are individually described by Cch,SF,k, where
SF is the Spreading Factor of the code and k the code number, 0 k SF-1.
A channelization sequence modulates one users bit. Because the chip rate is constant,
the different lengths of codes enable to have different user data rates. Low SFs are
reserved for high rate services while high SFs are for low rate services.
The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes (for
one SF) is equal to the number of chips and to the SF value.
The generated codes within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes.
Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the
two codes is a mother code of the other. For example C4,3 is not orthogonal with C1,0 and
C2,1, but is orthogonal with C2,0.
SF in uplink is from 4 to 256.
SF in downlink is from 4 to 512.

N-47
 For voice service (AMR), downlink SF is 128, it means there are 128 voice services
maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier;
For Video Phone (64k packet data) service, downlink SF is 32, it means there are 32
voice services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier.

N-48
 In addition to spreading, part of the process in the transmitter is the scrambling
operation. This is needed to separate terminals or base stations from each other.

N-49
 Downlink Scrambling Codes
Used to distinguish Base Station transmissions on Downlink
Each Cell is assigned one and only one Primary Scrambling Code
The Cell always uses the assigned Primary Scrambling Code for the Primary and
Secondary CCPCHs
Secondary Scrambling Codes may be used over part of a cell, or for other data
channels

Different scrambling codes will be planned to different cells in downlink.

Different scrambling codes will be allocated to different UEs in uplink.
The scrambling code is always applied to one 10 ms frame.
In UMTS, Gold codes are chosen for their very low peak cross-correlation.

N-50
N-51
N-52
53
 Source coding: the conversion of the source output to a digital form, performed by a
source encoder, which produces a sequence of binary digits, also can increase the
transmitting efficiency as it represent a source with the fewest bits such that best
recovery of the source from the compressed data is possible
Channel coding: is a method to detect and possibly correct errors by introducing
redundancy to the stream of bits to be sent to the channel so it can make the
transmission more reliable.
Spreading: WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to spread the base band data over
~5MHz band so its less effected by interference. Spreading factor in dBs indicates the
process gain
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Modulation: process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine
waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for
example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal).

Bit, Symbol, Chip

Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading

N-54
 In amplitude of the carrier signal is modified with two amplitudes to represent 0 and 1
In frequency of the carrier signal is modified with two frequencies to represent 0 and 1.
The phase of the carrier signal is modified with two phases to represent 0 and 1. family,
is the most widely used modulation scheme in modern cellular systems. There are many
variants in this family, and only a few of them are mentioned here.

A data-modulation scheme defines how the data bits are mixed with the carrier signal,
which is always a sine wave. There are three basic ways to modulate a carrier signal in a
digital sense: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift
keying (PSK).

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 BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form
of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180 and so can
also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation
points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0 and 180.
This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise
or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only
able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high
data-rate applications.

NRZ means none return zero.

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 Sometimes this is known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM.
(Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4-QAM are different, the resulting modulated
radio waves are exactly the same.) QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram,
equispaced around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol,
shown in the diagram with gray coding to minimize the bit error rate (BER) sometimes
misperceived as twice the BER of BPSK.
The quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation has four phases: 0, /2, , and
3/2 radians. Two data bits are transformed into one complex data symbol; A symbol is
any change (keying) of the carrier.

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 The UTRAN air interface uses QPSK modulation in the downlink, although HSDPA may
also employ 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM). 16QAM requires good
radio conditions to work well. As seen, with 16QAM also the amplitude of the signal
matters.
As explained, in QPSK one symbol carries two data bits; in 16QAM each symbol
includes four bits. Thus, a QPSK system with a chip rate of 3.84Mcps could theoretically
transfer 2 3.84 = 7.68 Mbps, and a 16QAM system could transfer 4 3.84 Mbps =
15.36 Mbps. In 3GPP also the usage of 64QAM with HSDPA has been studied.

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 Source coding: the conversion of the source output to a digital form, performed by a
source encoder, which produces a sequence of binary digits, also can increase the
transmitting efficiency as it represent a source with the fewest bits such that best
recovery of the source from the compressed data is possible
Channel coding: is a method to detect and possibly correct errors by introducing
redundancy to the stream of bits to be sent to the channel so it can make the
transmission more reliable.
Spreading: WCDMA uses spreading factors 4 - 512 to spread the base band data over
~5MHz band so its less effected by interference. Spreading factor in dBs indicates the
process gain
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Modulation: process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
stream inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine
waveform is used to transform a baseband message signal into a passband signal, for
example low-frequency audio signal into a radio-frequency signal (RF signal).

Bit, Symbol, Chip

Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading

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 The Radio propagation phenomenon
Reflection
Propagating wave impinges on an object which is large compared to wavelength
E.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with sharp
irregular edge
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS does not exist
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave
E.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts

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 Shadowing (Normal fading):
The reason for shadowing is the presence of obstacles like large hills or
buildings in the path between the site and the mobile.
Multi path scattering from nearby objects.
Attenuation effects
Rayleigh Fading (Multi-path Fading):
Due to the reflected signals from the surrounding building.
So, a combination of direct and out-of-phase reflected waves at the receiver
yields attenuated signals (i.e. signal paths of different paths with different times
of arrival at the receiver)

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 Fast Fading
The primary measures to deal with fast fading include time diversity, frequency diversity and
space diversity (or polarization diversity):
Time diversity mainly depends on symbol interleaving, error detecting code and error correcting
code. Different code has different anti-fading properties. It is also the leading subject in todays
mobile telecommunications study. GSM air channel coding scheme, see the related section in
chapter 2.
Frequency diversity theory is based on bandwidth, which means when the difference between
two frequencies exceeds certain value, they are regarded as two independent band classes.
Sufficient data shows 200 kHz or above difference between two frequencies demonstrates this
independency. Frequency diversity mainly takes spread spectrum measures. GSM simply takes
frequency hopping to obtain frequency hopping gain, while CDMA itself is a kind of spread
spectrum communications with each channel in a relatively broad band class (narrowband CDMA
is 1.25 MHz).
Space diversity uses main diversity antenna receiving to solve the problem of fast fading. The
base station receiver diversifies and consolidates the signals received through main and diversity
channels with maximum likelihood sequence estimation equalizer (MLSE). This main and
diversity receiving quality is ensured by the independency of main and diversity receiving
antennas. The so called independency means the signals received by main antenna and diversity
antenna fade at different time. In space diversity, the distance between main antenna and
diversity antenna exceeds ten times of the wavelength of the radio signal. Polarization diversity
can also ensure the independency of the main and diversity antennas. For mobile station,
because it has only one antenna, it has no such space diversity function. The equalization of base
station receiver to different delayed signals in certain time window is also a kind of space
diversity. During the soft handoff in CDMA, mobile station contacts several cell stations at the
same time and choose the best signal to send to the switch, which is also a kind of space
diversity.

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 Slow Fading
Lots of researches show that the median of received signal strength, except the Rayleigh
Fading of transient value, changes slowly with the shift of locations. This kind of
phenomenon is called slow fading. Slow fading is caused by shadow effect, so it is also
called shadow fading. When the transmission is obstructed by high buildings, forests,
fluctuant terrain, electromagnetic shadow occurs. If this happens to the mobile station,
the median of the receiving electromagnetic field strength changes. The degree of
changes depends on the obstruction and frequency; the change rate depends on both
obstruction and speed of vehicles.
Study of this slow fading shows that the change of value follows logarithmic normal
distribution.
The reflection coefficient of electric waves changes because of the change of weather
with time and the slow change of vertical slope of air dielectric constant, which results in
the slow fading of the median of signal strength with time in the same place.
Statistics shows that the median value follows logarithmic normal distribution in a large
scale as time or place changes; therefore, the synthesized value also follows logarithmic
normal distribution. In land mobile communications, the degree of median value
affected by time is much less than that affected by place, so the influence of time in slow
fading can be ignored. But in designated communications, the time factor should be
considered in slow fading.
Generally speaking, two factors influence the cellular system:
The first one is multipath. Signals reflected or diffracted from buildings or other objects
show slow fading and move scores of meters. The second one is the slow change of main
received signal strength in line of sight path, that is, the long term signal strength change,
which means signal transmission follows Rayleigh distribution of fast fading and
logarithmic normal distribution of slow fading

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 Diversity technology means that after receiving two or more input signals with
mutually uncorrelated fading at the same time, the system demodulates these signals
and adds them up. Thus, the system can receive more useful signals and overcome
fading.

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 Diversity technology is an effective way to overcome overlaid fading. Because it can be
selected in terms of frequency, time and space, diversity technology includes frequency
diversity, time diversity and space diversity.
Time diversity: Channel coding (Convolution) and interleaving
Frequency diversity: WCDMA is a kind of frequency diversity. The signal energy is
distributed on the whole bandwidth.
Space diversity: Antenna diversity (Space Diversity)
The cell transceiver will use two receiving antennas instead of one. They
will be separated by a distance of about (10* ) and they will receive radio
signals independently, so they will be affected differently by the fading dips
and the better signal received will then be selected.

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 The RAKE receiver is a technique which uses several baseband correlators to
individually process multipath signal components. The outputs from the different
correlators are combined to achieve improved reliability and performance.
When WCDMA system is designed for cellular system, the inherent wide-bandwidth
signals with their orthogonal Walsh functions were natural for implementing a RAKE
receiver. In WCDMA system, the bandwidth is wider than the coherence bandwidth of
the cellular. Thus, when the multi-path components are resolved in the receiver, the
signals from different paths are uncorrelated with each other. The receiver can then
combine them using some combining schemes. So with RAKE receiver WCDMA system
can use the multi-path characteristics of the channel to get signal with better quality.

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