Mechanics of Solids

Lab Manual
JOB# 1,2,3
Faisal Gulzar
 Job # 01

Layout of Mechanics of Solid Lab

Layout:-
o The plan view is of any object that
shows the position of various
components. In our case layout
gives an idea about the position of
various apparatus installed/placed
in laboratory.

Layout of laboratory:-
Apparatus
1. Torsion Test Machine:-
o This can only perform
torsion test.
o Its capacity is
200Nm.
o Least count is 0.1.
o Win test 2 is the
software to control it.
a. Torsion:-
o It is the resistance to applied
torque.
2. Charping Impact Test Machine:-
o This is used to perform impact
test.
a. Impact:-
o Impact is defined as sudden force.
b. Two hammer:-
o 1ST hammer has maximum
energy of 255 J.
2ND hammer has maximum
energy of 155 J.

c. Two scales:-
 o 1ST scale is for angle
measurement.
o 2ND scale is for energy
measurement.
d. Sample size:-
o 25mm x 10mm x 10mm
3. Biaxial Bending Apparatus:-
a. I - Section:-
o Used to find strain.
o We use strain
measurement box.
b. Channel Section:-
o Used to find shear
center.
i. Shear Center:-
o It is the point inside
or outside the cross-
section where load is
applied only bending
occurs not twisting.
c. Z Section:-
o Used to check out the
bending behavior.
 d. Principle axis:-
o Purpose is to verify
that when we are
going to apply load
along principle axis
there will be only
uniaxial bending.

o Axis where moment

of inertia is maximum
and product moment
of inertia is zero.
4. Universal Testing Machine:-
o It can perform tension,
compression and
bending test.
o Its capacity is 1000KN.
o Its upper jib is fixed
while lower jib is
moveable.
o Upper zone is tension
zone while lower zone is
compression zone.
o Lower base is the RAM
of UTM which is for
manual testing.
 o Trapezium is the
software used for auto
testing.
o Trapezium also gives us
stress-strain graph.

Job # 02

TENSION TEST

Test is performed for the determination of behavior of materials

under axial tensile loading. Data from test are used to determine
elastic limit, percentage elongation, modulus of elasticity,
proportional limit, reduction in area, tensile strength, yield point,
Yield Strength and other related properties. The standard
adopted to check the adequacy of test is ASTM A615/ 615M.

Purpose:
To study stress-strain behavior of steel sample
 On basis of stress-strain data, various physical
parameters like Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of
Toughness, Elastic limit, Proportional Limit, Yield
Point, Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength etc, are
determined.

Related Theory:

STRESS:
Stress is defined as the total internal resisting force
per unit resisting area. Under the action of applied load P, the
stress produced on unit resisting area A is symbolically
represented by the Greek symbol Sigma which is
mathematically calculated as:

=/
/

Where is in Pascal (N/m2) or psf (lbs/ft2)

STRAIN:
Strain is the measure of change in dimension of any
element under the action of load. It gives the value of relative
change with respect to the original dimension. Mathematically, it
is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length.
If on an element of length `L`, due to application of load the new
length is `L2`, the unit strain produced is symbolically dented by
Greek symbol epsilon `` and computed as:

= /
/

Where, L= L2 - L
As strain is the ratio, it`s a unit-less quantity but for
convenience, it is often represented in the units of mm/mm or
inch/inch

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:
It is a diagram that shows the relation between
stress and strain exhibited by particular material. The stress-
strain curves are extremely important graphical measure of
mechanical properties of materials like modulus of elasticity,
modulus of toughness, rigidity, yield strength and ultimate
strength. This diagram is plotted from the results of tensile test
in which one end of material is clamped in loading frame and
other end is subjected to controlled displacement i.e.,
displacement at uniform rate. The machine displays the
corresponding value of load P. With the known dimensions of
cross-section of the member and knowing the Length, stress and
strain values can be computed. With strain (in percentage) on
abscissa and stress (in Pa) on ordinate, the graph is plotted
against calculated values obtained from tensile test. The
resultant graph is the stress-strain curve for the testing material.
A typical Stress-strain curve for a structural steel is shown in the
figure 01:

Fig
 Typical Stress-Strain Curve for a Ductile
Material

COMPONENTS OF STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:

A stress-strain curve exhibits four zones which
are termed as Elastic Zone, Yielding Zone, Strain Hardening
Zone and necking Zone. Yielding Zone, Strain Hardening Zone
and Necking Zone explain the plastic behavior of materials. In
addition to zones, different limiting values can also be obtained
from the diagram. Figure 02 shows the typical distribution of
stress-strain curve into various components:
 typical Stress-Strain Curve
Components

ELASTIC ZONE OR LINEAR ZONE:

Region of stress-strain curve extending from origin to
the Proportional limit is termed as Elastic Zone. In this zone,
stress is proportional to stress i.e., Hooke`s law is valid. The
material within this zone exhibits elastic behavior.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT:
Proportional limit is the maximum value of stress
that may be developed during a simple tensile test such that the
stress is the linear function of strain.
ELASTIC LIMIT:
 Elastic Limits is the stress beyond which the
material will remain no more elastic when unloaded but will
retain a permanent deformation known as permanent set.
YIELDING ZONE:
This zone is referred as yielding zone as material
elongates or yield in this zone. In this zone, against a
prominent increase in strain, there is a little change in stress. In
this zone, material deforms permanently.
YIELD POINT:
The point on the stress-strain curve which is once
passed, there is an appreciable elongation or yielding of a
material without any considerable increase in the stress.

YIELD STRENGTH:
Yield Strength of a material is defined as the stress
applied to the material at which plastic deformation starts to
occur while the material is loaded.

STRAIN HARDENING ZONE:

If a ductile material be stressed beyond the yield point
without failure, the material is said to be Strain Hardened. It is
the zone after yielding when the particles of material rearranging
themselves and start taking load again. So stress, start
increasing.

TENSILE STRENGTH:
Maximum or highest ordinate on the Stress-Strain
Diagram is called Tensile or Ultimate Strength of sample. It is
commonly considered as the maximum strength of material.
NECKING ZONE:
Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the
sample after the ultimate strength is called necking. This
continues up to rupture. After the rupture when the sample
breaks then cup cone shape is formed at breaking edges.

RUPTURE STRENGTH:
It is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less
than the ultimate strength. For brittle materials, the ultimate and
rupture strength are almost same.

YOUNGS MODULUS:
Young`s modulus, also termed as elastic modulus or
modulus of elasticity is the mathematical description of a
material`s tendency to deform elastically when a force is applied
to it. The elastic modulus of a material is defined as the slope of
its stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region. Its units
are those of stress as strain is a dimensionless quantity.

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE:
The Resilience of the material is its ability to absorb
energy without creating a permanent distortion. Modulus of
resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the
elastic limit E.
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS:
 The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb
energy without causing it to break. Modulus of toughness is the
work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R. This may be calculated as the area under
the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). DUCTILE AND
BRITTLE MATERIALS:
Materials having a relatively larger tensile strain up to
the point of rupture or failure are called as ductile materials, e.g.
Structural Steel, Aluminum, etc. Whereas, the materials having a
relatively small tensile strain up to the point of rupture are called
as brittle materials, e.g Cast Iron, Concrete, etc.

APPARATUS:
1000 KN Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine
Extensometer
Steel Ruler
Vernier Caliper
Meter Rod
PROCEDURE:
Note down the shape and size of specimen, measure the
length of specimen. Find the cross sectional area of
specimen.
Mark the gauge length on the specimen throughout the
length of the specimen for determination of % elongation
after fracture, i.e. Ductility.
Fix the extensometer to measure the elongation up to its
region and grip the specimen in machine jaws. Note the
gauge length of extensometer and its least count.
Calculate the expected Yield and Ultimate load and decide
suitable load increment and draw a table for recording
readings of loads and extensions.
Apply the load in desire increment and take readings of
extensometer.
Remove the extensometer at its limit and record the
elongation with a spring divider and steel ruler up to
breaking point.
Join the two broken pieces together and measure the
approximate diameter at failure zones for determination of
final cross sectional area.
Measure the change in lengths for gauge lengths marked
throughout the lengths of specimen for estimation of effect
of gauge length on % age elongation (ductility).

PRECAUTIONS:
Remove the zero error from the vernier caliper and
extensometer, if applicable
 Measure the gauge length of sample accurately
Increase the load gradually on the sample

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Paste the graph obtained from UTM in the space provided:

Fill the Table considering the graph available:

Length of Bar = mm
Diameter of Bar = mm
Area of bar = mm

Sr # Load Deformatio Stress Strain Remark

n s
JOB#3
COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST
Compression strength test is a method to determine behavior of
materials under crushing loads. Specimen is compressed and
deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain
are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram.

Purpose:
To study stress-strain behavior of wooden sample under
compressive load.
To study the effect of orientation of wooden beam on its
compressive strength.
To study the effect of compressive force on wooden section when
section is placed such that its fibers are perpendicular or parallel to
the direction of application of load.

Related theory:
Compression strength:
Maximum compressive load resisting per unit area of a body is called
Compressive Strength of the body. It is the capacity of a material to
withstand compressive forces. When the limits of compressive strength
are crossed, materials are crushed.
Modulus of stiffness: Stiffness is the resistance of an elastic body
to deform by an applied force. It is the measure of resistance offered by
an elastic body to compression. It is the load required to produce unit
displacement. We can also say that load corresponding to unit
displacement is called Modulus of Stiffness.
Where, P = Force applied on the body
= The displacement produced by the force

If there is unit displacement, then k = (P/1), thus we can say that the load
is the measure of stiffness of the materiaVl for unit displacement.

Units of k is (N/mm)

Relationship between Elasticity and Stiffness:

In general, elastic modulus is not the same as stiffness. Elastic modulus
is a property of the constituent material; stiffness is a property of a solid
body. That is, theelasticity is an internal property of the material;
stiffness, on the other hand, is an external property of the solid body
dependent on the material and the shape and boundary conditions.

MODULUS OF STIFFNESS:
Load required to produce unit displacement or deformation is called
modulus of stiffness.

FORMULA
Let, A= Area of x-section
E= Modulus of elasticity of section
P= Applied load L= Original length
d= Deformation in length

As we know that more the load is applied, more will be the deformation.
Pd
Converting sign of proportionality into sign of equality, a constant k is
introduced,
P=kd
d=P/k
K=P
when d = 1 (unit deformation)

As we know that from HOOKS LAW,

= PL / AE
P = k = A E / L (for unit deformation)

FAILURE MECHANISM IN DIFFERENT

DIRECTIONS
Failure of wooden cube when load parallel to the
fibers:
When the load is applied parallel to fibers, the wooden sample will take
more load to fail. The ability of wood to take more loads parallel to
fibers is because each fiber act as column to the applied load and even
after the failure of the single fiber the rest of the fibers will keep on
taking the load.
Failure of wooden cube when load perpendicular to
the fibers:
When the load is applied perpendicular to the fibers, the wooden sample
takes comparatively less load. This is because the failure of the single
fiber will lead to the failure of the whole sample. The strength of the
wooden sample when the load is applied parallel to the grains is about
ten times more as compare to when the load is applied perpendicular to
grains.
APPARATUS:
1. 1000 kN Shimadzu UTM.
2. Wooden Cubes
3. Deflection Gauge
4. Vernier Calipers
PROCEDURE:
Take all the dimension of cubes with the help of Vernier Calipers
Place the wooden cube in between the jigs of UTM.
Apply the load gradually on the wooden cubes up to the failure of
rupture and note down the readings.
Calculate failure strength of wood for both cases.

PRECAUTIONS:
Check the zero error of Vernier Caliper
The load should be apply gradually and uniformly
Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails
Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be
kept large as compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain
the proper degree of stability.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
Graph: