Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Preliminary Remarks

Ever since Kirsch [3] gave the solution for stresses around a circular hole in an infinite plate in
1898, the research on stress concentration problems is being carried out by many researchers
across the globe. Out of galaxy of the literatures available for the stress analysis and optimiza-
tion of plates, some selected papers are exclusively reviewed, compiled and presented in this
section. The survey of literatures includes:

Stress analysis of isotropic plates with a hole considering in-plane loading,

Stress analysis of isotropic plates with a hole considering bending loading,

Stress analysis of anisotropic plates with a hole considering in-plane loading,

Stress analysis of anisotropic plates with a hole considering bending loading,

Optimization of composite plates.

Chapter 2. Literature Review 8

2.2 Stress Analysis of a Plate

2.2.1 Isotropic Plates under In-plane Loading

For the first time the question of stress concentration was raised in the book on the theory of
elasticity Leons sur la thorie mathmatique de llasticit des corps solides written by Lame [4].
He solved the problem of stress distribution in an unbounded plane plate with a round hole un-
der a constant uniform tension. Airy [5] was first to notice that, in absence of the body forces
there always exist some single auxiliary function called stress function by the help of which the
stresses may be expressed. This stress function is called Airys function. Muskhelishvili [6]
represented the Airys stress function [5] in terms of complex variables. The complex function
theory to solve a plane problem of the mathematical theory of elasticity has proved to be great
value to solve the two dimensional problems.
Generally, design or service demands holes and cutouts in plate like structural members. These
holes and cutouts adversely affect the stress field around them. After the pioneering work of
Lame [4], the problem of stress field around circular hole had been solved by Kirsch [3] us-
ing Airys stress function [5]. He obtained the stress concentration factor as 3.0 under uniaxial
tension by assuming uniform stress distribution away from the hole (Saint Venant principle).
Inglis [7] extended Kirschs work [3] by obtaining stress field around an elliptical hole using
curvilinear coordinates. His results were exact and suitable for extreme limits of shape which
an ellipse can take. The results were difficult to interpret due to elliptical coordinates. These
difficulties were overcome by Westergaard [8] who had presented stress functions in terms of
harmonic function of complex variable. The Westergaards solution [8] has two advantages
over Ingliss solution [7]. First, the solution applies directly to cracks, not to an ellipse that
approaches to crack and second, it is expressed in rectangular coordinates than elliptical coor-
dinates. The solution given by him applies only to equi-biaxial loading of an infinite plate.
Significant development was made in the area of theory of elasticity by Muskhelishvili [6]
who has made a use of conformal mapping and Cauchys integral to solve the boundary value
problem of finite and infinite media. Based on Muskhelishvilis solution [6], Sokolnikoff [9]
gave the solution of problems of infinite simply and multiply connected domains. Almost in-
dependently of Muskhelishvili [6], Stevenson [10] developed an approach of two-dimensional
isotropic elastic theory using complex variables based on Airys stress function [5] and allied
Chapter 2. Literature Review 9

displacement function. The article was the extension of the complex variable in non-viscous
hydrothermal theory to two dimensional elasticity. Based on Muskhelishvilis solution [6],
Wittrick [11] obtained stresses around reinforced elliptical hole in pressure cabin. He obtained
stress concentration factor around the triangular hole boundary for different corner radii and
straight edges by using conformal mapping under the biaxial tension applied at infinity [12].
The mapping function used by him has only three number of terms hance limited variation of
corner radius.
Lekhnitskii [13, 14] and Savin [15] presented solution for stress distribution around a regular
shaped hole based on Muskhelishvilis approach [6]. Lekhnitskii [13, 14] derived the stress
functions by using series approach. His work has emphasis on stress analysis of anisotropic
plates containing a cut-out under in-plane or bending loading while, Savins work [15] was
more focused to the stress field around simply or multiply connected domain mainly in isotropic
media. Savin [15] used the generalized mapping function to map an arbitrary shaped hole onto
unit circle. The holes are having rounded corners and slightly curvilinear edges. He repre-
sented solution by using Cauchys integral. Similarly, Theocaris and Petrou [16, 17] obtained
the stresses around the polygonal hole in isotropic plate. The triangular hole and its exterior was
conformally mapped onto the interior of a unit circle by using the Schwartz-Christoffel transfor-
mation [16]. The stress functions were obtained by using Muskhelishvilis approach [6]. A new
method was developed to calculate the order of singularity and the respective stress intensity
factor (SIF) near corners of regular polygonal holes perforated in elastic plates [17].
In order to facilitate the solution of biaxial loading/shear at infinity, Gao [18] introduced the
arbitrary biaxial loading factor . He presented stress as follows:
P
x = 2
[( + 1) + ( 1) cos 2];
P
y = 2
[( + 1) ( 1) cos 2];
P
xy = 2
[( 1) sin 2];
= 0 gives uniaxial loading and = 1 gives biaxial loading. By using various values of and
different loading conditions can be obtained. The boundary conditions of Gaos approach [18]
was adopted by Ukadgaonker and Awasare [1922] to solve the problems of stress distribution
around various shaped hole in isotropic media under in-plane loading. They used superposition
of two stage stress functions to obtain final form of stress function. Initially a plate without hole
is considered under loading at infinity and stress functions are obtained. Then stress functions
are obtained with negative boundary conditions on the fictitious hole. Finally, stress functions of
Chapter 2. Literature Review 10

infinite plate with hole are obtained by adding both stress functions to ensure traction free hole.
Uniaxial, biaxial and shear loading is considered on infinite isotropic plate with circular [19],
elliptical [20], triangular [21] and rectangular hole [22]. Similarly, Simha and Mohapatra [23]
used complex variable method to solve problem of hydrostatic tension, pure shear and uniaxial
load for stress distribution around an irregular hole.
Similar to Ukadgaonker and Awasare [1922], Sharma and Patel [24] presented the general so-
lution for determining stress field around circular and elliptical hole in infinite plate using com-
plex variable method [6]. The stress functions are evaluated by Cauchys Integration method.
Sharma [25] has also presented the solution of stress distribution around polygonal holes. Based
on the generalized formulation, numerical results are presented for triangular, square, pentago-
nal, hexagonal, heptagonal and octagonal cut-outs. The effects of the hole geometry and loading
pattern on the stress concentration factor are studied.
Recently, Rezaeepazhand and Jafari [26] presented solution for stress distribution around polyg-
onal (triangular, square, pentagonal) holes in isotropic media. The varying parameters, such as
cutout shape and bluntness, load direction or cutout orientations, which affect the stress distribu-
tions and stress concentration factor in the metallic plates, are considered. Rezaeepazhand and
Jafari [26], Ukadgaonker and Awasare [1922], Sharma and Patel [24], Sharma [25], etc. gave
solution around regular shaped hole in isotropic media while, the the stress field around com-
plex geometry has also investigated by using Muskhelishvilis approach in Batistas work [27].
Batista [27] used the Schwartz-Christoffel mapping function to calculate the stresses around
complex shapes.

2.2.2 Isotropic Plates under Bending

Goodier [28] gave the solution for circular and elliptical holes in isotropic plates based on thin
plate theory. This was the foremost among the solutions available for bending of plates contain-
ing holes. Moments around the hole are determined for remotely applied cylindrical bending,
all round bending and twisting. The unknown coefficients of bi-harmonic equation used to
calculate deflection are determined from the boundary conditions on the hole as well as at the
edges of the plate. The deformation was taken entirely due to the stress couples. The influence
of strains due to shear stress resultants was disregarded.
Reissner [29], with the aim of not disregarding the transverse shear stresses, developed a new
theory of bending of plates by the application of Castiglianos theorem of least work with La-
Chapter 2. Literature Review 11

grangian multiplier method of calculus of variations. This theory considers three edge boundary
conditions in contrast to the two boundary conditions in case of classical plate theory. This the-
ory has been applied to the torsion problem of rod with rectangular cross section and to the
stress concentration problem of infinite plate with circular hole subjected to plane bending and
pure twisting.
The problems of stress concentration around different shaped holes in thick isotropic plate are
also solved by some researchers like, Naghdi [30], Lee and Conlee [31], Chen and Archer [32],
etc. Naghdi [30] investigated effects of elliptical hole on bending of thick plates. Same way,
Lee and Conlee [31] obtained a closed-form solution for the elastic bending of an infinite plate
with a circular hole. The solution was based on a three-dimensional thick plate. The problem
of twisting was also investigated in their work. Chen and Archer [32] gave the solution of stress
concentration around circular hole in thick plate using twelfth order theory of bending.
In addition to solution of stress field in isotropic media under in-plane loading, Lekhnitskii
[13, 14] and Savin [15] also studied the moment distribution around regular holes. Similar
to previous case, Lekhnitskii [13, 14] derived the stress function using series approach while
Savin [15] has used Schwartz integral. Recently, the generalized solution for moment dis-
tribution around various shaped polygonal hole in infinite isotropic media is presented by
Sharma [33] using Muskhelishvilis complex variable approach [6]. The effect of hole geometry
and loading pattern on moment distribution is studied.

2.2.3 Anisotropic Plates subjected to In-Plane Loading

Many researchers contributed in the areas of stress analysis around regular/irregular holes in
isotropic media. Similarly, the problem of stress concentration around a hole in anisotropic
plates have also been solved by many researchers. In addition to solution of isotropic plate with
hole, Lekhnitskii [13, 14] and Savin [15] also presented a generalized solution for stress dis-
tribution in anisotropic plate having simply connected domain using Muskhelishvilis complex
variable approach [6]. Lekhnitskii [13,14] used the series approach and Savin [15] used integro
differential approach, however their results are similar. Savin [15] obtained a generalized map-
ping function based on Schwartz-Christoffel transformation. The stress concentration around
square hole in isotropic and anisotropic plate were addressed in his work. Lekhnitskii [13, 14]
presented a generalized solution of the stress concentration around different shape like circular,
elliptical, oval, rectangular etc. in an isotropic and anisotropic plate subjected to different types
Chapter 2. Literature Review 12

of loadings like in-plane and bending.

Similar to Lekhnitskiis solution [13, 14], Stephens [34] gave the solution of stress function in
terms of series up to fifth power. Approximate formulae were given for the stresses on and
near the boundary of the triangular hole in aelotropic plate, together with numerical solutions
for certain hoop stresses for typical specimens of oak and spruce. Greszczuk [35] extended the
solution of Lekhnitskii [13, 14] and Savin [15] to multilayered orthotropic and anisotropic fiber
reinforced composite plates having circular opening. The unidirectional laminates, unidirec-
tional laminates with oriented fibers, multilayered laminates and bidirectional balanced lami-
nates of boron/epoxy and glass/epoxy were considered for the study. The failure strengths were
obtained using Hencky-von Mises distortion energy theory. Similarly, Jong [36] presented the
stress distribution around circular, elliptical, square and rectangular hole by using Lekhnitskiis
approach [13, 14]. The boundary conditions were presented by Lekhnitskiis [13, 14] approach
and stress functions were calculated by using Savins approach [15].
Hayashi [37] analyzed stress in an infinite plate with an arbitrary shape of hole subjected to
uniaxial loading. The stress functions were calculated by using series approach. The mapping
function for the square hole was obtained by iterative correction of coefficients. The new map-
ping function was also suggested by Daoust and Hoa [38], in which the ratio of base length to
hight of triangular hole can be controlled by introducing the factor related to ratio and small
parameter into mapping function. The results for only single lamina having triangular hole with
different degree of bluntness under in-plane loading were presented.
Some of the researchers have also solved the problems of stress analysis of finite plates contain-
ing a cut-out. Hufenbach et al. [39] considered the finite plate uniaxially reinforced composites
with high-modulus fibres. The stress functions for a plate with an elliptical hole were ob-
tained by using series method. The calculation was based on conformal mappings combined
with complex stress functions. The outer boundary was described using point-matching and
the least-squares method. In another study, Hufenbach and Kroll [40] considered an arbitrary
shape of hole with arbitrary oriented fibers in orthotropic plates. Same way, in case of infi-
nite and finite width plates, Puppo and Evensen [41] obtained interlaminar shear stresses for
laminate under plane stress conditions. Interlaminar stresses were also obtained by Pipes and
Pagano [42] in which the effect of stacking sequence on laminate strength was addressed. The
response of finite-width composite laminate under uniform axial strain was treated through the
application of classical elasticity theory. A new theory was also proposed to define the com-
Chapter 2. Literature Review 13

plete stress field within an arbitrary composite laminate in Paganos work [43]. It was based on
extension of Reissners variational principle to laminated bodies. In addition to these, the trans-
verse shear stresses around through thickness part through elliptical hole [44] and interlaminar
shear stresses around the circular hole [45] in an edge loaded laminated composite plate were
also obtained using equilibrium/compatibility method by Chaudhuri [44] and, Chaudhuri and
Seide [45].
Based on the Lekhnitskiis solution [13], Lin and Ko [46] presented an approximate solution
for the three dimensional stress distribution around a circular hole in symmetric laminates.
Romeo [47] did analytical as well as an experimental work on the behavior of laminated panels
with rectangular openings.
Muskhelishvilis approach [6] was a very handy tool to study 2D theory of elasticity prob-
lems. Using his complex variable approach, Ukadgaonker and Rao [48, 49], Ukadgaonker and
Kakhandki [50, 51], presented solution for a stress field around holes of irregular/regular geom-
etry in infinite orthotropic [50] and composite plates [48,49,51]. Some of the typical cases were
also solved, using finite element method. They were found to be within good accuracy when
compared with analytical results [50]. The results were also presented for stresses in composite
plate with cusps [51]. Ukadgaonker and Rao [48, 49], Ukadgaonker and Kakhandki [50, 51],
Simha and Mohapatra [23] etc. adopted generalized conformal mapping in their solution. The
conformal mapping produce complex boundary condition, but is widely used because simpler
shapes it produce. The mapping function adopted by [23, 4851] is mentioned bellow:
m1 m9
z = m() = R( +
+ ........... + 9
)
By using this mapping function, Ukadgaonker and Rao [48, 49] presented general solution for
arbitrary shaped hole in symmetric laminate subjected to in-plane loading. A general solution
for arbitrarily oriented uniaxial, biaxial and shear load at infinity was given along with uniform
tangential and pressure load on hole boundary. Failure strength was calculated with help of dif-
ferent failure criteria for laminate and effect of parameters like hole geometry, type of loading
and laminate geometry were discussed [48]. The effects of corner radii in case of triangular
hole in anisotropic plates subjected to various in-plane loadings were addressed [49].
The effects of cutout shape, bluntness, and material properties on the location and the value of
the maximum stress in plates were also addressed by Rezaeepazhand and Jafari [5254]. The
results of stress concentration at the edge of a non-circular shaped cutout were given using an
analytical method for isotropic and composite perforated plates. The stresses were obtained by
Chapter 2. Literature Review 14

using Lekhnitskiis solution [13]. This study investigated problems associated with the maxi-
mum stresses in perforated composite plates with cutouts. Similarly, Lekhnitskiis solution [13]
was applied in more practical context to the problem of a flat plate containing an irregularity
with arbitrary force or displacement boundary conditions by Koussios and Beukers [55,56], and
Koussios [57]. A thin infinite anisotropic plate having circular hole subjected to arbitrary force
was considered in their study. The analytical solutions provided here was evaluated as a func-
tion of the external boundary loads and the coefficients in the Fourier series, which represent
the boundary conditions at the edge of the irregularity.
Sharma and Patel [24, 58], Sharma [59, 60] and Sharma et al. [6163] obtained general stress
functions for determining the stress concentration around circular [24, 5961, 63], elliptical
[24, 5860], triangular [59, 60, 62] and square [24] cutouts in isotropic as well as laminated
infinite composite plate subjected to arbitrary biaxial loading at infinity. The effect of fiber ori-
entation, stacking sequence, loading factor, loading angle, bluntness, and cutout geometry on
stress concentration around a cutout in orthotropic/anisotropic plates was studied. A general
solution for the stresses around internally pressurized circular hole in symmetric laminates was
also presented [63].

2.2.4 Anisotropic Plates subjected to Bending

Ukadgaonker and Rao [64] found a general solution for bending of symmetric laminates with
holes based on the formulations of Lekhnitskii [13, 14] and Savin [15] that considers some
shape of hole in symmetric laminates subjected to remotely applied bending or twisting mo-
ments. Moments around circular, elliptical, triangular, square, rectangular and several irregular
shaped holes in cross ply and angle ply symmetric laminates were obtained. They studied the
effects of the parameters like, hole geometry, loading, Youngs moduli, Poissons ratios of the
materials and flexural moduli of the laminates on the moment distribution around holes.
The effects of these parameters were also studied on the 16 layered cross ply angle ply lam-
inates of graphite/epoxy, glass/epoxy and boron/epoxy with circular, elliptical and triangular
shaped hole, considering the cylindrical bending, equi-biaxial bending and twisting moments
by Sharma and Patel [65].
Hsieh and Hwu [66] developed a Stroh like formalism for the bending theory of anisotropic
plates. By this formalism, most of the relations for bending problems can be organized into the
forms for two-dimensional problems. Thus, by using the formalism, the analytical solutions
Chapter 2. Literature Review 15

for problems of anisotropic plates with holes/cracks/inclusions subjected to out-of-plane bend-

ing moments can be obtained directly from the solutions of the corresponding two-dimensional
problems.
Prasad and Shuart [67] provided closed-form solution for the moment distribution of an infi-
nite anisotropic plate and this solution is used to determine stress distributions both on the hole
boundary and throughout the plate. Results were presented for several composite laminates that
have holes and are subjected to either pure bending or cylindrical bending.
The coupling phenomenon of extension and shearing deformation is also studied by some of
the researchers. This coupling phenomenon between in-plane stretching and transverse bend-
ing which does not occur in the theory of homogeneous plates was discussed by Reissner and
Stavsky [68]. The coupling was also expressed by using Fourier series method by Whitney and
Leissa [69, 70] in case of simply supported laminates. Becker [7174] extended the Muskhel-
ishvilis complex variable approach [6] and presented four complex potential for unsymmetric
anisotropic plates. The possible effect of bending extension coupling was included in his work.
He presented examples of straight crack of finite length in an extended plate under remote in-
plane and bending forces and simple finite straight crack through unsymmetric laminate plate.
He obtained the analytic solution for the case of homogeneous in-plane and bending loading of
the unsymmetric laminate. The derived solution describes all essential plate quantities in any
vicinity of the elliptical hole and it revels interesting features of the considered bending exten-
sion coupling.
Ukadgaonker and Rao [75] extended the Beckers solution [71] to determine the stress resul-
tants and moments around holes of any shape with a simple mapping function under arbitrary
biaxial loading condition using Muskhelishvilis complex variable approach [6]. The effect of
hole geometry, loading condition and laminate geometry on the stress resultant and moment
distribution around different holes was addressed.
Lekhnitskii [13,14] and Savin [15] obtained the analytic solution for an infinite anisotropic plate
under uniform loading. These solutions were widely used in the stress and deformation analy-
sis of symmetric composite laminate containing holes and cracks. The classical Lekhnitskiis
complex potential approach [13, 14] was extended to the unsymmetric laminates in Chen and
Shen [7679]. They analyzed stress resultant and moment around holes of infinite unsymmetric
composite laminates under remote uniform loading. They extended the work of Ukadgaonker
and Rao [75]. The effect of bending extension coupling has been discussed for several lami-
Chapter 2. Literature Review 16

nates.
Patel [80] obtained a general solution for in-plane and bending of laminates containing regu-
lar/irregular hole using Muskhelishvilis stress function [6]. The effect of hole geometry, load-
ing condition, fiber orientation, stacking sequence, material parameters on stress concentration
is studied through numerical results obtained for materials like graphite/epoxy, boron/epoxy,
glass/epoxy and graphite/BMI. The generalized solution for unsymmetrical plate subjected to
loading at infinity is presented. The stress concentration around circular and elliptic holes in
unsymmetric laminates under various loading condition is reported. In recent past, Muskhel-
ishvilis complex variable approach [6] is also applied by Sharma and Dave [81] to the prob-
lems of finding stresses and stress intensity factors around hypocycloidal hole in isotropic and
anisotropic media. The effect of stacking sequence, loading angle and material properties on
stress intensity factors is presented for symmetric laminated plate having hole with cusps.
Recently, the problem of stress analysis of plate under different loading conditions is also solved
by finite element analysis by various researchers like, Louhghalam et. al. [82], Martin et.
al. [83], Darwish et. al. [84, 85], Talib et. al. [86], Kumar and Singh [87], Ramji and Srilak-
shmi [88], Ramji et. al. [89], Kashfuddoja and Ramji [90], Ubaid et. al. [91], etc. Louhghalam
et. al. [82] presented the process of coupling between complex variable conformal mapping
approach with finite element analysis to analyze the corner stresses around rectangular opening
considering bending loading. Martin et. al. [83] analyzed the strength of an open hole com-
posite plate subjected tensile load with the help of stress distribution and the energy released
by crack nucleation in the vicinity of the hole. His solution [83] was for composite plate with
hole while, in case of isotropic plate having countersunk hole, Darwish et. al. [84] presented the
stresses by using finite element analysis. Darwish et. al. [85] extended his solution of isotropic
plate [84] to orthotropic plate. The effect of several geometric and material parameters such
as plate thickness, straight-shank radius, countersunk angle, countersunk depth, plate width,
and the laminate ply angles on the SCF was also investigated. Similarly, the effect of cutout
hole on multi layer of Kevlar-29/epoxy composite laminated plates was presented by Talib et.
al. [86]. An experimental procedure was developed to study the performance of these effects
under quasi-static compressive and tensile load using a servo-hydraulic testing machine. Ku-
mar and Singh [87] investigated the effects of flexural boundary conditions on prebuckling and
postbuckling responses, failure loads and characteristics of a quasi-isotropic laminate using fi-
nite element analysis. Stress analysis was also carried out in case of transversely isotropic and
Chapter 2. Literature Review 17

orthotropic plates weakened by multiple defects by Faal et. al. [9294]. Ramji and Srilak-
shmi [88], Ramji et. al. [89], Kashfuddoja and Ramji [90] and Ubaid et. al. [91] used 3-D finite
element analysis to study the performance of single and double sided patch on center-cracked
aluminum panel [88], to get an optimum composite patch shape [89], to investigate the influence
of various patch shapes on repair efficiency [90] and to predict failure and post failure behavior
of fiber reinforced composite materials [91].

2.3 Optimization of Composite Plate

The general form of mathematical optimization consist of the objective function and constraints.
The objective function measures the goodness and is generally archived by considering some
of the limits. Such limits are called as constraints. An optimization problem has design vari-
ables, which are the parameters that can be controlled during the design process. There are
a number of optimization methods available for the solution of mathematical problems. The
classical or traditional methods like calculus methods, nonlinear programming, geometric pro-
gramming, quadratic programming, linear programming, dynamic programming, integer pro-
gramming, game theory, etc. are widely used in past decades. Some modern techniques are also
introduced in recent years like genetic algorithm, simulated annealing, ant colony optimization,
neural network, fuzzy optimization, particle swarm optimization, teaching learning based opti-
mization, etc. In case of composite laminates, several properties are required to satisfy certain
conditions. Thus, the design of composite laminate may be formulated as an optimization prob-
lem.
Among all optimization algorithms, genetic algorithm is one of the advance optimization tech-
nique which is widely applied to optimize composite plates. It was introduced by John Hol-
land [95] in early 1970. The first application of the genetic algorithm was presented by Gold-
berge [96,97]. Genetic algorithms are different from the normal optimization and search proce-
dures in four ways [96, 97]: a. GA works with a coding of the parameter set, not the parameter
themselves. b. GA searches from the population of points, not a single point. c. GA uses
objective function information, not the derivatives. d. GA use probabilistic rules, not the deter-
ministic rules.
Applications of the genetic algorithm to the design of composite materials are recent. Callahan
and Weeks [98], Le and Haftka [99], Nagendra et al. [100] and Ball et al. [101] are the first
Chapter 2. Literature Review 18

few researchers who have adopted and used the genetic algorithm for the optimization of the
stacking sequence in the laminated composite plate.
Genetic algorithm is used in many application like sensor based robot planning, image process-
ing, gaming, real time system, job shop scheduling, structural optimization, etc. [102]. Ball et
al. et al. [101] compared the genetic algorithm with a random/greedy search algorithms and
observed that GA produced better solutions then the greedy searches. Sivakumar et al. [103]
concluded that GA was the best tool to optimize composite laminates. Same way, Venketaraman
and Hafta [104] also concluded that GA has been most popular method for optimizing the stack-
ing sequence. Ghiasi et al. [105] studied the various optimization techniques for the constant
stiffness design. The limitation of various techniques and investigation areas were highlighted.
They concluded that genetic algorithm has been the most popular methods followed by simu-
lated annealing.
Awad et al. [106] reviewed the various optimization methods used in the design of fiber com-
posite structures for civil engineering applications. The GA is a global optimization method,
and it could work in a wide range of problems. GA is very slow and cannot always find the exact
solution, but it can find the best solution among populations [106]. GA was also compared with
simulated annealing by Ghiasi et al. [105] and Ball et al. [101]. The simulated annealing is a
good choice for the general case of optimal lay-up selection; however it cannot be programmed
to take the advantage of the particular properties of a given problem while GA is more flexible
in this respect although it is often computationally more time consuming [101, 105].
Genetic algorithm is also combined with various methods to calculate objective function values.
It is combined with finite element analysis to calculate the failure strength which is objective
function in work of Park et al. [107]. Park et al. [107] obtained the best stacking sequence of
the composite laminates for the maximum strength. The Tsai-Hill failure criteria is considered
as the fitness function and the ply orientations are taken as the design variables. In genetic al-
gorithm the tournament selection method and uniform crossover method were used. The elitist
model is used for an effective evolution strategy and creeping random search method was also
adopted.
Le and Haftka [99] optimized the stacking sequence of graphite/epoxy plate for buckling load
maximization. Various genetic parameters including the population size, the probability of
mutation, and the probability of crossover were optimized by numerical experiments. A new
genetic operator-permutation was proposed and shown to be effective in reducing the cost of
Chapter 2. Literature Review 19

the genetic search. Kim et al. [108] used the quadratic failure criterion as an objective function
for optimal stacking sequence design of laminated plate. He also used the Tsai-Wu criteria as
an objective function to optimize the stacking sequence.
Soremekun [109] presented the generalized elitist selection (GES) for the optimization of com-
posite laminate by genetic algorithm. It was shown that GES procedures were superior to an
SI (single individual) procedure for two types of problems. The first type involves many global
optima, and the GES procedure can find several global optima more efficiently than the SI pro-
cedure. The second type of problem involves an isolated optimum surrounded by many designs
with performance that is very close to optimal. It was shown that GES procedures can find the
optimum and near optimal designs much more easily and reliably than the SI procedure.
Lin and Lee [110] replaced the local search by the regression model. Accordingly, the ge-
netic algorithm converges much sooner than a standard GA and the calculation time is greatly
reduced. Todoroki et al. [111] highlighted the application of genetic algorithms to stiffness op-
timization of laminated composite plates with stress concentrated open holes. The author has
proposed a successful object oriented expert system to design laminated composites.
According to Goldberge [96, 97], the simple genetic algorithm that yield good results in many
practical problems is composed of three operators: reproduction, crossover and mutation. Re-
production is the process in which individual string are copied according to their objective
function values. This process is also called the selection. Selection is an essential component of
evolutionary algorithm, plying the important role to solve the hard optimization problems. The
various selection methods like proportional selection, ranking selection, linear ranking, tourna-
ment, genitor selection, simulated annealing and hill climbing were compared by Zhang and
Kim [112]. Experiments were performed in the context of the machine layout design problem.
The experimental results shows that ranking and tournament selection are, in general more ef-
fective in both solution quality and convergence time than the other methods.
Sivraj and Ravinchandran [113] presented a review on selection methods in genetic algorithm.
He concluded that the different selection methods works well under different situation. The se-
lection methods like proportionate selection methods, ranking selection, tournament selection,
range selection, gender specific selection were addressed in their work. The importance of each
methods in particular situation is highlighted.
The genetic algorithm is combined with various methods like finite element analysis [99, 103,
107, 114121], failure criteria [122124], bending stiffness [109], first-order shear deforma-
Chapter 2. Literature Review 20

tion theory [125], Euler formula [126], classical lamination theory [127] and response sur-
face [128, 129] for optimizing weight [103, 114, 117, 120124], strength [107, 125], buck-
ling loads [109, 128], natural frequency and buckling loads [115, 126, 130, 131], shape and
size [116, 119], weight and buckling safety factor [127], wear [129], patch dimension and ad-
hesive thickness [118] and, weight, stiffness and cost [99] of composite materials.

2.4 Gaps Identified in the Literatures

Effects of various parameters like, fiber orientation, ply groups, materials, loading angles,
corner radii, etc. on stresses, moments and failure strengths are not addressed adequately.

Optimization of composite plate with a hole is not addressed yet.

The complex variable approach in conjunction with the genetic algorithm for optimization
is not addressed yet.