Co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding

A covalent bond is formed by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons. The atoms are held
together because the electron pair is attracted by both of the nuclei.
In the formation of a simple covalent bond, each atom supplies one electron to the bond -
but that doesn't have to be the case. A co-ordinate bond (also called a dative covalent
bond) is a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons) in which both electrons come from
the same atom.
For the rest of this page, we shall use the term co-ordinate bond - but if you prefer to call it
a dative covalent bond, that's not a problem!
The reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride
If these colourless gases are allowed to mix, a thick white smoke of solid ammonium
chloride is formed.

Ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the transfer of a hydrogen ion from the hydrogen
chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.

When the ammonium ion, NH4+, is formed, the fourth hydrogen is attached by a dative
covalent bond, because only the hydrogen's nucleus is transferred from the chlorine to the
nitrogen. The hydrogen's electron is left behind on the chlorine to form a negative chloride
ion.
Once the ammonium ion has been formed it is impossible to tell any difference between
the dative covalent and the ordinary covalent bonds. Although the electrons are shown
differently in the diagram, there is no difference between them in reality.
Representing co-ordinate bonds
In simple diagrams, a co-ordinate bond is shown by an arrow. The arrow points from the
atom donating the lone pair to the atom accepting it.
COVALENT BONDING

This occurs in non metals, where an electron pair occupies the space between the two
atoms.
The negatively charged ions are attracted to the positive charges of both nuclei
This attraction overcomes the repulsion between the too positively charged nuclei

Very simple covalent molecules

Chlorine
For example, two chlorine atoms could both achieve stable structures by sharing their
single unpaired electron as in the diagram.

The fact that one chlorine has been drawn with electrons marked as crosses and the other
as dots is simply to show where all the electrons come from. In reality there is no difference
between them.
The two chlorine atoms are said to be joined by a covalent bond. The reason that the two
chlorine atoms stick together is that the shared pair of electrons is attracted to the nucleus
of both chlorine atoms.
Hydrogen

Hydrogen atoms only need two electrons in their outer level to reach the noble gas
structure of helium. Once again, the covalent bond holds the two atoms together because
the pair of electrons is attracted to both nuclei.
Hydrogen chloride

The hydrogen has a helium structure, and the chlorine an argon structure.
 Shapes of molecules and electrons
The electron pair repulsion theory
The shape of a molecule or ion is governed by the arrangement of the electron pairs
around the central atom. All you need to do is to work out how many electron pairs there
are at the bonding level, and then arrange them to produce the minimum amount of
repulsion between them. You have to include both bonding pairs and lone pairs.
HOW TO WORK OUT THE SHAPE!

First you need to work out how many electrons there are around the central atom:

Write down the number of electrons in the outer level of the central atom. That will be the same as
the Periodic Table group number, except in the case of the noble gases which form compounds, when it will
be 8.

Add one electron for each bond being formed. (This allows for the electrons coming from the other
atoms.)

Allow for any ion charge. For example, if the ion has a 1- charge, add one more electron. For a 1+
charge, deduct an electron.

Now work out how many bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons there are:

Divide by 2 to find the total number of electron pairs around the central atom.

Work out how many of these are bonding pairs, and how many are lone pairs. You know how many
bonding pairs there are because you know how many other atoms are joined to the central atom (assuming
that only single bonds are formed).

For example, if you have 4 pairs of electrons but only 3 bonds, there must be 1 lone pair as well as the
3 bonding pairs.

Finally, you have to use this information to work out the shape:

Arrange these electron pairs in space to minimise repulsions. How this is done will become clear in the
examples which follow.

Two electron pairs around the central atom

The only simple case of this is beryllium chloride, BeCl 2. The electronegativity difference
between beryllium and chlorine isn't enough to allow the formation of ions.
Beryllium has 2 outer electrons because it is in group 2. It forms bonds to two chlorines,
each of which adds another electron to the outer level of the beryllium. There is no ionic
charge to worry about, so there are 4 electrons altogether - 2 pairs.
It is forming 2 bonds so there are no lone pairs. The two bonding pairs arrange themselves
at 180 to each other, because that's as far apart as they can get. The molecule is
described as being linear.

REMBER
Greatest repulsion lone pair - lone pair
lone pair - bond pair
Least repulsion bond pair - bond pair