Introduction
Green Revolution has been the result of one of the two major
theoretical approaches to solve the problem of food security. Of the two,
one has been the Marxian mode of production approach and the other being
the neo-classical production function approach. In general, radical political
economics rests on the belief that a social order characterised by an unequal
distribution of power and assets will influence institutional arrangements
which in turn the production capacity of the individual farmer. The Marxian
mode of production approach has been centred on redistribution, abolition
of intermediaries and tenancy and the creation of entitlements through land
reforms.
I Of the various forms of technology, namely, biological or genetic, mechanical, chemical and
managerial, the Classical economists made recurring references to mechanisation in agriculture, later,
biological lechnology has been generally regarded to be the key form of technology for agriculture.
78
19851. For the farmer the main entitlement is his ownership of the land he
cultivates.
The orientation for land reform had been in the First Five Year Plan
and it has been held that the pattern of economic and social organisation
would depend upon the manner in which the land problem is solved
[Planning Commission, 19531. This orientation is typical to the mode of
production approach.
2
Of them, 'land to the t~ller'model was the reform model explicated by the theoreticians in Indian
National Congress and the Commun~stParty in Kerala.
3
During the 1960s and 70s. a theoretical and empirical debate emerged with regard to questions of
political economy, mostly in the journals Economic and Political Weekly, Frontier, and Social Scientisr.
Agrarian Relations and Accumulation The Mode of Production Debate in India Utsa Patnaik's[l990]
encapsulates the main trends in the early discussions.
As per the neo-classical production function approach to growth and
development, output is a function of inputs. More output can be produced
by increasing the quantity of inputs or changing the mixture of inputs.
Green Revolution belongs to the second type of approach. Its emphasis has
been on increasing production and productivity and believed in the 'trickle
down' effect of growth.
-
lnternatlonal Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Mexico was set up in 1956 on the
basis of the Rockefeller Foundation and Mexican Government programme and the International Rice
Research lnst~tute(IRRI), Manila, Philippines was established in 1960 by the Rockefeller and Ford
Foundation
Background of the Indian Green Revolution and the Transitional
Phase
to the end of the colonial era, another great Bengal famine occurred during 1942-43, when about 3
ortor
~
82
transition was in the concept of village self-sufficiency, which had taken
deep roots in rural India from near about the sixth or the seventh century
A. D. and the concept disappeared completely during the British period
[Menon, 1985:l I].
However, the success of IADP, the Grow More Food campaign and
the First Five Year Plan in the agricultural sector produced a feeling of
pride and indifference regarding agricultural development. Along with the
agricultural success in the First Plan came the offer of supply of agricultural
surpluses from the piled up stocks on highly concessional terms from the
US government. With the beginning of the Second Plan, agriculture was
relegated to second place in the order of plan priorities.
Neglect of the agricultural sector during the Second Plan, the short
war with China in 1962 and the widespread drought in the east India
culminated in a food crisis. In 1965-66, food grain production in the country
fell from 89 million tonnes in the preceding year to 72 million tonnes.
La1 Bahadur Shastri became the then Prime Minister, assisted in the
Food portfolio by C Subramaniam decided to put agriculture at the centre of
the stage in government policy -making and planning and implement of the
Green Revolution strategy. Agricultural research has been considered
central to the new strategy.
The above orientation in research did not last long. The commercial
and trading interests of colonial powers crept in very soon. The Central
Cotton Committee was created in 1921 to increase the production of cotton-
a major interest of British industry. It sponsored research and development
in concerned provinces through respective departments of agriculture and
their experimental farms. The Royal Commission of Agriculture (1928)
which got impressed by this initiative recommended the creation of the
Imperial (later Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for co-
ordination of agricultural research in the country. Relating to commercial
crops commodity-wise committees were formed for jute, oilseeds, spices,
cashew, etc., following the cotton pathway.
Today the nalronal agricultural research network consists of 97 ICAR units, 31 SAUs, 98 AICRPs, and
313 research stations, 120 zonal research stations and 200 sub-stations. The nineties saw the beginnings
of significant private investments in this field, a trend that is accelerating now. The research community
IS quite confident that agricultural sciences can contribute significantly to resolving the current and
emerging challenges on product~on,environment, trade and rural development.
to the westwards for ideas, methods and materials to enhance production
and tried to refine or adapt them.
-
The subsequent revolutions in oilseeds (Yellow Revolution), milk (White Revolution) and fish (Blue
Revolution) further consolidated the gains and contributed to the phenomenal increase in overall
agricultural, lish and milk production[R S Paroda, 1999:63].
The 'miracle seeds' were seen as a source of new abundance and
peace. The new seeds were said to be the best hope -the only hope- of
winning the race between population and food, a race that is becoming
increasingly more critical with every passing year [Sen, 1975:7]. Science
was honoured for having shown a magical ability to solve problems of
material scarcity and violenceg.
Borlang, the hero behind the 'miracle seeds' was given Nobel Prize for Peace
90
Table: 4.1: An overall view of trends in Agricultural Inputs-India for the
period from 19504 1 to 1992-93
Electrical imgation
pumpsets in lakh nos.
Diesel irrigation
0.83
pumpsets in lakh nos. (73)
Power consumption in 833 4470 14481 49469
203
million kw (310) (437) (224) (242)
Tractors in lakh nos. 0.3 1 1.4 5.2 14.68
0.09
(244) (352) (271) (182)
Source: CMIE (1994) based on table 6.1 in basic statistics relating to the Indian economy.
Note: Figures in parenthesis show percentage change (decadal)
The percentage decadal increase was very significant in the use of all
the new inputs, especially during the first decade of the Green Revolution,
namely 1960-61 to 1970-71lo. There was 665 per cent increase in the use of
fertiliser for the ten year period. During the corresponding period the per
hectare consumption of fertiliser was 609 per cent. Similarly there was
increase in the number of electrical irrigation pump sets (913 per cent),
diesel irrigation pump sets (578 per cent), power consumption (437 per
cent) and in the number of tractors (352 per cent).
10
Though Green Kevolution in the stnct sense had begun only by the mid -60s, the Community
Development Programmes had already ~nitiatedchanges in the input mix like, improved varieties,
increased application of fertiliscrs elc., in the early 60s. Therefore we take the figures in the early 60s to
represent the pre-green revolution situation in India.
When viewed on a local scale rather than through aggregate national
statistics, a more complex picture of the nature and impact of Green
Revolution emerges [Goldman and Smith, 1995:243]. Therefore a state or
region wise reference is attempted.
States and regions vary with regard to the nature and extend of the
Green Revolution package. It depended on factors like the size of
operational holdings, the availability of water, innovative nature of farmers,
policy of the government etc. Punjab was one of the main Green Revolution
areas in India. Between 1964-85, the period of the Green Revolution in
Punjab [Goldman and Smith, 1995:244], wheat output rose more than
fourfold from 2.44 million metric tonnes to 10.2 million tonnes [Bhalla et a1
19901.
It is argued that part of the above trend was the result of the increase
of wheat yields, which grew 120 per cent during 1965-78 [ ~ e a f " ,19871,
and the remainder to increases in planted wheat area. Rice production in
Punjab increased more than ten fold, from 0.5 million tonnes in 1969 to 5.1
million tonnes in 1984-85 [Bhalla, et al., 19901. In consequence, by 1985,
per capita income in Punjab was 50 per cent higher than the national
average [Chopra 19861.
" Murray Leaf, an anthropologist, made a valuable examination o f the effect o f Green Revolution
through a series o f studies in a Punjab village. He first worked in the village in 1965, just before the
introduction o f the HYVs and then returned to conduct a second study in 1978[Leaf, 19871.
a catalytic role in many of the changes. Along with HYVs, irrigation,
fertilizer use, crop patterns, livestock, and mechanization all changed in
type and intensity, most innovations reinforcing and stimulating others.
Year
): : :(I I Index no.
of area ( Production
(IaLh M.T) I I
Index no. of Yield
I
Index no.
production (Kg.Ma.1 of yield 1
Over the phase there was an increase in area by about 11 per cent
while production has increased by about 34 per cent and yield per hectare
increased by about 12 per cent as seen in table 4.3.
Table No. 4.4: Trends in Production and,Yield of Paddy in Kerala for the
period from 1975-76 to 1989-90
Source: G.O.K. Dept. of Eco. And Statistics, (1989) Kerala Economy 1960-61 tog1987-88,
Trivandmm.P.6
Table 4.6: Fertiliser consumption, Rice Productivity and their Indices (1971
to 1987-88)
Index of
Fertiliser
fertiliser Yield of rice Index of
consumption
(per ha in kg)
consumption (kdha) yield
(197 1 base)
100 1544 100
170 1587 103
1987-88 62 310 1709 11 1
Source: Est~matedfrom table 4.4 and 4.5
The alarming increase in the consumption of fertilisers is indicative
of the increased dependence of agriculture in Kerala on chemical inputs.
From the data shown in table 4.7, there is an increase in the total
consumption of fertilisers for all crops from 56657 tomes in 1970-71 to
267606 in 1991-92, showing an increase by 372 per cent. This is also an
indication of the increased dependence of agriculture on external inputs.
I ! !
Year Nitrogen Nutrients Potash
Phosphorous (P~02) (K2o)
Total
Index of total
consumption
(base 1970-71)
The high cost of external inputs together with a low farm price of
rice made rice cultivation uneconomic in Kerala. As a result, paddy
cultivation has been shrinking into a high- cost, low productivity regime in
the state. It has raised so many issues on the relevance of the new
technology and the search for different strategies which are cost effective as
well as eco-friendly, sustainable agriculture. The search for sustainable
agriculture has arisen from the growing multi-dimensional criticisms
levelled against Green Revolution [Shephered, 19981.
To sum up, the Green Revolution experience in India and Kerala has
been one of declining area and production, increasing cost of cultivation
and growing dependence of off-farm inputs especially chemicals. Though
the use of chemical fertilisers has increased at an alarming rate the growth
in the yield per hectare remained insignificant. Increased use of chemical
fertilisers brought along with it the worsening of environment especially in
areas of mono cropping like Kuttanad. The next chapter attempts to discuss
the experience of paddy cultivation during the traditional and Green
Revolution phases in Kuttanad.