1

INTRODUCTION Part 1
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Sachham bhaa Godvari puvvasamudda sahisanti

Slhaakulasarisam jai t kul kulam aththi?

[O river Godavari, you flow towards the Eastern ocean. Tell me, where have you seen a

dynasty which is greater (in fame) than the Satavahanas?]

An anonymous poet describes the glory of the Satavahana dynasty in these words 1. Its

period of flourishing has been variously periodized as between c. 2nd century B.C. to 2nd

century A.D. This period has been of a considerable significance in the history of

ancient India. For, this was the aftermath of the great Mauryan Empire and involved the

upsurge of numerous dynasties, tribal republics and city-states, many of which shed their

mythical and semi-historical character of the pre-Mauryan times, and emerged as

historical entities, substantiated by solid material evidence.2 This is the core aspect of the

political significance of the period. Socially and economically also, the period offers

interesting facets for its study. These centuries witnessed a tremendous growth in

urbanization all over India. The peninsular part of the country, of which the

geographically designated region of Deccan has covered a large portion, was no

exception to this phenomenon. The political stability afforded by the Mauryas through

creation of instruments for regional governance with titular nature, provided the basis for

urbanization. The Satavahanas gave the same kind of political stability to the Deccan,

albeit after a short interval of relative instability in the immediate post-Mauryan period.

Moreover, the discovery of Monsoon winds at the beginning of the first millenium of the

Christian era paved the way for opening of the Western market for India. This trade-

1
S. B. Deo has reported the origin of this often-quoted Gatha as verse 6244 of a Jaina text named
Brhatkalpasutra-Bhasya. See Deo, S. B. Jaina Data on Satavahanas, The Andhra Pradesh Journal of
Archaeology (ed. N. R. V. Prasad), vol. 3, no. 2 (Satavahana Special), 1995, pp. 77-82.
2
Archaeologically, the period has been designated as the Early Historical Period.
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onset radically changed the urban picture in the Deccan. Many urban centers emerged,

especially between c.100 B.C. 100 A.D. Art and architecture thrived along the trade

routes and in vicinity of the newly urbane areas. Most of the famed cave-temples of

Deccan trace their period of initiation into this epoch. Their placement along or near the

trade routes delineates the important link between trade and monastic developments of

the times. They undoubtedly came up as social centers for advertisements and publicity,

as indicated by the numerous inscriptions of votive nature, many of which are clear

ramifications of political aspirations and achievements. The Satavahanas headed the

political structure in the Deccan at the turn of such important events. Needless to say, the

study of their history has an important scope among the Ancient Indian historical

studies.

Historiographical details:

The earliest historiographical reference to the Satavahanas can be traced back to the

formative period of indological studies, in the first quarter of the 19th century, when Col.

Sykes published the inscriptions at the Nanaghat caves, in the 4th volume of the Journal

of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1837. The initial thrust on Satavahana studies seems to

have been confined to the epigraphical aspects. The early English Indologists visited

many Satavahana-related archaeological sites and documented and published several

inscriptions. However, much of their work was limited to publishing the facsimiles of

these epigraphs, without the detailed discussions, which should have followed them. The

early native Indologists did such research in later years. They included Pt. Bhagvanlal

Indraji and Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar. As far as other material evidence for the period is

concerned, Bhagwanlal Indraji takes the credit to have formed the first well-represented

collection of the Satavahana and related coins. This historiographically important

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collection now rests in the coin cabinets of the British Museum. Oliver Codrington was

the first to describe the coins of the Satavahana era, in a paper entitled Coins of the

Andhrabhritya Kings of Southern India, which appeared in the Journal of the Bombay

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1877, and dealt with the Kura coins found in the

Brahmapuri hoards. The first elaborate treatment given exclusively to Satavahana coins

was by Thomas Edwards, who published an article entitled Andhra Coins, in vol. 9 of

the Indian Antiquary in 1880. The other important collection that was formed almost

coinstantaneously with Indraji was that of Sir Walter Elliot, a civilian in the Madras

Government. Published separately as Coins of Southern India (1886), it included

many Satavahana coins, attributed to Gautamiputra Yajna Satakani, Chandra Satakani,

and Rudra Satakani, chiefly from the constituent provinces of the Madras presidency,

such as the present-day districts of Godavari, Krishna and Nellore of Andhra Pradesh.

Hoernle published a description of 183 coins from the Chanda hoard in 1893 in the

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The first effort to treat the coinage

historically was made by V. A. Smith in 1902-03, when he contributed an article on

Andhra History and Coinage in the German journal Zeitschrift der Deutschen

Morganlandischen Gesselschaft. The earliest cataloguing of Satavahana coins in a

museum collection can be dated to 1906, when Smith described some Satavahana coins

in volume 1 of his Catalogue of the Coins in Indian Museum, Calcutta. Then in 1908

came the Magnum Opus by Edward James Rapson, titled A catalogue of the Indian

Coins in the British Museum, coins of the Andhra Dynasty, The Western Kshatrapas, etc.

In India the work akin to such catalogues was undertaken by M. Rama Rao, who

published Select Satavahana coins in the Government Museum, Madras (1959), and

Satavahana Coins in the Andhra Pradesh Government Museum, Hyderabad (1961). But
 5

both these works lacked the detailed treatment given to historical aspects of Satavahana

numismatics by Rapson. They were essentially descriptions of coins in the respective

museum collections. Besides such works occasional finds of certain hoards found

mention in the early volumes of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society and the

Numismatic Supplement associated with it.

Contemporary studies:

Since 1908, eminent scholars such as A. S. Altekar, K. D. Bajpai, S. B. Deo, P. L.

Gupta, S. L. Katare, V. V. Mirashi, D. C. Sircar, B. N. Mukherjee and A. M. Shastri

have discussed the Satavahana and related coinages in great details. Recent researches

include contributions by S. Gokhale, Chandrashekhar Gupta, I.K. Sarma, P. R. K.

Prasad., H. R. Raghunatha Bhatt, D. Raja Reddy, P. V. Parabrahma Sastry, P.

Suryanarayana Reddy and A. V. Narasimha Murthy. The articles of pure numismatic

nature have been published in journals such as Journal of the Numismatic Society of

India (Varanasi), Numismatic Supplement to the Journal of the Asiatic Society Of Bengal

(Calcutta), Numismatic Digest (Bombay, and later Nasik), Numismatic Chronicle

(London), Indian Numismatic Chronicle (Patna), Journal of the Bombay Branch of the

Royal Asiatic Society (Bombay), Journal of the Academy of Indian Numismatics and

Sigillography (Indore), Numismatic Studies (Delhi), Oriental Numismatic Studies

(Delhi) and Studies in South Indian Coins (Madras/Chennai). Recent numismatic

monographs on the subject include Coinage of the Satavahana Empire by I. K. Sarma

(1980), A study of the Satavahana coinage by Mala Dutta (1990). D. Raja Reddy and

P. Suryanarayana Reddy published a series of monographs dealing mainly with the other

historical entities of the Satavahana era, including Coins of the Satraps of Satavahana

Era (1983), Coins of the Meghavahana Dynasty of Coastal Andhra (1985) and
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Kotalingala Coinage of the Satavahanas and other Local Rulers: a profile (1987). The

latest contribution towards describing the history of the Satavahanas has come from A.

M. Shastri, titled The Satavahanas and the Western Kshatrapas (1998).

The interest in Satavahana studies in the West received a new boost after the

publications of Michael Mitchiner. His work in nine volumes titled Indo-Greek and

Indo-Scythian coinage (1976) contained a very comprehensive listing of Satavahana

coins, in the ninth volume. The first volume of his subsequent treatise entitled Ancient

and Classical World (1982) included listing of Satavahana coins chiefly from the

Western institutional and private collections. The merit of both these listings lies in the

fact that they present the entire range of hitherto published, yet visually inaccessible

Satavahana coins, such as those from the British Museum catalogue, which had not been

illustrated. Later on Osmund Bopearachchi, Robert Senior and Joe Cribb extensively

handled the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian series. Their researches have extremely

important bearing on the chronology of Ancient India in general and are valuable in

suggesting a chronological framework for the Kushanas, The Indo-Parthians and the

Kshatrapas. As such, their indirect contribution to the history of the Satavahana period

can not be ignored. While Bopearachchi's works include a monograph entitled

Monnaies Grco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques (Paris, 1991), most of the works of

Senior and Cribb have appeared as articles in several journals and collected works.

Historical studies in Indological literature:

The studies in Indological literature precede the researches in both epigraphs and coins.

In fact, they heralded the research in Indology in the last decades of the 18 th century.

Max muellers Sacred books of the East gave the impetus to historical aspects of

literary studies. Pargiters editing of the Puranic texts and subsequent publishing of
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Dynastic Texts of the Kali Age (1913) proved significant for understanding of the

ancient Indian dynastic accounts. The Satavahanas find mention in some of the Puranas,

the most important being Matsya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Vishnu and Bhagavata. In fact,

they have been treated as primary source of Satavahana history in many of the early

historical treatises such as the Early History of the Deccan by R. G. Bhandarkar.

Archaeological endeavors:

After the turn of present century, and especially after the founding of the Archaeological

Survey of India, the historical researches in India underwent a metamorphosis. With

discoveries of Mohejo-daro and Harappa, and the superbly systematic and well-

documented excavations of Taxila by John Marshal, the subject of Archaeology came of

age in India. The importance of the faculty was not only realized by the Government of

India but also by certain native rulers. The Nizam of Hyderabad established his own

archaeological department. Ghulam Yazdani was the earliest historian to have realized

the importance of archaeological sites in the Deccan, and as early as 1914 proposed a

scheme for the systematic excavation of some of the sites. Under the aegis of the

archaeological department of the Dominion of the Nizam the first excavation of a

Satavahana site in the Deccan was attempted in the first quarter of this century. This site

was Paithan. Not much is known about the yields of the attempt as it was of a

preliminary nature. Conducted by Syed Yusuf, the attempt is nevertheless of a

historiographical significance. Several archeological excavations have followed this

maiden attempt. Noteworthy amongst them is Kondapur (1941), Nasik (1950-51),

Newasa (1954-56), and Bhokardan (1973). Other important excavations include those at

the sites of Pauni (1969-70), Brahmapuri (1952), Chandravalli (1947-48), Wadgaon-

Madhavpur (1972-77), Vaddamanu (1985-87), Veerapuram (1984), Kotalingala (report

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remains unpublished, but the contents are referred to by many scholars after consulting

the field reports), Satanikota (1986), Peddabankuru (1982), Sannati (1989-90) and Adam

(1987-91). With more and more material evidence coming into fore, the need for its

consideration was ever more apparent. However, the charisma, which the literary

sources have enjoyed over the years, precluded an objective treatment for archaeological

and other material evidence available for the study of Satavahana period. C.

Margabandhus treatise entitled Archaeology of the Satavahana-Kshatrapa

Times(1983) grouped together such evidence in a comprehensive way and Himanshu

Prabha Rays Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas (1986)

epitomized its utility in the sphere of historical reconstruction.

This brings us to the definition of the title of this thesis. What will be attempted in the

pages to come, is the utilization of one of the chief components of the material evidence

we have at our disposal towards commenting on certain elemental problems of

Satavahana history. This component is the numismatic material. The concentration will

be on aspects of political history rather than socioeconomic studies. At the outset, it

must be said that the importance of coins in rebuilding Satavahana history has been

recognized long ago. Early scholars like Bhagwanlal Indraji, E. J. Rapson, and R. G.

Bhandarkar, have all thought upon deeply on the subject. Subsequently, noted

numismatists like A. S. Altekar, V. V. Mirashi, P. L. Gupta and A. M. Shastri have also

contributed great deal towards its advancement. However, most of these works are

basically numismatic in nature, with emphasis given on pure numismatic considerations,

such as typology and metrology. Historical reconstruction based on numismatic

evidence, if at all discussed, has been a relatively small part of these works. Moreover,

the superior treatment given to literary sources such as the Puranas looms large on all
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these researches. The present thesis differs from the previously published works in the

following ways-

1. Treatment of the numismatic evidence, and

2. Subsequent utilization of it in historical reconstruction.

Hence the title Historical Analysis of Satavahana Era A Study of Coins.

It also differs in other important ways, such as

a) Re-examination of coins: - So far, the researchers of the Satavahana numismatics

have relied upon coins known to them from sources such as the numismatic literature

and museum catalogues, such as that of Rapson. Without prejudice to Rapsons

profoundly important treatise, it is felt that no researcher following him tried to analyze

the contents of his catalogue and their provenance in a purely historical perspective.

Moreover, the quality of visual details such as the photographs in the catalogues and

excavation reports published in India often remains poor. Under these circumstances, the

researchers task becomes extremely laborious, and he can not but escape the physical

re-examination of previously published coins. In this research endeavor, such physical

re-verification has been attempted for many Satavahana coins. If the coins themselves

were not available, attempts were made to obtain better photographs or replicas to

enable a more consummate study. Coins from the Newasa and Tripuri excavations were

studied in the Deccan College, Pune. The published portion of the huge coin-collection

of the Andhra Pradesh Govt. Museum, Hyderabad, was studied with the help of better

photographs lying in the photo-archives of the Indian Institute of Research in

Numismatic Studies, Nasik. Also, the important coins from the recently conducted

Veerapuram and Vaddamanu excavations were examined through their replicas supplied
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to the Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies by the Birla Archaeological

and Cultural Research Institute, Hyderabad.

b) Access to private collections: -A plethora of coin-evidence has escaped the attention

of previous researchers because it lay with certain individuals in their private collections.

This fact was apparent to this researcher several times during his field-studies. As this

barrier has been overcome to a great extent in this research, most of the coins utilized for

study seek their origin in private collections of repute from around the world. M/s. Dilip

Shah (Jabalpur) Lance Dane (Mumbai) and T. Devendra Rao (Boston) form the most

significant collections of the series. It is also worth noting that most of these coins have

been discovered in recent past. Within the last ten years, scavenging activities of

communities living besides ancient Satavahana sites have led to several discoveries. The

financial stimulus provided by discerning collectors has helped in bringing to the fore a

lot of new material. As most of these suppliers and their spheres of activities are well

known to this researcher, the provenance of their supplies can be ascertained with a good

amount of certainty. Most of the material available through such sources makes its

appearance on the market as aggregates or groups of coins, mainly the result of a few

scavenging cycles at a time. One can make a close comparison of such aggregates to

catch of fish made by the fisherman! During the fieldwork over the last few years, this

researcher has personally visited many Satavahana- related sites and examined the

catch of coins almost as soon as it was made, and most importantly, before it was

dispersed. The catch of precious metals and other metallic contents are sold at the local

gold market, or the Sarafa. Lead is in demand in the Sarafa because it is employed in the

refining process for silver. Copper and zinc-based alloys are utilized in preparing the

solder used in manufacture of the ornaments. The traders in the Sarafa therefore readily
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buy coins of all metals. Coin-collectors often hunt in the Sarafa for purchasing coins and

discerning collectors may end up paying a fancy price for material of their interest. In

the past ten years coin collecting has gradually grown up in India, thanks to the efforts of

certain collector-oriented societies like the Indian Coin Society of Nagpur. As a result of

the monetary input acting as stimulus for numismatic discoveries the number of new

varieties turning up on the coin market has considerably gone up, and singularly

surpassed any other source of coin finds such as excavations. This is especially true for

the Satavahana coins. The number of new and previously unpublished types and

varieties known through the market and thence to various private collections is

overwhelming and needs to be documented and studied thoroughly, from both purely

numismatic and historical points of view. This is precisely what has been attempted

here. The sheer numerical importance of Satavahana coins in private collection makes

them an area of high priority treatment in this thesis.

An objection often raised to numismatists relying chiefly on such kind of source for their

studies is the authenticity of information revealed to them by collectors and dealers

regarding important theoretical aspects of documentation like provenance of a particular

coin. Indeed, many facets of human mind play their part in a subject of intense

emotional involvement such as coin collecting. Dealers especially have their ulterior

motives and are more prone to give erroneous information just because it suits some

purpose at that particular instance. Collectors, too, share their passion with other

similarly interested people and can come out with mutually disagreeing information. The

way out of this situation is multidirectional. One approach is to build up a good rapport

with the dealer and collector communities. Based on healthy relationship involving

mutual help and encouragement, discussing and extracting information out of them can
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be a smooth function and often such information can be worthy of trust. However, the

empirical way to check out whether information received is true or not, is to juxtapose it

with published facts. For example, if a coin is said to have been found at Nasik, it can be

compared with the previously documented coins found with certainty in Nasik, such as

excavational finds, and it can be satisfactorily ascertained whether similar coins can at

all be found in Nasik. In absence of such data, the answer for relying on information

divulged by collectors and dealers would be an exhaustive field study. Visits to the sites

themselves and analyzing the coins found at the site can lead to safe surmises about

occurrence of particular coins at that site. Analysis of many aggregates of coins found

repeatedly over several seasons can help to conclude about the yields in terms of types

and varieties of coins from particular sites. Such careful study can lead to observations,

which can then be utilized to test the information given by dealers or collectors in a

qualitative manner. It can be said with certainty that numismatic evidence gathered in

this thesis has undergone rigors of such treatment and the researcher places his assurance

that the details recorded from sources such as those discussed above are true and reliable

to the best of his knowledge.

Evaluation of the evidence: Literary versus Material

Literary Evidence: -

A descriptive summary of literary mentions of the Satavahanas can prove enlightening

to assess the social impact of the dynastys exploits. Apart from the Puranas, various

other literary sources make a mention of the Satavahanas. They include other religious

literature, contemporary Prakrit texts, western accounts and folklore. These mentions are

surmised here, followed by a detailed description of the Puranic accounts. Such a

sequence is followed because the Puranas form the bulk of literary evidence for the
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Satavahana period, while other literary mentions especially Indian, are of a less

importance.

Religious texts: - by far the most important in this category are the Jaina texts named

Tiloyapaati and vashyakachri. These make explicit mentions to the Kshatrapa-

Satavahana conflict1. The name of the invading king of Bharukachha is given variously

as Naravahan, Nakhavahan, Naavahan, etc. and he is said to have fought with king

Shalivahana of Paithan. Here the king of Bharukachha can be satisfactorily identified

with the Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana. A similar story is narrated in the Klakchrya

kathnaka.2 A Jaina commentator named Jinadasagani, while commenting on a verse in

the Jaina work vashyakastraniryukti, referred to the frequent attacks made by the

Satavahanas on Bhgukachha, the capital of Nahapana. In Addition to these certain

texts in the Trthakalpa of Jinaprabhasuri include mythified data about the Satavahanas.

Legendary information about a Satavahana named Shaktikumara is also available

through Jaina texts.3

Contemporary Prakrit texts: - the most famous among these is Ghsattasai (skt.

Gthsaptashati), a compilation of seven hundred Gths, or verses by none other than

the Satavahana ruler Hala himself. It reflects chiefly on the social life, but political

references are not totally unknown. Regarded as a landmark in Prakrit literature, several

classical writers have praised the Saptashati for its poetic merit. While remarking on the

Saptashati these authors mention the Satavahanas and commend Hala for its

compilation. Such late references to the Satavahana dynasty include Harshacharita of

1
Rajgor, Dilip- New Discoveries in Kshatrapa Numismatics, in D. Handa (ed.) Numismatic Studies, vol.
1, Delhi, 1991, pp. 33-34. See also Deo, S. B., op. cit. (1995).
2
Jacobi, H. Das Kalakacharya Kathanaka, Zeitschrift der Duetschen Morganlandischen Gesellschaft,
vol. 34, 1880, pp. 247-318. See also Brown, W. N. The story of Kalaka, Freer Gallery of Art, Oriental
series no. 1, Washington, 1933.
3
Ketkar, S.V. Pracheena Maharashtra, vol.2 (Marathi), Pune, 1963, chapter 59, pp. 35-47.
 14

Bana, Deshinma-mla of Hemchandra and Kvyammnsa of Rajashekhara. The last

mentioned littrateur lauds the Prakrit affiliations of the Satavahanas by commenting

that the Satavahanas made the use of Prakrit compulsory in their harem.1

The Bhatkath of Gunadhya was also a composition of the Satavahana times.

Originally in the Paishachi version of Prakrit, it was translated into Sanskrit by

SomA.D.eva and named as Kath-sarit-sgara. In the initial chapter of this book the

interesting story of how the Bhatkath came into existence is given. A queen of a

Satavahana monarch chastised him for his ignorance of Sanskrit. 2 The humiliated ruler

vowed to learn Sanskrit and called upon Gunadhya and Sharva Varma, another

Grammarian, to teach him. In the competition that ensued between these two teachers

about who can teach the Grammer faster, Gunadhya lost to Sharva Varma. Eventually

this incidence contributed to the creation of Bhatkath.

Western texts: - Unlike the Indian literary traditions, the Western texts prove

considerably important as elements of historical evidence, mainly because of their

scientific nature and precise references. The only problem about them is that they often

present their contents, especially proper names, in westernized forms. Thus it is often

difficult to equate the names mentioned by them with their Indian versions. The most

important mentions as far as Satavahana history is concerned occur in Periplus tes

Erythras Thalasses (Periplus Marei Erythreum, or Periplus of the Erythrean Sea).3 It

has important references to aspects of political, social and economic history of the

Satavahana times. The other western text having important political references to the

1
Mirashi, V.V. Satavahana ani Paschmi Kshatrapa Yancha Itihas ani Koreeva lekha (Marathi), Bombay,
1979, p. [152].
2
Katha-sarit-sagara, 7.116-17
3
This text is anonymous and is believed to be written by a Hellenistic Egyptian sailor.
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Satavahana era is Geographike Hupherges by the Hellenistic Egyptian geographer

Ptolemy.

The Periplus refers to the Satavahana king elder Sarganus, the king of Barygaza

Manbanos and several entrepots on the western and eastern coasts of India, including

upland trading centers and market towns. The versions of these names and their Indian

synonyms have been debated upon. In contrast, sense can be made out of accounts of

Ptolemy. He mentions the Satavahana king Siri Polemaios of Baithana, his

contemporary the king Tiastenes of Ozene and another ruler Baleokouros ruling at

Hippokoura. Except the last mentioned place name, the identity of other proper names in

this mention is not difficult to ascertain. The Satavahana ruler and his seat can be

identified as Siri Pulumavi and Paithana (Pratisthana), while Ozene is evidently Ujjayini,

with its ruler Chastana, i.e. Tiastenes. Baleokouros is the king (Gautamiputra)

Vilivayakura, known from his coins.

Folklore: - the historical greatness of the Satavahanas gave way to a rich folklore about

them. The most famous story narrates how Salivahana, the habitant of the potters

settlement at Paithan, saved the kingdom by fighting against the mighty king Vikrama of

Ujjayini. He achieved this success by bringing his toy army to life by sprinkling the

Amta given to him by the Snake king over them. The Snake king had fathered

Salivahana from a Brahmin lady, who had deserted him in the potters settlement as a

child, evidently to free herself of the guilt. The story presents certain threads of

historicity, finely woven with material elements.

It keeps alive the traditional belief about the origins of the progenitor of the Satavahana

family. The toy army has roots in the several fragmentary terracotta images of horses

and other animals, which are found even today at Paithan. It also enlivens an ancient
 16

invasion of Paithan by a ruler from the northwest, and the subsequent Satavahana

victory. The merit of this story lies in the fact that most of its contents are otherwise

substantiated. It has been debated that the caste of the Satavahanas was low in the

hierarchical order. Some scholars like S. V. Ketkar1 have attributed a Naga origin to

them, and in some Puranas the perpetrator of the dynasty Simuka is named as a Vshala,

i.e. born of a Brahmin-Shudra mixed marriage. The very fact that the Satavahanas

secured a place in the Vamshnucharita of the Puranas indicates an attempt at social

elevation of the dynasty, as per the purpose of the Puranas, which will be described later

while evaluating the Puranic evidence. It is also a well known historical fact that the

King of Ujjayini who invaded Paithan was none other than the Kshaharata Nahapana,

although it is not certain whether he actually won over Paithan itself. Nevertheless,

excavatory evidence at Bhokardan has shown that he certainly extended his sway as far

as that town, and it is not very far from Paithan.

The Puranas: -As it has been said earlier, the Puras or ancient Indian dynastic

traditions offer the main bulk of literary evidence for the Satavahana period.

Vamshnucharitam or the genealogies form one of the five characteristic features of the

Mahpuras. The complete lists of the kings are not given in one place, but have to be

collated from different chapters dealing with different dynasties. Although the authors of

the Puranas claim great antiquity for them, in their present form they only date from the

Gupta period. This source of literary information has been the most favored by the

scholars, than any other literary source, for the history of the Satavahana period. The

method of their rendition has allowed their passage to successive generations. This

method was the oral tradition, whereby the guru would verbally teach the scriptural

details to his student. They were compiled as a deliberate attempt towards putting

1
Ketkar, S. V., op. cit. (1963), p. 25.
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together the scattered oral historical tradition hitherto preserved by the Stas and

Mgadhas and re-written by various Brahmin families. The manuscripts were prepared

for use as reference in case of dispute.

Evaluating the Puras for their historicity:

Two aspects of this practice allowed the element of error to creep in. One was the

extensive employment of the oral tradition itself. Each successive rendition was subject

to variables such as mode of pronunciation, attention to verbal stress given on certain

characters, mental concentration of the guru as well as his student who would eventually

become the guru himself, etc. The attitude fostered towards the guru was one of absolute

faith, questioning him on authenticity of his information was sacrilegious. All these facts

contributed to data, which was often confused in the event of preparing the manuscript.

The second aspect causing the errors came in when the manuscripts themselves were

copied. The copying was often done not by the guru himself but by a lesser incumbent,

and palaeographical changes not understood by the copier gave way to change in texts,

especially proper names. The errors crept in the Puras are therefore not only limited

to discrepancies in data between different Puras, but also within renditions of the

same Purana. The third important disadvantage of the Puras is heavy indulgence of

their accounts in mythification of the data. It requires a special treatment towards

demythifying. F. E. Pargiter edited the Puranic accounts at the turn of the century, with

special reference to the details of historic nature, which they contained. Though the task

of demythification was by no means made simple, Pargiters edition has served as basis

of historical studies founded on Puranic accounts.

The differences in details of accounts of the Satavahana dynasty can be highlighted with

salient examples. As regards the total period of their reign is concerned, Matsya Pura
 18

assigns them 460 years. Brahmnda Pura attributes a rule of 456 years. Vyu Pura

specifies 411 years while Vishnu Pura suggests 300 years. Vyu, Brahmnda,

Bhgavata, and Vishnu Puras give the total of rulers as 30, but in reality mention only

17,18,19,22,23,24 or 28 rulers. In contrast, Matsya Pura totals the rulers to 19, but

mentions 30 individual rulers. As a compromise, Pargiter assigns 460 years of rule to 30

rulers. This inference of Pargiter has contributed to one of the most extensive scholarly

debate of ancient Indian history, as will be seen later. A comparative chart of various

Puranic details with additions, deletions and variations as seen from numerous

manuscripts has been given as Appendix I.

An analysis of the data contained in the Appendix would clearly surmise to the

conclusion that the Puras are far from being equivocal on the number, years of reign,

and even the names of the Satavahana kings. It is true that not only different Puras

exhibit material divergence by ways of additions, omissions and substitution of names,

but within a single Pura also, the different manuscripts give changing details. As seen

in Matsya Pura, the name of the first Satavahana ruler is given variously as Shishuka,

Shisuka, Shishruka, Shikhuka, Shimshuka and Kimshuka. The Sandhi of Shishuka and

Andhra, the appellation that follows the name, is also misread and transposed in an

erroneous form. Instead of Shishukndhra, it has been variously rendered as

Shishukondhra, Shishukoddhra, Shishukrodhra, and Kimshukrodha. Examples of the

methods, which can lead to the creeping of errors into Puranic accounts, are perceptible.

Mentioning Masulodhi in place of Pulomavi in the version of Bhgavata Pura is

clearly an outcome of a palaeographical misjudgment on part of the compiler. We know

from material sources that names like Sati and Satakamni/Sadakamni were borne by

certain Satavahana rulers. The names Swati and Swatikarna are evident
 19

sanskritizations of these names. Other names such as Purindrasena and Purnotsanga

seem extremely sanskritized taking in account the popular traits in names as seen from

contemporary epigraphs. Such an approach of sanskritizing the names in Prakrit or other

expressions of the Vox Populi were an attempt towards sublimating the ruling elite by

bringing them into the garb of Classicism. They shed ample light on the period in which

most of the Puranas were compiled. It is a matter of general agreement among scholars

that such a textual compilation of the Puranas can not be dated before 4th-5th cent. A.D.,

during the classical epoch of the Guptas, when Brahminical eminence dominated the

social superstructure.1 Moreover, it is also true that as a deliberate attempt to compile the

historical traditions, the authors of the Puras have tried to provide an elite status in the

vara structure to a large number of tribes who had produced ruling families. This is

especially true as the Satavahanas are mentioned by the Puras only by their tribal

appellation, i.e. Andhra. More precise in this respect are mentions, which employ the

term ndhra-jtya, meaning Of Andhra community. It is important to note in this

respect that the Puras largely ignore the oligarchies or rudimentary republics. This

social bias of the Puras should be borne in mind while using it for historical

reconstruction. The Puras are primarily relevant for making a rough outline of the

dynasties and for providing a starting point.

The methodical analysis of Puranic accounts and their comparison with material

evidence leads us to believe that the accounts hold somewhat good for the post-

Gautamiputra Satakani period. This is mainly because of the fact that the textual

compilation of the Puranas took place at a time not much apart from the later

Satavahanas. But most of the early data on the Satavahanas seems to have been jumbled

1
Hazra, R.C. The Date of the Smrti Chapters of Matsya Purana, ABORI, vol. 17, pp. 1-36. See, also by
the same author The Date of Vishnu Purana, ABORI, vol. 18, pp. 265-275.
 20

up considerably to supreme confusion. Gautamiputra Satakani was indeed a tall

historical figure and his legacy must have survived to a good detail unto the period of

Puranic compilations. This is the chief reason why the description of the times of

Gautamiputra and his successor Vasithiputa Pulumavi, who was an equally important

ruler as far as the spread of the empire was concerned, are recorded to a greater accuracy

by the Puras. But the historical greatness of these two kings and their close

chronological placement to the time of the textual compilation of the Puras seems to

have acted as a deterrent to recording of exploits of other members of the family. It must

be remembered that the aim of the Puras was never to record historical details. Their

purpose was more of sermonizing, preserving memorable deeds of important

personalities in a semi-mythified form, so that they can be passed on for posterity as

guide for moral practices, in an intellectually palatable manner. Under these

circumstances, it would be futile to expect and extract information believed to be of

great historicity, and moreover to treat textual material of such a prolix nature as source

of historical information.

It is a difficult task to ascertain which of the Puranic details can be taken to rely upon as

a primary source of historical information. It is true that the germ of historicity rests

within them. While the details appear confused for the early part of Satavahana rule, it

has to be noted that the Puras do mention some important historical facts about the

later epoch. For example, the mention of the feudatories of the Satavahanas is explicit in

the Puranic accounts. They even give their number fairly accurately. This can be seen

from the following verses from Vyu Pura:1 -

ndhrm samsthit pach tshm vamshah samh punah (37.352)

1
Vayu Purana, Venkateshwara Press, Bombay, 1895.
 21

The verse from Matsya Pura 1 goes as follows: -

ndhrm samsthit rjy tshm bhtynvaye npah (273.16.17)

Both these verses indicate that the feudatories to the Satavahanas existed and they

number five. Some other Puranas give the number as seven. The Matsya Pura uses

the important word Bhtya that means subservient. It is well known from other sources

that the feudatory titles held under the Satavahanas were Maharathi, Mahasenapati,

Mahagramika, and Mahatalavara.

Controversies of Puranic evidence:

Unfortunately various scholars have not properly treated the role played by the Puras

in contributing to Satavahana history. At the outset it would be desirous to comment that

the role of the Puras as a source of historical information has been overestimated.

Several attempts were made to make sense out of Puranic evidence by treating it as a

primary source. Controversies leading to protracted scholarly debates regarding the

chronology of the Satavahanas, their original homeland and their caste have arisen out of

the treatment given to the Puranas as source of historical information. As said earlier, it

was Pargiter who opined that the Matsya account attributing 460 years to about thirty

Satavahana kings should be taken to believe as far as historicity is concerned. But the

Puras are equivocal in saying that the earliest Satavahana ruler ousted the Kanva king

Susharman to initiate his independent rule. These two statements do not agree mutually,

as a post-Kanva rule of 460 years would place the Satavahanas well into

contemporaneity with the early Guptas, which they certainly did not share. These

conflicting statements led to a dichotomy of opinion regarding the extent of Satavahana

rule. As an intellectual compromise, some scholars opined that the statement of Matsya

Pura about the extent of the Satavahana rule should be held true. The end of the

1
Matsya purana, ed. H.H. Wilson, Nag Publishers, Delhi, 1983.
 22

dynasty being certain, thanks to other evidences, the beginning should be dated as

immediately after the Mauryas, who precede the Kanvas by at least a hundred years.

This resulted in what has been known as the long chronology for the Satavahanas,

which includes all the 30 kings as mentioned in the Matsya Pura. To be precise, the

exponents of the long chronology postulated that the rise of the Satavahanas should have

taken place immediately after Ashoka, in the fragmentation of the Mauryan Empire that

followed him. This stance gave them a lease of another fifty years or so, and it was

further postulated that the originator of the Satavahana household must have been an

individual of the same name. The protagonist of this school was V.V. Mirashi, and P. L.

Gupta and I. K. Sarma have largely followed it.

On the other hand, some other scholars believed in the veracity of Kanva-Satavahana

conflict. As the Kanvas are known to have succeeded the Sungas, such a conflict can not

be dated earlier to c.70 B.C. If the Satavahanas have indeed ceased ruling after the 3rd

century A.D., then fitting in all the 30 kings in this period would seem difficult. The

answer lay in the Puras themselves. All the Puras except Matsya actually mention

a much lesser number of kings, although they begin by saying the number 30. This was

taken as a historical belief, and the result was a chronology referred to as the short

chronology of the Satavahanas. D. C. Sircar, A. M. Shastri and following him P. V.

Parabrahma Sastry are the upholders of this chronology.

Both these approaches need a careful reassessment. First of all it may be stated that both

these theories have evolved entirely out of the treatment of Puranic accounts as source of

historical information. Any other evidence, forwarded by epigraphs or archaeological

material, has been evaluated taking either of the two chronologies as standard.

Moreover, the larger issues regarding chronology of Ancient Indian History in general,
 23

like the date of Kanishka, or the inception of traditional eras, has not been taken into

account while debating the Puranic evidence. In short, the approach of treating the

Puranas as historical evidence for the Satavahana period is not holistic, and is an isolated

attempt at historical reconstruction. This treatment given to the Puranic accounts is

confined to the early Satavahanas. The foregoing discussion about the historicity of

Puranic accounts show with ample clarity that these texts can not be taken as primary

source of historical information, owing to their mutual disparities. Their extensive

employment towards such a purpose by historians was due to the fact that more decisive

evidence was lacking for historical reconstruction of the period. The latest example of

such an assessment of the Satavahana era and some of the basic controversies like the

origin, nomenclature and homeland of the Satavahanas, is A. M. Shastris paper in the

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay.1 Its contents will be discussed further, from

time to time, while presenting a numismatic reassessment of the features noted by

Shastri.

Interpretation of Puranic evidence: a case study

Extreme steps to accommodate the Puranic information seem to have been taken as more

and more information became available through other sources. Eminent scholars like

Altekar interpret the Puranic names of Satavahana rulers in a novel way to make them

compatible with historical details. For example, he opined that the Satavahana ruler

mentioned as Purnotsanga should be equated with Vedisiri of the Naneghat relievo

inscription, who, he further added, was the ruler who should be credited with the defeat

of Sungas by the Satavahanas.1 This theorization is a classic example of how the literary

evidence tends to loom large over the more reliable factual evidence, as in this case of

1
Shastri, A. M. Puranic Evidence on Andhra-Satavahanas Original Home, Nomenclature and
Chronology an Analytical Study, JAS (Bom), vol. 72, 1997, pp. 120-137.
 24

inscriptions, in the early historical writings on the Satavahana period. The very concept

of the Shunga-Satavahana conflict has emerged out of Kalidasas play

Mlavikgnimitram, in which the Shunga prince Agnimitra is noted to have undertaken

a combat with the king of Vidarbha.2 This part of the Indian subcontinent is known to

have been under Satavahana control during this time, as seen from other evidence like

the inscription of king Kharavela of Kalinga (Orissa)3, which mentions a king Satakarni

as ruling towards his west. Further, occurrence of an inscription at Sanchi4 recording the

name of one Vasithiputa Ananda, who was a mason of king Satakani, has been taken to

indicate Satavahana annexation of Vidisha, the capital of the Shungas. Accepting the

longer chronology for Satavahanas, it becomes imperative that a ruler of the post-

Satakani I date has to involve himself with Agnimitra, the Shunga. Accrediting Vedisiri,

the son of Satakani, of such a political move seemed plausible enough. But the problem

was to substantiate such an action on his part. Taking the Puranas to his rescue, it was

thought fit to equate the Puranic successor of Satakrarni named Purnotsanga to Vedisiri

by interpreting the Puranic name as a title, to mean as Pram Utkrnth Shungn, or

(the one who has) completely annihilated the Shungas.

The fallacies of such mingle of epigraphical (material) and literary evidence can be

outlined. To start with, there is no other evidence for the proposed Shunga-Satavahana

conflict than the play of Kalidasa. To extract historicity out of such literary works is as

absurd as treating the plays of Shakespeare on medieval English historical details as

authentic sources of history, or labeling Becket of Jean Annuit as historical evidence

for writing the history of 15th century Britain. The statement is more true as Kalidasas

1
As quoted in CSE, p. 128.
2
C. R. Devadhar, Works on Kalidasa, Varanasi, 1972. (Quoted at several instances in the classical play).
3
EI, vol. 20, pp. 71-89.
4
Lueders, appendix to EI, vol. 10, no. 346.
 25

play itself does not include any truly historical characters except, possibly, Agnimitra.

The names forwarded by him, as rulers of Vidarbha are also fictitious. Mention of a

mason serving for king Satakani in an inscription of purely votive nature can not be

taken as indication of Satavahana victory over the Shungas. Moreover, numismatic

evidence1 has shown clearly that the names of the rulers who preceded the Satavahanas

at Vidisha are completely different to the traditional rulers at that place, as known from

Puras. The predecessors of the Satavahanas at Vidisha were these local rulers, and not

the Shungas, who are accredited a rule at Vidisha by literary sources. If at all they were

Shungas then they did not bear the names as indicated by the literary sources. This fact

will be elaborated upon further in this thesis. The third point that goes against the

Vedisiri-Purnotsanga homology is the interpretation of the word itself. It has no root

leading to Shunga, as is indicated by Pram Utkrnth Shungn, the etymology of the

word Purnotsanga clearly involves Sanga and not Shunga. If at all the interpretation

is taken to mean the annihilator of Shungas, it should have been phrased as

Purnotshunga, and not Purnotsanga.

This case study is presented here to indicate an example of hazards in historical

reconstruction when material facts are twisted to fit into literary accounts. This is

especially so when traditional texts such as the Puras, or other socio-religious

literature are given a greater say in writing of history. Texts such as Sanskrit plays and

other classical literature are no exception to this rule. The main constituent of argument

against the use of such a literature as primary evidence is its non-synchronicity with the

subject for which it is being utilized as a historical source. Not only the isochronism is

doubted, the exact date of rendering of such texts is often under question. This is

1
Alka Tiwari publishes the coins that are direct predecessors of the Satavahanas in this region. See the
paper by her, Inscribed Punch-marked Coins from the Eran-Vidisha Region, ND, VI-I, pp. 1-8.
 26

especially true for the socio-religious literature. In absence of factual evidence its use

can be somewhat justified. But in case of tangible material evidence being present, an

emphasis on diffuse literary evidence is dispensable. The small amount of historicity,

which these sources contain, could at best be amplified in the light of material evidence.

But it may be humbly pointed out that distorting the material evidence to fit in with

literary accounts can not be called in conformity with the norms of historical

reconstruction. Moreover, such an attempt to suit personal premises would not stand the

test of time. The literary accounts whose contemporaneity has been established beyond

doubts can only be utilized faithfully towards such a task, and its contents could be used

to scrutinize historical details.

The material evidence:

Under these circumstances it would be worthwhile to look at the material evidence

available for the subject. Its nature is unimpeachable, and concomitance with the period

is established beyond doubt. The only problem faced is its correct evaluation and

interpretation. The mutual agreement of various aspects of material evidence is also

important. For the Satavahana period, the material evidence can be grouped under the

following titles

A) Archaeological evidence

B) Epigraphic studies

C) Numismatic data and methodologies.

Among archaeological finds, the Satavahana sites in Malwa, Deccan, Vidarbha,

Telingana, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Rayalseema and Karnataka have yielded several

objects of historical importance. Some of them like pottery, brickwork and sculptural

remains have indirect contribution to historical aspects, while some others like coins and
 27

inscriptions have direct bearing on them. It would be worthwhile to enlist a few

archaeological explorations in the recent past, which have yielded important material for

the Satavahana era.

1. Adam the village of Adam lies north of Nagpur, in the taluka Kuhi. The site has

yielded lead portrait coins of the Satavahanas, a type that was so far known only in

silver. An important sigillographic discovery was made when a seal bearing the legend

Asikasa Janapadasa was found. It is well known that the city named Asikanagara finds

mention in the Hathigumpha edict of king Kharavela. The reA.D.ing in the epigraph was

not certain, the variant being Musikanagara as read by Jayaswal1, but its placement

towards the west of Kharavelas domains was beyond doubt. The discovery of this

sealing identified the region around Adam as the Asika country, and Adam itself as the

ancient Asikanagara, thereby putting the controversy to an end. 2 The site of Adam is

also important as the only site so far to have yielded the portrait coins of the Satavahanas

in lead. Furthermore several coins of the pre-Satavahana rulers with Mitra- and Bhadra-

ending names have been found at Adam, giving important numismatic clues for the

dynastic succession in Vidarbha.

2. Kotalingala this tiny village, lying in Karimnagar district of the Telingana division of

Andhra Pradesh, came into numismatic limelight when P. V. Parabrahma Sastry

reported some coins found in surface explorations by the villagers, and collected by the
3
enthusiastic postman named Narayan. Further, Parabrahma Sastry reported more

coins4, and D. Raja Reddy and P. Suryanarayana Reddy of the Hyderabad Numismatic

1
EI, vol. 20, p. 83
2
Nath, A. Toponymy of Asaka and Asika, Indica (Journal of Heras Institute, Bombay), vol. 27, 1990,
pp. 87-96.
3
Parabrahma Sastry, P. V. Unknown Coins of the Satavahanas and their predecessors, ND, vol. 2, pt. 1,
1978, pp. 10-21.
4
ibid. Some More Coins from Kotalingala, ND, vol. 3, 1979, pp. 17-28.
 28

Society published a monograph devoted to the coins.1 The significance of these coins

was unquestionable. They included, among others, the coins bearing the name of Siri

Chhimuka Satavahana, the founder of the dynasty according to the Puranic accounts.

Subsequently, excavations were conducted and significant findings were reported. The

fact upsetting the applecart was that the coins of Chhimuka were encountered above

the strata yielding the coins of Siri Satakani, thereby suggesting his placement after king

Satakani. This was contrary to the Puranic evidence where Satakani is named as

Chhimukas successor. A debate among numismatists followed. A detailed discussion

on the Kotalingala coins will follow at an appropriate place further in the thesis.

3. Sannati this town is situated in the Chitapur taluka of Gulbarga district in Karnataka.

Archaeological excavations have yielded several coins, some of which have been

reported. The site is important for occurrence of several inscriptions mainly from the
2
ruins of Buddhist stupas. The most significant of these inscriptions is a eulogy of

Gautamiputra Satakani similar in contents to the famed Nasik inscription of Vasithiputa

Pulumavi.3 Interesting titles accorded to Gautamiputra at Sannati include

Ankasangmavijitavijaya (winner of victory in many battles), Khakhartakulaghtaka

(one who has struck a blow to the Kshaharata family) and Ankarjamathakapatigahita

(one who has captured the heads of several kings).

4. Kanchipuram - the famous town not far from Chennai has yielded certain interesting

objects as far as Satavahana period is concerned. They include terracotta moulds for

making Satavahana coins. The coins to be turned out of these moulds were of the well-

known elephant and Ujjain symbol type in potin, bearing the legends of Satavahana

1
Kotalingala Coinage of Satavahanas and other Local Rulers: A Profile, HyderabA.D., 1987.
2
Sarma, I. K., and Rao, J. VaraprasA.D.a Early Brahmi Inscriptions from Sannati, New Delhi, 1993.
3
Ibid., pp. 63-71.
 29

rulers Siri Pulumavi and Yajna Satakani.1 As the impressions on the moulds do not show

the designs of the coins in full, it can be inferred that they were made from compressing

the die-struck coins having partial designs into clay. Such multiple impressions would

then be fired to obtain a mould. It is difficult to ascertain the reason behind this practice.

The most plausible explanation is that these moulds must have been a forgers

equipment to make coins. One such forged Satavahana coin was noted from Nasik

during the field studies.

5. Veerapuram this site in the Rayalseema division of Andhra Pradesh was excavated by

the Birla Archaeological and Cultural Research Institute of Hyderabad. It yielded

important coins of Maharathis, which led to the conclusion of identifying an entirely

new Maharathi family ruling in that area. The majority of rulers in this family had names

ending in the word Hathi, Skt. Hasti, or elephant. The names of the ruler included

Maharathi Mahahathi, Maharathi Sivakhada, Pahalamasi, Khadaharihala, etc. A lead

bulla with portraits on both sides was also found, and the jumbled legends on it were

read by T.V.G. Sastry et.al. to infer that it was a coin jointly issued by Roman emperor

Tiberius and Satavahana ruler Hakusiri.2 However the contributors realized their mistake

and in their subsequent publication identified the object rightly as a bulla. Another

important coin bearing an incomplete legend dakanasa Hathi was reported from

Veerapuram.

6. Vaddamanu the site of Vaddamanu lies in close proximity with Dharanikota, the

ancient Dhanyakataka, believed by several early scholars to be the Satavahana capital.

Vaddamanu was also identified as the place where the king Kharavela, who professed

1
Raman, K. V. and Shanmugam, P.- Terracotta Coin Moulds from Kanchipuram, SSIC, vol. 1, 1991,
pp.23-29
2
Sastry, T. V. G., et.al., Veerapuram A type site for Cultural Study in Krishna Valley, Hyderabad,
1984.
 30

the Jaina faith, built Vardhamniya Mahvihra named after Vardhamana, or

Mahaveera, the exponent of Jainism. The Birla Archaeological and Cultural Research

Institute of Hyderabad conducted the excavations here as well. The site of Vaddamanu

provided stratigraphic evidence for yet another dynasty of ancient ndhradesha. This

dynasty had ruling members with names ending in Sada, hence their identity was

established as the Sadas of coastal Andhra. The kings identify themselves as belonging

to the same Mahameghavahana lineage, to which Kharavela, the early ruler of Kalinga,

claims to belong in his Hathigumpha inscription. They were not totally unknown before

Vaddamanu excavations, but in absence of complimentary evidence their coins had been

misattributed. The well known case for such misattribution was a coin listed in Rapsons

catalogue, on which he had read the fragmentary legend as ghasadasa.1 It had led

Rapson to attribute this coin to Meghaswati, a Satavahana ruler claimed to exist as per

the Puras. Much of their known coins in the museums at Amaravati and Hyderabad

were ascribed to the Satavahana ruler Pulumavi. The watershed was crossed when D.

Raja Reddy and P. Suryanarayana Reddy published their monograph on the

Meghavahana dynasty of Coastal Andhra.2 Certain inscriptions and seals discovered

later also justified the existence of this dynasty.

Among the epigraphical discoveries of the recent times, the following are important for

Satavahana history: -

1. The Vasana (dist. Dharwad, Karnataka) inscription of Vasithiputa Siri Pulumavi

2. The Sannati (dist. Gulbarga, Karnataka) inscription of Vasithiputa Siri Satakani

3. The Sannati inscription mentioning (Vasithi)puta Siva Siri Pulumavi

4. The Sannati eulogy of Gotamiputa Satakani

1
BMCAWK, p. lxxvii
2
Coins of the Meghavahana dynasty of Coastal Andhra, Hyderabad, 1985.
 31

5. The Sannati inscription of a Maha Satavahana

6. The Velpuru (dist. Krishna, Andhra Pradesh) inscription of king Maha Sada

Of these, I. K. Sarma and M.J. Sharma have contested the identity of the Pulumavi of

Vasana inscription. While the latter believes that he should be equated with the last ruler

of the Puranic accounts1, wherein he finds mention as Pulohamavi, I. K. Sarma identifies

him with the successor of Gotamiputa Siri Satakani.2 This attribution seems more

plausible as shall be substantiated later. The inscription of Vasithiputa Satakani at

Sannati is important in the respect that it is the first known independent inscription of

that ruler. The well-known inscription at Kanheri mentioning his name is in reality

inscribed by his queen. This adds to the very scanty evidence available about the king.

Unfortunately the inscription does not mention any regnal year. The eulogy of

Gautamiputra Satakani and its importance have already been described above and a

detailed discussion about its historical significance will appear at an appropriate

juncture.

The inscription mentioning the Maha-sathavaha3 in actuality has nothing to do with the

imperial Satavahanas. A low feudatory inscribes it, his title is clearly stated as a

Mahataraka. It has to be equated with Mahattara or Mahattaraka of later periods.

Further the title Maha-Sathavaha4 clearly indicates that this Mahattara was a prominent

Srthavha, or leA.D.er of the trA.D.er communion. In spite of these evident facts,

J.VaraprasA.D.a Rao and I.K. Sarma have classified this inscription among Satavahana

inscriptions. They have also noted the facts stated above, but strangely enough suggest

that the term Sathavaha can be derived as meaning a devotee of saptivhana, i.e. Surya,

1
EI, vol. XLI, 1990, pp. 54-158.
2
CSE, p. 26.
3
Sarma, I.K., and Rao, J. Varaprasada, op.cit., inscription A-4, p.77.
4
The Brahmi letter tha is clearly visible in the estampage provided.
 32

or the Sun. the fallacy in this argument is self-evident and need not be discussed in

great detail. The importance of the Velpuru inscription of Maha Sada has been re-

evaluated by A. M. Shastri1, and also by A.K. Jha and M. Veerender in the wake of the

discovery of his coins in the Vaddamanu excavations.1

Numismatic evidence: Analysis and Methodologies

This brings us to the most important evidence for the Satavahana period, which is the

numismatic evidence. As it has been said earlier, the dearth of numismatic evidence has

been eliminated in the recent years. What has not been attempted is a systematic

compilation of available coins, and the application of certain methods, which can lead to

the successful utilization of the data compiled in this manner towards historical

reconstruction. It would be worthwhile to highlight the methodological approach to such

a task.

The importance of coins as contemporary objects can be judged with fair certainty.

Coins differ from other contemporary material objects in one very important way. Being

a mode of exchange of the Surplus Value and serving the function of monetary nature,

coins are an inseparable part of human endeavor. They are expressions of the economy,

the politics and the social structure of their period. The mass contact of a coin is

enormous, as it is more likely to change hands and float around in the society than any

other object. This fact has led coins can to functions essentially different, yet

complimentary to, its basic function of providing a medium of exchange. Coins can

become modes of establishing economic patterns, reflecting social changes, objects of

everyday Art, and most importantly a channel through which the issuing authority,

which could be the ruling entity or an agency thereof, can establish a direct line of

1
Shastri, A. M. King Mahasada of Velpuru Inscription and Coins, in Spectrum of Indian Culture: S. B.
Deo Festschrift, (eds. C. Margabandhu and K. S. Ramachandram), Delhi, 1996, pp. 353-356.
 33

communication to the masses. This characteristic of coins make them invaluable as tools

of historical construction, especially so for the political history. The other characteristics

mentioned above can also be employed in a similar manner within microspheres of

respective aspects of study. Most of the Indian coins after the Mauryan period display

inscriptions on them, which are called legends in numismatic terminology. The

depictions on coins are termed as motifs, while a particular combination of motifs

occurring repeatedly gives rise to a type. These three dispositions of a coin can be

studied systematically to make a historical sense out of it.

A critical assessment of the utility of numismatic evidence in writing history of the

Satavahana era is rare among research works. Most of the researchers have mentioned it

as a secondary source and gathered information from already published data to

reproduce it in some detail. As it has been pointed before, the stress of the researchers

have been on literary accounts, and in spite of its materiality the numismatic evidence

has been discarded or misinterpreted to fit in with the literary sources. An independent

evaluation of the evidence has not been attempted. A critical approach is evident in H.P.

Rays work. It has been said therein Numismatic evidence, unless dateable, can be

used merely to prove the existence of rulers. It should be stressed that though the overall

pattern of coin finds may be of historical value, individual finds need not. Besides, coin

hoards are an imprecise index of political and territorial expansion. 2 Further, the author

undermines the use of coins as a source of historical information. The reasons given

include, among other, the ambiguous nature of the coin legends, scarcity of tangible

corroborative facts even in case of excavatory exercises, and the element of arbitrariness

witnessed in the writings of the traditional historian-numismatists. The author places

1
Jha, A.K., and Veerender, M. - Velpuru Inscription and Maha Sada, ND, vol.15, 1991, pp.23-30.
2
Ray, H. P., Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas, Delhi, 1986, p. 42.
 34

more faith on inscriptional evidence in a quest for an absolute (sic.!) Satavahana

chronology.1

One can not but agree with these views, especially the last comment about the

arbitrariness. But these facts do not really undermine the importance of numismatic

evidence. As it is clearly seen, Ray has not performed an integrated study on the coins

themselves. Her observations stem from the fact that she has relied, again, on the

hitherto published material. Most of the interpretations one encounters in numismatic

literature are, as she notes, of arbitrary nature. But this is solely due to the fact that

numismatists themselves have not utilized the methodologies at their disposal while

commenting on the data published by them, and have shirked from interdisciplinary

approach. Most of the numismatic literature on the subject of the Satavahanas is of the

data reporting type of research. Data interpretations through heuristical and

hermeneutical studies have largely been not applied. Whenever an attempt is made, the

logic has been virtually confined to adjudication of the Puranic accounts with

numismatic data. In absence of an empirical treatment the published numismatic data

has retained its ambiguity. So it amounts to the fact that inadequate studies on the coins

have given raise to this situation, and not the coins themselves.

In continuation of this thought, it would be proper to delineate the numismatic

methodologies, which can enable the successful utilization of coin evidence for

historical reconstruction. The methods can be grouped under following headings: -

1) Type Characteristics each coin belongs to a particular type depending on what it

depicts. The primary elements constituting the type are legend and motif, while the

secondary elements can be its metallic contents, shape, weight and other physical

characteristics. Each of these has a crucial part to play in attempts to squeeze historical

1
ibid., p.49.
 35

information out of a coin. Legends signify the issuing authority and have direct

historical bearings, similar to a contemporary inscription. Their language, script,

grammar, and paleography each can constitute historical evidence. The last mentioned

subject, i.e. paleography of coin legend, however, has to be utilized with great caution.

As the coin offers a very limited space for the legends to be inscribed many times the

paleographic details are threatened with distortion. This is especially true when long

legends such as those seen on Western Kshatrapa coins, have to be accommodated in

relatively small space. The placement of the legend can also affect the paleographic

details to vary. Placing the legend in exergue can cause more distortion than a placement

in straight line. Because of these restrictions it is often hazardous to lay foundations of

evidence, more specifically the dating of a coin, with emphasis on coin legends.

As regards the motifs on Satavahana coins are concerned, they constitute animate and

inanimate depictions. The inanimate depictions mainly include symbols, both natural

(like tree or river) and geometric (like the Ujjain symbol). Animate depictions include

representations of animals and human forms, even divinities. The historical value of

motifs lies with their origin and transmission. The origin might provide evidence about

religious affinities of the issuer and in case the motif has been copied from another coin

series, the point and nature of contact of the issuers of the two coin series. The

transmission and similarity of motifs within two members of the same dynasties

indicates their close coexistence in the dynastic succession. Many times the motifs are

mint-specific and assume a form of mintmark. It helps to categorize coins on the basis of

their geographical distribution.

2) Type Succession this is especially important at a dynastic interface during the

transition from the rule of one dynasty to the other. The coin type is governed by the
 36

acceptance factor. It has to be popular with the people who use it to make it accepted.

This sounds strange to the modern ear where the concept of private coinage has virtually

died out. But it is to be noted that in India, mintage was never a prerogative of the

government. Only during the periods of establishment of empires with strong central

control the government assumed the coining rights. After the advent of Islam, wherein

having the rulers name inscribed on coins had theocratic significance, the central

control of mints obtained an ideological basis in India. In ancient India such centralized

control of mints was established, perhaps, in the time of the Guptas, as seen from the

uniformity established in their coinage, specially the high value coins of gold. But before

the Gupta period, such a central control, in all probability, did not exist. The non-

indigenous rulers such as the Greeks or the Kushanas are to be left out of the scope of

this statement. Coining was essentially a result of farming the mint rights to a private

party, who would ensure the supply of coins to the people in a form or type they wanted

and accepted as current depending on the economic need. It is likely that the role of the

state was to enforce the basic standards of weight and metals and to ensure that they are

maintained. Minting coins was thus an enterprise, which could be set up at a fee to the

government.

Direct fallout of this system was the rich variety of types that is encountered in ancient

Indian coins. Depending on the acceptance of people at different times and places the

moneyers supplied them with coins that were acceptable. What makes a particular type

acceptable depends on several variables such as religious affinities popular at a

particular place and time, the artistic palatability in society, the economic conditions,

etc. They form a study on their own and are out of the scope of this research. A sudden

change in the type of coins in circulation is therefore not possible. That would make the
 37

coins instantly unacceptable, liable to be discounted and serve as a threat to the

economy. As a result, at a point where one ruling entity succeeds the other, it can not

switch to its own characteristic coinage, if any, at that instance. It has to bear in mind

what is acceptable to its new subjects. The outcome of this is that the new rulers almost

invariably continue the older monetary order, along with its constituent coin types. This

phenomenon is termed as type succession. It is interesting to note that in such efforts

even when the type in general kept constant, the new ruling entity makes its presence

known to the masses by incorporating its own character in it. The best known examples

of such type succession in India exist at the interface of Rajput-Afghan supremacy in the

north. The incoming Afghan ruler Muhammad bin Sam issued coins in Bayana and

Kannauj exactly emulating the representation of goddess Lakshmi as seen on the coins

of his predecessors Kumarapala and Govinda Chandra Deva respectively, but substituted

his own name instead of theirs. The type succession in this case is so faithful that even

the regional variations in the script seem to have been kept intact. It is clear that the

same moneyer struck these coins for both these ruling entities.

Such study can prove extremely enlightening to students of Satavahana numismatics

although it has not been attempted in great details. A few notices have been mA.D.e but

they deserve further elucidation. The evidence that emerges out of type succession is

qualitative, discernable and therefore infallible.

3) Hoard Analysis the term hoard refers to a group of coins, deliberately deposited

and found as an aggregate at a later date. Hoards can be of two types, namely an

emergency hoard which includes coins deposited under duress, or compelling

transitory situations; and a savings hoard, containing coins accumulated over the years

with a view to save and utilize at a later date. This nature of the hoard is immediately
 38

evident after its find. Emergency hoard usually contains less type variation, while

Savings hoard contains greater type variation.

Analyzing the hoard demands a careful study of the coins contained with a view to

establish its type contents, and their classification. Reading of the legends and

establishing under whose authority the coins were issued is also important. The physical

condition of the coins is worth assessing, and compared between the contents of the

hoard can give an idea about the circumstances under which the hoard was deposited.

Generally it can be safely surmised that the hoard must have been deposited near to the

chronological placement of the freshest coins contained in it.

Hoard analysis can be an invaluable source of information because hoards encapsulate

the political and socio-economic conditions of the times. If the contents of a hoard bear

dates, importance of the hoard is magnified several times. Unfortunately this is not the

case with Satavahana coins. However, a careful study of the type contents can bring

forth a numismatic chronology that can help in absence of dated coins.

Numerous hoards of Satavahana and related coins are reported. The most famous of

them are the Chanda and Tarhala hoards, contents of which have significant bearings on

the history of the later Satavahanas. Similarly, the Wategaon hoard containing coins of

Siva Sri Pulumavi and Skanda Satakani is important for its evidence on the dynastic

succession. The analysis of Brahmapuri hoard of Kura coins has helped in establishing

the order of succession among rulers of that dynasty. The contents of Jogalthembi hoard

are famous for the numismatic substantiation of historical facts known from epigraphs.

The coins in this hoard suggest the re-establishment of Satavahana hegemony after the

defeat of Kshatrapa Nahapana at the hands of Gautamiputra Satakani.

 39

4) Counterstrikes Coins can be struck more than once on a single planchet. When the

die of the same coin is, intentionally or unintentionally, struck twice or more times then

the coin is said to be restruck. When one coin is used as a planchet for striking another

coin, it is said to have been counterstruck. The coin type upon which the other dies are

struck is referred to as the undertype, while the type constituting the coin struck later is

called as an overtype.

Counterstriking of coins can be motivated by the political or economic compellations.

When one king succeeds his adversary, he can counterstrike the latters coins. The coins

passing from one kingdom to the other are liable to be counterstruck in order to

assimilate them in the currency system existing there. This occurs particularly in the

circumstances where the currency standards are complimentary to each other, and

counterstriking eliminates the steps of melting, refining and refabricating the coins

coming in via trade. In this process the issuing authority is simply exchanged by

replacing the stamp of one authority by the other. It also sometimes indicates a scarcity

of coins in the recipient kingdom.

The evidence forwarded by counterstruck coins is often conclusive as it provides a

terminus post quem for the undertype unless otherwise proved. It can be asserted with

certainty that the issuing authority of the undertype existed either before, or as near

contemporary with that of the overtype. This can prove valuable evidence for the

interdynastic or intradynastic order of succession. In case of coins where at least one

type is dateable, counterstriking assumes great significance for chronological placement

of the other. In case where the authorities have struck each others coins, it can be

deduced that they were contemporary.

 40

5) Provenance: - This term is used to describe the geographic orientation of the find

spot of a coin or a group / hoard of coins. It can be usually deduced that there exists a

relationship between the geographical extension of a particular kingdom and dispersion

of its coins. Defining such a relationship is however not an easy task, for the simple fact

that coins tend to move as objects of a monetary exchange medium, and it can be

hazardous to conclude that the issuing authority extended its sway to every area in which

its coins have been found. This is specifically true for a period in Indian history wherein

coins passed as currency solely on the basis of their precious metal content, regardless of

the fact that some authority other than that ruling the territory under consideration had

issued them. Thus, Roman gold and silver coins freely circulated in South India, even

when the region was never under direct control of Rome. But the logic works fine when

applied to currency of the base metal regime, where coins of a particular type circulated

in certain area depending on the choice of the people using them. In such cases the

occurrence of coins issued in particular types by the issuing authority within a particular

region can be safely converted into a surmise that the region, in all probabilities, formed

the part of the kingdom of the issuing authority.

The occurrence of coins alone can not be the basis of such important historical

conclusions. The nature of the coin find has also to be analyzed carefully. A necessary

minimum number of coins have to be found to categorize the find as of historical

significance. The establishment of this minimum threshold is the most difficult

element in the treatment of evidence on the basis of provenance. However, critical

assessment of hoards, excavation reports with proper stratigraphical placement details,

and field studies in case of coins procured from scavenging communities can prove

useful criteria in culling the historical information from the variable Provenance. After
 41

repeated considerations, the minimum threshold of coin finds to denote any

characteristic provenance for the coins of the Satavahana era was established at 10%

of the total coins found.

This discussion brings us to the most important methodological aspect of this thesis,

which is described, in greater details in the subsequent chapter. This aspect in its general

form constitutes one of the chief characteristics of Satavahana coinage. But it has not

been utilized as a source of historical information. The description of the aspect, its

definition and scope, the application of numismatic methodologies in connection with

this aspect towards historical reconstruction, and noting the observations is the essence

of this thesis. Hence the incorporation of the words historical Analysis in the title of

this thesis.
 42

INTRODUCTION Part 2
 43

The characteristics of Satavahana coinage

Having discussed the importance of numismatic evidence for the reconstruction of

Satavahana history and delineated the methodologies, we shall devote certain space

towards study of the characteristics of Satavahana coinage and examination of them as

sources of historical evidence. Applying the classification employed by Guillaume1

following variables can be categorized as contributing to the characteristics of

Satavahana coinage. They have been broadly classified as intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic variables are those which can be directly examined from the coin itself, while

extrinsic variables are other factors than those which can be directly seen from the coins.

I) Intrinsic Variables

A) Physical i. Material

ii. Weight

iii. Method of manufacture

B) Geometrical - i. Shape

ii. Dimensions

C) Semiotic - i. Type

ii. Legend

II) Extrinsic Variables

i. Provenance

Each of these variables contributes to the characteristics of Satavahana coinage. As far

as materials are concerned, Satavahana coins are chiefly known in baser metals like lead,

copper and alloys thereof. Following are the details of the material of Satavahana coins

1
Guillaume, O., Analysis of Reasoning in Archaeology, New Delhi, 1990, pp.23-24.
 44

1. Copper

2. Bronze (Copper + Tin)

3. Brass (Copper + Zinc)

4. Potin (Copper + Lead)

5. White Potin (Copper + Lead + Tin)

6. Yellow Potin (Copper + Lead + Zinc)

7. Arsenical copper ( Copper + Arsenic)

8. Lead

9. Silver

Previous researchers have taken great liberties at describing the material of the

Satavahana coins. The most confusing have been White and Yellow Potin, which can be

confused as Silver and Brass respectively. Detailed metallographic studies have not been

performed on Satavahana coins, and as such comments on their metallic composition,

especially in case of alloyed metals remain largely speculative and arbitrary.

The material of its composition decides the weight of the coins. In case of Satavahana

coins various weight ranges have been observed. As far as the Silver coins are concerned

they are found to weigh around the Greek Drachma standard of 2.4 -2.6 gms. The lead

coins generally conform to a standard of 8.0 gms, which is seen to fluctuate depending

upon the region in which the coins circulated. The coins of other metals however show a

great range for their weights, which is seen to be type-specific.

Like the metallic composition, the method of manufacture of Satavahana coins has also

been the subject of speculation and arbitrariness. Remarks passed by many scholars on

the method of manufacture are not substantiated. The method can be described basically

as combination of two elementary technologies

 45

1. Techniques to produce the blanks of coins: - the blanks can be prepared from the

constituent metal by melting it and adding to it certain additives, which improvise the

manufacturing process at various stages. For example, Arsenic was added to Copper to

make it more malleable. The molten metal can be beaten into sheets, which can be cut

with clippers to give blanks of required size and weight. A novel way to make blanks

was to melt the metal in required amount and allow it to cool atmospherically. The result

would be a globule of the metal, which could then be flattened to yield a blank. Casting,

a process in which the molten metal would be poured into casts or moulds of required

size, was also employed in making of blanks. The mould, allowed to cool, would then be

broken. The blanks were then severed from the shaft and residual metal recycled.

2. Techniques to produce coins from the blanks: - the coins can be prepared from blanks by

employing dies. The use of single, double or multiple dies results in coins of various

sorts. A single die, when impressed upon a blank yields a unifaced coin, while the use of

two dies, from above and below the blank, gives a coin with impressions on both sides.

The employment of multiple dies results in several impressions on a single blank and the

resultant coin appears punched rather than struck. Hence the term Punch- marked

coins employed by numismatists.

3. Casting: - this technique combines the methods to produce blanks and coins. The molten

metal could be poured into moulds, which bear the impressions in intaglio. These are

then transferred on the metal as it cools in the mould to yield a coin.

Coins have to be subjected to a number of scientific tests to ascertain which of the

methods described above has been employed in their manufacture. Mere physical

examination of a coin is not sufficient to make a generalized statement about the method

of its manufacture. But unfortunately in case of Satavahana coins this is what seems to
 46

have happened. Researchers like Sarma have opined that certain types of Satavahana

coins are totally cast ones1, whereas in reality even physical examination has failed to

elucidate any signs of employment of casting. In absence of substantiative evidence,

expressing views about methods of manufacture can prove hazardous, and therefore will

be left out of the scope of this thesis.

The intrinsic variables of shape and dimension are useful in describing the Satavahana

coins to a greater detail. As the process of making coins was far from mechanized, the

coins are of various shapes and sizes. But mainly round and rectangular shapes

predominate with complete absence of triangular coins. Clipping of coins to adjust the

weight seems to have been practiced, giving rise to polygonal coins.

The type and legend form very important characteristics of Satavahana coins. The types

are multifarious and display flora and fauna along with geometric representations and

portrayals of royal personages. The legends are in Prakrit, and conform to the classical

notion about the Satavahanas, known to have patronized Prakrit as a state language. It is

also evident from their inscriptions, not a single of which is inscribed in Sanskrit. The

legends are further characterized by their endings in the genitive case. Paleographic

variations are evident only in case of certain letters, such as W (wa), T (ta-dental), M

(ma) and Ch (chha).

Importance of the extrinsic variable Provenance has been already noted while discussing

the methodologies. As far as Satavahana coins are concerned, the spread of their finds

has been confined more or less to the present geographical regions of West Malwa, East

Malwa, Saurashtra and Southeast Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

A word of caution may be expressed here about the tendency witnessed in the earlier

researches on Satavahana coins to group and describe the find spots of coins according

1
CSE, p.86
 47

to the Classical geographic regions, such as Aparnta, Avanti, kra, etc. The source of

inspiration for such mentions is most likely the contemporary inscriptions like the

eulogy of Gautamiputra Satakani (Nasik)1 and Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman (Girnar)2,

which include references to the conquests of these kings in terms of these Classical

geographic areas. The difficulty experienced in such attempts is that most of these areas

are not demarcated in exact details, and their borders are very diffuse. Under these

circumstances it can be hazardous to include or exclude a particular modern place where

a coin has been found into the classical areas. At the same time it can be a matter of

independent discussion. Many times the placement of a modern town into a classical

region is erroneous. For example, Mala Dutta3 includes Nasik in Aparnta, which is

generally identified with North Konkan. Now it is well known that Nasik never was, and

can not be, a part of Konkan4, and as such should not be included in Aparnta. To avoid

such controversies, it is better not to fall into the trap of describing provenance by the

classical regions. In this thesis, the provenance will therefore be indicated only by the

modern place names.

Treatment of the characteristics towards historical reconstruction:

With the set of variables as described above contributing to the characteristics of

Satavahana coinage at our disposal, the next step will be to elucidate how these can be

utilized as source of historical evidence. At the outset it should be made clear that the

attempt in this thesis is not to write a narrative history of the Satavahanas. As believed

by the modern school of historical writing, the cole des Annales, narrative history tends

to obscure the problems and implies that history has a natural flow. In attempts to link

1
Lueders, appendix, EI, vol. 10, p.122, no. 1123.
2
EI, vol. 8, pp. 36-49.
3
Mala Dutta, op. cit.. p.11.
4
The situation of Nasik is well on the Deccan plateau.
 48

all facts in a linear narrative, and there exists a great risk that an error in the beginning

of it would build up into a chain reaction and lead to erroneous conclusion at the end.

The attempt here will therefore be to take each problem or controversy on its own and

examine / analyze it in the light of evidence, supported by numismatic data and

methodologies.

The scientific method of deduction demands that a hypothesis be set up and testified,

confronting it with various facts. The numismatic way in which this can be done is to

study various aspects of the coins and use them as tests for the proposed hypothesis.

Because contrary to H. P. Rays wishes1, there can not be an absolute Satavahana

chronology, simply because the Satavahana history is very problematic and incomplete.

One can therefore say that proving everything is impossible. But one can certainly aspire

to expressly describe the propositions on which deductions are made, so that the basis,

on which historical reconstruction rests, can be distinctly seen. To create such a situation

requires, in this case, that a numismatic typology should be built up and studied. J.C.

Gardin, the logicist, defined a typology in following terms It is the systematic

matching of intrinsic properties with extrinsic attributes, through constant to-and-fro

motions between the two sets, so as to base the largest number of attributes (local,

temporal and factual) to the smallest number of observations.2 It is to be noted that the

term typology as defined by Gardin differs in its context from the synonymous term

often used by Numismatists in a rather diffuse manner. When the definition is applied to

Satavahana coins, it can be understood that the observations mentioned in the

definition are nothing but the intrinsic variables contributing to the characteristic of

coins, such as shape, weight, size, type, legend, etc. and the extrinsic attribute would

1
Ray, H. P., op. cit.
2
Gardin, J. C., Archaeological Constructs: An Aspect of Theoretical Archaeology, Cambridge, p. 76.
 49

be the provenance. In short, the numismatic typology for Satavahana coinage can be

evolved on studying the provenance along with the intrinsic properties of Satavahana

coins.

Regiospecificity: the chief characteristic of Satavahana coinage

When such a study is attempted, an important observation becomes evident. The

intrinsic properties of Satavahana coins are oriented to the provenance. In other words,

the Satavahana coins show a marked geographic orientation, as far as their weight,

metal, size and most importantly the entity that all these attributes constitute, the TYPE,

is concerned. It becomes evident that only certain types circulated in certain areas. This

particular phenomenon has been termed as Regiospecificity of the Satavahana coinage.

The term has been adopted from Organic Chemistry where it is employed to denote a

kind of chemical reaction. The specific meaning it conveys, which is so appropriate to

the phenomenon observed in case of the Satavahana coins has prompted its import to

numismatics. It would be proper to elucidate briefly what constitutes Regiospecificity.

Regiospecificity can be defined as a numismatic phenomenon, in which, for a given

issuing authority, the type/types of the coins it issues are peculiar to a particular

geographic area. The types are called Regiospecific coin types, and they are

determined as such when their occurrence within that area, in a given aggregate

found by surface exploration or through excavations, equals or exceeds the

minimum threshold of 10% of the total aggregate. It is thus clear that the main

elements of Regiospecificity are the type or types of coins and the geographic area.

Regiospecificity has not been invented here. In the earliest catalogue compiled on the

Satavahana coins Rapson in seen to have noted the regional peculiarities associated with
 50

Satavahana coins.1 P. L. Gupta noted in 1972 that Satavahana coinage exhibits a marked

regional orientation of its constituent coin types2. He also forwarded a classification of

Satavahana coins in which he enlisted certain geographic areas as yielding specific coin

types. Mitchiner3 subsequently noted the localized character of low metal Satavahana

coins, and arrived at a different regional distribution. But the historical potential of this

peculiarity has not been realized. Moreover, as described earlier the mention of

provenance while describing Satavahana coins has often been subjected to the myriad of

classical geographic regions. Mitchiner has made a certain amount of geographical

confusion. For example, he puts Newasa, Kondapur and Wategaon as a single region

even though these localities are far apart, and their characteristic coin types distinct. This

has acted as the chief deterrent in realizing the historicity of Regiospecificity. It has also

been largely ignored that within the same classical geographic region there might exist

more than one specific coin type. Grouping them on the basis of the classical regions

resulted in clubbing of unrelated coin types together, resulting in erroneous classification

of Satavahana coins. Thus the importance of reporting provenance of Satavahana coins

by modern geographic regions is further accentuated when seen in the light of

Regiospecificity.

Another important observation about the Regiospecific aspect of Satavahana coinage is

that as a general rule, the areas yielding Regiospecific coin types are characterized by

the presence of a contemporary urban center. More often than not, the coins are found

today in the ruins or mounds of these ancient sites. When the aggregate of coins found at

each site is analyzed for its type contents, the preponderance of certain types over the

1
BMCAWK, p. lxx
2
Gupta, P. L. -The Coinage of the Satavahanas: Types and their Regional Distribution in Coinage of the
Satavahanas and Coins from excavations, ed. A.M. Shastri, Nagpur, 1972, pp. 41-62.
3
Mitchiner, M., Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian coinage, vol. 9, p. 860, table CXLII.
 51

others becomes immediately apparent. Many times, these types reach a virtual

exclusivity in a given aggregate. This was conspicuous frequently during the field

observations made for this research. The crossing of the minimum threshold in such

cases was evident and need not be deduced statistically. Only such types can then be

termed as the Regiospecific types of the area around that urban center. Most of the coins

constituting the Regiospecific types are of the base metals. When this nature of the coins

and the localization of the constituent coin types is juxtaposed, the observation emerges

that the Regiospecific coins served as a local currency in the base metal regime. Such a

currency was so localized that it did not circulate beyond its Regiospecific area. Indeed,

very rarely the Regiospecific coins of one area are encountered in the other. It is

observed only in case of extremely prosperous urban centers, such as Nasik and Ujjain.

Even though some Regiospecific coins are encountered in areas other than those of their

own, their number is often small, less than the minimum threshold of 10%. As such,

their occurrence does not interfere with the fundamentals of Regiospecificity. As a local

currency in the base metals, Regiospecific coins served as money of the people, and as

such, their historical importance is further amplified. Because, it is the money of the

people that reflects political and economical changes more visibly than other kinds of

currency.

The region in which these specific coins circulated offers to us a historical microcosm,

marked by the presence of the urban center and supporting its own kind of currency.

Within such a microcosm, the study and analysis of the coins constituting the

characteristic currency, i.e. the Regiospecific coins, with systematic application of

numismatic methodologies as listed above, can help to create a historical picture for that

particular area. When all such areas are delineated and studied in similar fashion, the
 52

historical picture emerged in a single microcosm can be seen in a holistic perspective.

Thus microcosmic studies can lead to macrocosmic prefigurement, and this is the

approach followed in this thesis.

Regiospecificity seems to be related with the rise of urbanism in peninsular India and the

ensuing trade patterns. A graphic illustration showing the relationship of trade routes and

sites yielding Regiospecific coins can demonstrate the link between the two. The

occurrence of Regiospecific coin types has been around the centers of development. The

contemporary urban centers, whose presence characterizes the Regiospecific areas, were

trading or monastic establishments. Some of them were also places of strategic

importance, situated on or near a trade route. The link between trade, commerce, religion

and urbanization in the Satavahana era is well established. The emergence of localized

currencies around the urban centers and the marvel that they would not circulate beyond

the economic sphere of influence of that center gives an indirect index to the process of

urbanization in the Deccan. It shows that it was still in its infancy and gradual

establishment of a uniform currency system gave way to its consolidation. The

phenomenon of Regiospecificity can therefore be viewed as an indication of transition in

the socioeconomic life in Peninsular India.

It has to be noted that Regiospecificity is not a perpetual phenomenon as far as the

Satavahana coinage is concerned. It is observed that slowly and steadily the Satavahanas

introduced at least two coin types, which have been exceptions to the Regiospecificity

phenomenon. One of them is the portrait type in silver that is encountered along the

length and breadth of the empire. The second is the all-pervasive type in potin, bearing

an Elephant with its trunk upraised on obverse and the modified Ujjain symbol, or the

Satavahana symbol on the reverse. Coins of this type have also been found throughout
 53

the empire. The term Universal coin types would be applicable to these types as

opposed to Regiospecific coin types. As will be demonstrated later in detail, both

these types have emerged late in Satavahana chronology. The portrait type is definitely

of the post-Gautamiputra Satakani period, while the Elephant type, though of an earlier

origin seems to have been popular in the later years. This is evident from the contents of

the Chanda and Tarhala hoards, which contained coins of the Satavahana rulers at the

tail end of the dynasty, exclusively of the Elephant type in potin. As a general

observation therefore, it would be appropriate to infer that Regiospecific types gave way

to the Universal types as far as Satavahana coinage is concerned. The areas yielding

Regiospecific coin types also do not remain constant over the period. In fact, after the

introduction of the universal coin types, they seem to go on dwindling in number.

Another peculiarity about the areas is that in the middle and late Satavahana period, they

seem to merge together, where one of them in which a more acceptable coin type was

circulating, takes over the neighboring the adjoining area in terms of its characteristic

coin types.

It would be appropriate to give some thought to the emergence and decline of

Regiospecific coin types at this juncture. What was the cause of such localized

currencies to emerge, and then to give way to a more uniform coinage pattern? The

answer probably lies in sociopolitical conditions of the pre-Satavahana and Satavahana

period. The Satavahana Empire was built on the vestiges of Mauryan rule in the Deccan.

However, the Maurya-Satavahana transition was not sudden and immediate, as

envisaged by the protagonists of the long chronology for the Satavahanas.

Overwhelming numismatic evidence is available to suggest that local coinages emerged

in the fragmentation that followed the decline of the Mauryas. Such local coinages were
 54

modeled initially on the five-symbol punch marked coins of the Mauryas, but soon gave

way to coins of local standards. The punch marked coins of local standards but imitating

Mauryan coins have been encountered in Vidarbha (Mangrul and Mana hoards)1,

Mallar2, and Kathiawad3, among other places. The earliest of these coins were silver

plated, faithful to the appearance of their Mauryan predecessors. But later, as parts of

local currency systems, they seem to have evolved their own standards. The evolution of

these local standards was governed, amongst others by the acceptability factor, as

described earlier. The other important factor was the fall in silver supply during the

Mauryan rule. This can be attributed to the gradual alienation with the Northwest

frontier brought about in the post-Ashokan period. The debasement occurring in the late

Mauryan punch marked coins is one direct outcome of this historical fact, the other

being inflationary economic developments. The monetary uniformity achieved during

the Mauryan rule through the introduction of the silver punch marked coins was lost

after their mintage ceased in the post-Mauryan epoch. The silver punch marked coins

however continued to be in circulation as seen form the often-encountered groups of

extremely worn punch marked coins. But as their condition worsened, they must have

been subjected to a discount, thereby gradually discouraging their use and pushing them

out of the circulation. The paucity experienced after their issue ceased, together with

their rapid disappearance from the circulation created a situation favorable to the

introduction of coins of local standards. The rate of the loss of Magadhan punch-marked

coins from circulation must have been different for different regions depending on their

economic condition. Economically flourishing areas tend to circulate coins more rapidly,

1
Kothalkar, M. J. Mana Hoard of Punch-marked Coins, ND, vol. 16, 1992, pp. 24-28.
2
Bhargava, R. R. Numismatic History of Mallar, ND, vol. 19, 1995, pp. 13-36, coins 1-2.
3
Rajgor,D.- Copper Punch-Marked Coins from Gujarat: an Interesting Phase in The Punch-Marked
Coinages, Nidhi Vol. 1 1990, pp. 5-8.
 55

thereby hastening the rate of loss in circulation, and it must have been in such areas that

localized currencies made their appearance first. The situation seems to have continued

until old punch marked coins kept on serving the function of a higher value silver

currency. It is to be noted that inscriptions of the middle and late post-Mauryan and

early Satavahana period continue to employ the denominational term Krshpaa,

(e.g. the Khpaa mentioned in the Naneghat inscription of Naganika1) thereby

indicating the continuation and impact of punch marked coins in circulation. But soon a

situation was to emerge when there would be a paucity of this desired exchange

medium. It is in this very period that we find Regiospecific Satavahana coins gain

predomination. Indeed, the number and variety of early Regiospecific types, of the pre-

Gautamiputra Satakani period is much more than the later types.

If this were the case for early Satavahana period then the logical question to tease the

brains of the numismatist would be what was the reason that ensured the demise of

Regiospecificity, and introduction of Universal types in the late Satavahana period? The

answer can be searched again in the economic and political conditions. The chief reason

for the Satavahana rulers of post-Gautamiputra Satakani period to introduce a silver

portrait coinage seems to be the fact that the coins of such nature had gained acceptance

in their kingdom. To gain such an acceptance, they had to be introduced initially by

someone in the areas where they gained the acceptance. The only ruler who could have

done it in the pre-Gautamiputra interlude was Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa. It is

extremely important to note that the silver paucity experienced probably as a result of

the Indo-Greek animosity gradually faded away as that kingdom declined under the

Scytho-Parthian onslaughts. The situation in Gujarat changed dramatically under the

establishment of the Kshaharata rule, which thrived on establishment of trade, with links

1
Buhler, Archaeological Survey of Western India, vol. 5, p.60, lines 10,11,13,14.
 56

as far as Afghanistan (through Sind, ruled by the Parthians) and the tip of Arabian

Peninsula (through the Persian Gulf). This is indicated by the coins of early Kshaharata

rulers Aubheraka and Bhumaka found in these distant lands1. Silver Indo-Greek coins

are known to have circulated extensively in Gujarat. This is substantiated by both

literary (mentions in the Periplus) and numismatic (Gogha, dist. Bhavnagar hoard)

evidence2. In fact, the Gogha hoard contained coins of Nahapana and Appollodotos, the

late Indo-Greek ruler, indicating their contemporary circulation. It is thus clear that the

inroads made by Nahapana into the Deccan introduced the silver coins of the

characteristic standard into the region. During the Kshaharata supremacy in the Deccan

the type became acceptable. It was not accidental, there were other reasons for this

sudden acceptability. The Roman trade flourished during the same period. It has been

proved by metallurgical analysis that Nahapanas silver coins were in fact manufactured

from Roman Silver. The paucity of silver was thus ended, and an exchange medium of

uniform standard was once more available. This availability sounded the death-knell for

Regiospecific coin types, which must have been cumbersome to the trade because of

their varied nature. Thus, the advent of a uniformly standard currency in a desired metal

began to push the Regiospecific coin types out of circulation. It is worthwhile to note

that inscriptions of this period (e.g. the Nashik cave no. 10 inscription of Ushavadata)

mention the denominational term Padika, derived from sanskrit Pratika, meaning

portrait.3 This evidently describes the portrait coins of Nahapana. The importance of

this denominational term seems to have eluded earlier researchers. Mirashi remarks that

1
Senior, R. C., From Gondophares to Kanishka, Butleigh (Somerset), 1997, p.17.
2
Deyell, John S.- Indo-Greek and Kshaharata Coins from Gujarat Seacoast, ND, vol. 10, 1986, pp. 16-35.
3
Senart, EI vol. 8, 1905, p.82, no. 12, lines 2-3.
 57

it was an alternative name for Karshapana1. In the inscription, however the term is

explicitly used to denote a coin of higher denomination, as the interest on the deposit

whose sum is mentioned in Karshapanas, is indicated in Padikas. This is even more

significant as it indicates not only the simultaneous circulation of the Karshapanas and

Pratikas, but also points to the inferior monetary placement of the Karshapana to the

Pratika. The inscription thus bears testimony to the period in which Pratikas, or silver

portrait coins were superceding the earlier Karshapanas in circulation.

Another extremely important aspect of Regiospecificity is towards its contribution in

classifying the coins of the Satavahana era. Previous researchers have largely

overlooked this fact. As a general rule, the coins are classified on the basis of their

motifs, i.e. the depictions that they carry. The practice has so far been to take into

account the motif alone, and naming the class after it, e.g. the lion type coins. What has

been completely sidelined is the fact that as localized currency systems, the coins

bearing an identical motif but belonging to different Regiospecific types, are completely

different. Thus, a coin bearing lion motif from Nasik is distinct in its form, fabric,

denominational standard, etc. from a coin bearing the same motif from say, Amaravati.

But a cursory glance at previously published monographs and classification employed

therein would suffice to indicate that this variance has not been taken into account 2. As a

result unrelated coins have been clubbed together and methods to make sense out of

them about purely numismatic aspects such as metrology and denominational studies

have failed completely.3 The desired modus operandi in this case is to apply the tenets of

Regiospecificity. The coins should be classified taking into account the area in which the

1
Mirashi, V. V., Satavahana ani Paschimi Kshatrapa yancha Itihas Ani Koreeva Lekha (Marathi), 1979,
p. 93, fn.1.
2
CSE, pp. 76-106.
3
See the comparative descriptions in CSE, p. 60.
 58

type circulated. The mode of classification used in this thesis is based on area as the

first classification parameter and motif as the subsequent. This is in accordance with

the nature of the coins as elements of a localized Regiospecific currency, and will ensure

their study in the right perspective. The study of purely numismatic aspects can then be

feasible in respect of each geographic region and would be free of the conundrums,

which were observed earlier. However, such a study is beyond the scope of this research

and will be left to future researches based on classification guidelines laid down herein.

Identification of the regions yielding specific coin types (Map-1)

This is the next task in evolving a methodology for the analysis of the Satavahana

coinage. It can be based on the provenance as known from reported facts in respect of

published coins, and observations emanating out of field studies in case of previously

unpublished coins. The areas are described hereunder on the basis of their rough

boundaries (indicated by the extent of finds of Regiospecific coin types), contemporary

significance, the characteristic coin types that they have yielded, and chief attributes of

the constituent coins. The description as noted earlier is on the modern geographic

placements, and order in which the regions are described is from North to the South, and

in case of latitudinal regions, roughly from West to East. A map indicating the regions

yielding specific coin types has been appended herewith.

Malwa (Madhya Pradesh):

The regions affording specific coin types in Malwa can be further classified into west

and east. The western part of Malwa contained the very important urban center of

Ujjayini, or Ujjain as it called today, known for its historical, religious and economic

significance. The presence of Vidisha, another prominent center of the post-Mauryan

 59

period, and Tripuri, the city that continued to thrive well into the early medieval era,

characterized the eastern part.

1.The lower Narmada valley (West Malwa): - the area has yielded two Regiospecific

coin types. The extent of its circulation seems to have located in West Malwa (the Nimar

plains), as indicated by frequent finds at Prakashe, an ancient site situated on the banks

of Tapi in Taluka Shahada, dist. Dhule, Maharashtra. The type depicts an elephant with

its trunk upraised, with legend placed around. The reverse bears the modified Ujjain

symbol.

A subtype of this has been encountered in the excavations at Maheshwar and

Navdatoli1. The coins of this type differ in the execution of the elephant and have two

other important characteristics. One is the presence of a hand-shaped symbol seen in

front of the elephant. It is interesting to note that a very similar symbol is encountered on

the rare inscribed coins from Ujjain, bearing the legend Ujeniye.2 The coins of this

subtype are found exclusively in the northern part of the lower Narmada valley. Another

peculiarity about coins of this subtype is that they are more or less invariably

countermarked on the reverse by a transilient lion motif. Coins bearing the same lion

motif but without any legends are also encountered. Both these types share the modified

Ujjain Symbol as the reverse mark, and as such it can be inferred that the same issuing

authority placed the countermark of lion. As the lion type coins are anepigraphic, the

authority can not be identified satisfactorily, but in all probability, a later Satavahana

ruler seems to have countermarked the coins of an earlier ruler.

2. Eran-Vidisha (East Malwa): - the coins of this region are characterized by their punch

marked nature. However, unlike the imperial Magadhan coins, they are exclusively of

1
Sankalia, H. D., et.al., Excavations at Maheshwar and Navdatoli, Poona-Baroda, 1958.
2
Allan, J., BMCAI, class 7, nos. 134-135, p. 262, pl. XXXVII 15,16.
 60

copper. They seem to have been struck initially without legends, but later the names of

certain kings like Damabhadra, Vishnumitra, Hathadeva, Narayanamitra, etc. make their

presence in one of the punches on the coins.1 Metrologically, they can be divided into

three denominations. The characteristic coins of the Satavahanas in this region conform

to the nature of other coins described above. They are punch-marked issues in copper

and seem initially to carry very similar punches to their counterparts. But a close

examination reveals the replacement of some symbols by those, which clearly have a

Satavahana affinity, like the elephant with upraised trunk, and most importantly the

modified Ujjain symbol. The Satavahana issues can be further classified depending on

the issuing authority, and arrangement and nature of the symbols. It is interesting to note

that certain uninscribed punch-marked copper coins of the Eran-Vidisha region, which

are numismatic predecessors of Satavahanas in the region, are found countermarked

with the modified Ujjain symbol. Probably, these are the earliest Satavahana issues in

Eastern Malwa.

3. Tripuri: - the Regiospecific coins of Tripuri, situated near Jabalpur, are characterized

by the presence of an anthropomorphic figure. The uninscribed issues of the pre-

Satavahana period as well as the early dynastic issues from Tripuri all bear the symbol,

and it can be safely surmised that it was the mintmark of Tripuri. The pre-Satavahana

coins at Tripuri include those of the rulers bearing -datta ending names, chiefly known

in lead.2 The Satavahanas seem to have set a new standard to their currency in Tripuri

region, as their coins are considerably lighter than those of the Datta rulers are.

Substitution of the modified Ujjain symbol for the central symbol on obverse is another

noteworthy aspect. However, the anthropomorphic symbol is conspicuous by its

1
Tiwari, Alka Inscribed Punch-marked Coins from Eran-Vidisha Region, ND, vol. 4, pt.1, 1980, pp.1-8.
2
Bhargava R. R., Coins of the Datta and Satavahana rulers from Tripuri, ND, vol. 16, 1992, pp. 29-46.
 61

presence. At least four different varieties of Satavahana coins are known from Tripuri,

and they will be described in the catalogue.

4. Mallar: - the coins from this ancient site, situated in the Bilaspur district of Madhya

Pradesh are of the post-Mauryan period and bear a characteristic symbol. This is

composed of a horizontal bracket, placed on a triangle. It can be best described as the

angular form of Brahmi alphabet M. Like the anthropomorphic symbol of Tripuri, this

also can be called as the mintmark of Mallar. The numismatic chronology of Mallar is

very similar to the other regions of Malwa, as described above. The earliest post-

Mauryan coins here are of a local punch-marked series, prominently bearing the angular

M-symbol. The coins of this series are silver-plated, struck to a lighter local weight

standard. The early regal issues of Mallar are of the Magha dynasty.

A unique coin found at Balpur, not far from Mallar, bearing an elephant and the angular

M-symbol, has been ascribed to Satavahana ruler Apilaka1. However, its attribution has

been questioned recently on sound numismatic grounds.2 This coin will be discussed

later in this thesis in some details.

5. Lower Narmada valley (South Malwa): - two Regiospecific Satavahana coin types are

known from this region wherein ancient centers like Nadner are present. They can be

described as follows -

1. Elephant type: - the coins of this type bear an elephant on the obverse, it has its trunk

upraised and faces to the left in profile. Its legs extend from the body as sides of a

divergent angle and this gives the elephant its characteristic form. Its tail hangs down at

the end of the body, almost like a fifth leg! A Swastika is seen placed above the

elephant, and the legend is arranged on the top in a curvilinear fashion. The reverse

1
Dixit, K. N., NS, 1927-28, pp. 93N-94N, pl. XLVII-344.
2
Gupta, P. L. Three Mallar Coins Revisited, ND, vol. 14, 1990, pp. 10-15.
 62

bears an open cross with taurines in its outer quadrants. A tree with elongated leaves

emerges out of it. The coins are chiefly known in alloyed copper and many times exhibit

beveled edges.

2. Shrivatsa type: - these coins bear a prominent Shrivatsa on the obverse. It has a

typical execution, with four circles grouped together in two rows and a central vertical

shaft. The circles have dots placed within them. The legend is arranged reading

clockwise inwards around the symbol. It begins and ends on either sides of the central

shaft. Sometimes Swastikas are seen situated on both sides of the shaft at the top. The

reverse bears an open cross and the tree coming out from its top border, much similar to

the elephant ype coins from this region.

Maharashtra

The Satavahana association with Maharashtra is extremely significant. Many scholars

believe it to be the homeland of the Satavahanas and most of their inscriptions have been

found in the cave temples of the Deccan in Maharashtra. The traditionally believed

capital of the Satavahanas was situated at Paithan, in the heart of Maharashtras

Marathwada region. It is no surprise therefore that Maharashtra should have the

maximum number of areas yielding Regiospecific coin types.

1) Prakashe: - this tiny village is situated in the extreme north of Maharashtras Dhule

district, adjoining the banks of Tapi river, to the immediate South of Malwa. Its

placement is strategic, on the trade route from Bharuch to the hinterlands of

Maharashtra. The occurrence of coins here indicates that it maintained a strong trade

connection with Malwa, as derivatives of the local Ujjain coins have been found here.

As far as the Satavahana coins are concerned, one Regiospecific type has been

encountered at Prakashe. The type is characterized by the presence of the three-arched

 63

hill topped by a triangle headed standard on obverse. Many times, a double semicircular

border showing short horizontal lines placed between it is present. This probably denotes

the symbol of river with fishes. The reverse bears the Ujjain symbol, usually modified,

and the legend placed around it. The coins of this type are exclusive copper issues.

Rarely, coins of the Regiospecific types of Malwa are also encountered from Prakashe.

Finds of coins, belonging to the Regiospecific types from the adjoining region of Nasik

(described further) are also made at Prakashe, but they are even rarer. Such occurrence is

an exception to the inter-regional exclusivity generally seen amongst Regiospecific coin

types. In this particular case it might be due to the location of Prakashe on the Nasik-

Ujjain trade route. However, the extremely significant observation is that the converse of

this occurrence is not met with, i.e. Regiospecific types of Prakashe described above are

never found in Nasik or Malwa. The flow of coins to Prakashe was thus unidirectional.

2) Sopara: - the ancient harbor of repute, lying just to the north of Mumbai city. The

place has great mythological significance, and its creation is attributed to Parashurama,

the incarnation of Vishnu. It is also noteworthy for the stupa, which king Ashoka had

caused to be built, and the fragmentary minor edict of the king that was found there.

During the Satavahana times, the town emerged as one of the major trading centers on

the West Coast and finds mention in the Periplus.

The Regiospecific coin type of Sopara is characterized by the three-arched hill on

obverse flanked by the battle-axe either on its left or right side. The legend surrounds

this motif. The reverse bears the Ujjain symbol.1 The occurrence of the battle-axe is

important, as it is the attribute of Parashurama, the mythical creator of the Sopara region.

Sometimes, the coins of Sopara are encountered in the aggregates of coins found by

scavenging in the ruins of ancient sites of the Saurashtra region. They indicate maritime
 64

trade relations on the West Coast, as there was no other route for the Sopara coins to

land in Saurashtra.

3) Nasik: - the town of Nasik is of significant religious importance. Situated on the

banks of river Godavari, it is said to be spiritual equivalent of Varanasi in the South. It

also has a unique epigraphical significance to Satavahana history, as the rock-cut caves

adjoining the modern town have numerous inscriptions of nearly every prominent

Satavahana monarch. In addition, they also have inscriptions of the Kshaharata

Kshatrapas and Abhiras. The archeological mound, locally called as Matichi Gadhi, or

fortress of mud towers nearly fifty feet and spreads over an estimated area of ten acres

in the heart of the old town, along the south bank of river Godavari. It is no wonder that

a town with such an immense historical potential for Satavahana history as that of Nasik

should yield numerous Regiospecific coin types. They can be classified as inscribed and

uninscribed, and described as under

Uninscribed coin types - they are chiefly encountered in lead and are of two kinds. One

of them is similar to one inscribed type, described further. It bears a transilient lion with

its tail curled upwards on obverse, usually associated with a symbol that is placed upon

its back. The most common symbol witnessed in the series is the Swastika. The reverse

bears the modified Ujjain symbol. Rarely, a tree is seen associated with it. These coins

are of lead and mainly round. The other uninscribed type bears a bull, facing to the left

or right, on obverse. It is usually associated with the Nandipada symbol in its stylized

form placed above it. The reverse of coins of this type presents a tree with elongated

leaves within a railing, flanked by the modified Ujjain symbol. Many times their

position is interchanged and a border of dots is also added to the reverse. The coins are

1
Munshi, A. Some Satavahana Coins from Sopara, JNSI, vol. 34, 1972, pp.67-70.
 65

known to exist chiefly in lead, but rare examples in copper have also been noted. The

coins predominantly are of a rectangular shape.

Inscribed coin types these can be further classified into three different groups as

follows-

1. Lion type- the coins of this type are chiefly known in copper-based alloys, mainly

bronze, and lead. They bear on obverse a characteristic depiction of a maneless lion,

shown almost invariably in a transilient or jumping posture. Its tail curls on the back, the

ears are prominent and sometimes the paws bear curved nails. On coins of one subtype,

the lion is seen sitting on its hind legs. An important type characteristic of the lion-type

coins is that the obverse bears certain other symbols alongside the lion motif. These

symbols are either prominent or minor, and depending on their nature can be termed as

associated and ancillary, respectively. The associated symbols chiefly include the

Swastika, the Nandipada, or the triangle-headed standard. They are placed on the back

of the lion. The Swastika in its clockwise or anti-clockwise form has been noticed most

frequently. The ancillary symbols are usually placed in front of the lion. However, the

same symbol never occurs as associated and ancillary symbol. The legend is arranged

around this entire motif, and can be inscribed in three ways - clockwise (reading

inwards), anti-clockwise (reading outwards) or retrograde. Many times a border is seen

enclosing the legend and the motif. It can be a dotted border, or a double-lined border,

either plain or with fishes or small Swastikas placed between the lines.

The reverse of the lion type coins can be of two kinds. One bears a tree in railing and the

modified Ujjain symbol. The positions of these symbols might interchange with respect

to each other. The tree within the railing is characteristic for this type, and shows

beautifully elongated leaves that are broad at the base and gradually narrow down
 66

towards the apex. They can number from five to seven. On the coins of the subtype

where the lion is sitting, the reverse is different. Here it shows a six-arched hill

surmounted by a tree in railing. The other kind of reverse bears only the modified Ujjain

symbol with stylized representations of Nandipadas placed in the Four Corners. The

reverse motifs are also enclosed within a border. Several kinds of borders have been

noticed, ranging from plain and linear to dotted and double.1

2. Elephant type-I the coins of this type are essentially similar to the lion type coins,

but instead of the lion they bear an elephant in walking posture, facing either to left or to

right. Another noteworthy difference is while the lion type coins are mainly known in

bronze, the elephant type-I coins are chiefly of yellow potin. The trunk of the elephant is

almost invariably raised, but certain rarer issues in lead are known in a variety where the

trunk hangs down. Like the lion type coins, the coins of this type also display a border

for the obverse. The reverse is also essentially the same, bearing the tree in railing and

the modified Ujjain symbol. It also has a border enclosing these motifs. The similarity in

type-characteristics for the lion- and the elephant-type I coins may point to the fact that

they must have been issued by the same authority.

3. Elephant type-II the type differs from its namesake noted above in terms of its

fabric, execution and metallic composition. The coins of this type are exclusively of

copper or copper-based alloys. The most prominent alloy utilized in the manufacture of

these coins is probably a kind of potin, and characterized by its smooth finish and

shining Grey tone. Th execution of the elephant is entirely different. It has thin legs, a

strange conical head and a slender bifurcated trunk. The important observation is that it

carries a stubby vase on its back, which can be identified as a kind of amphora. The

1
For a detailed description of these coins, see Maheshwari, K. K., and Bhandare S. U., Lion type
Satavahana Coins from Nasik, ND, vol. 20, 1996 (published 1998), pp. 49-69.
 67

legend is arranged around the elephant, and many times a wavy line is seen placed

below the feet of the elephant.

The reverse of these coins varies according to the metallic composition and weight.

While the heavier coins are consistently encountered as made of the peculiar potin

described above, the lighter coins are either of bronze or Arsenical copper. The heavy

coins bear a splendid tree within an ornate railing. The tree has elongated pedicillate

leaves, which droop downwards as they approach the edge of the coin. The aesthetic

value is further enhanced as pedicels are shown to extend to the leaf tips, dividing the

leaf into two chambers, and dots are placed alternatively between the leaves. The railing

seen on coins of this type is unique, and exhibits mutually interwoven diagonal lines in

its center. Overall, the type displays an archaic beauty. The reverse of the smaller coins

also shows an exceptional representation of the modified Ujjain Symbol. Enclosed

within a double border, the symbol is placed diagonally, and its shafts are shown as

double lines. Concentric circles form the orbs and the entire motif is embellished by

addition of dots.

4. Elephant type-III the coins of this type are homogeneously encountered in potin.

They bear on obverse a realistically executed elephant, shown with its trunk upraised.

The modified Ujjain symbol is seen placed on the back of the elephant. The legend is

arranged around the motif, and takes a jump when it confronts the modified Ujjain

symbol. It creates an illusion that the legend is discontinuous. The elephant, most

importantly, is displayed in association with an amphora, placed in its front. Sometimes

a wavy line is seen below its feet.

 68

The reverse of these coins bears a beautiful tree in railing, with elliptical or pentagonal

leaves, with dots alternating between them. On some coins the Ujjain symbol is

superimposed on the tree.

Apart from the Satavahana coins, the region of Nasik has also yielded specific coin types

of the Kshaharata Kshtrapa Nahapana. They are similar to the elephant types-II and III

of the Satavahanas. They bear in addition to the elephant on obverse, the dynastic

scepter of the Kshaharata family. It includes the thunderbolt and an arrow. Two varieties

can be identified depending upon the placement of the arrow. In the first, the arrow is

placed in the front of the elephant, while in the latter, it is seen on the back of the

elephant. The thunderbolt is always seen above the elephant. The coins of the second

variety are known only in potin, while some coins of the first variety are encountered in

copper. The reverse bears a tree akin to the Satavahana coins of elephant type-III, but it

shows chambered leaves, similar to those seen on the elephant type-II.

4. Newase-Paithan: - the site of Newase, situated in the Ahmednagar district of

Maharashtra and adjacent to the river Pravara, is one of the most extensively studied

archaeological sites in India. The excavations conducted by Sankalia, et.al. have shed

important light on the chalcolithic and early historical period in Maharashtra1. The

ancient mound at Newase is known locally as Ladmod Tekdi (Ladmod hillock). The

town of Paithan rests on the banks of river Godavari. It boasts of great antiquity, with

mentions of its inhabitants among the subjects of Ashoka, and inscriptional references in

the caves of Pitalkhora and the Stupa of Sanchi. The archaic name of the town was

Pratishthana, and in the Geography of Ptolemy it is noted as Baethana. Traditionally,

it has been identified as the capital of the Satavahanas and the claim seems to have

substantiated by Ptolemy, who identifies it as the seat of Siri Polemaios, the Satavahana
 69

monarch2. Unfortunately, continued habitation at the site has hindered detailed

archaeological exploration. Nevertheless, the exploits of the scavenging communities

and discernment of collectors has left a wealth of archaeological material like coins,

seals and terracotta figurines.

Regiospecifically, the sites at Newase and Paithan seem to have yielded coins of

common types. They are inscribed as well as uninscribed. The placement of the two

towns is not far, as the crow flies, and in all probability they formed a common area of

economic influence. This is a generalization that follows the concomitant finds of same

coin types at both these places. The types can be described as follows

Uninscribed coin types

1. Transilient lion type: - these coins bear a profile lion in transilient or jumping posture

on the obverse. The tail of the lion is depicted curled at the end. The constituent coins of

this type are almost exclusively of lead, with rare exceptions known in copper.

Sometimes the execution of lion is seen to have been improved and in such cases, the

lion is accompanied by minute associated symbols. The Nandipada is most frequently

encountered amongst them. The reverse of the coins bears the characteristic tree in

railing motif seen on other Regiospecific coin types from Newase-Paithan. This type

link substantiates the attribution of the coins to the Satavahanas.

2. Tree type: - coins of this type are essentially similar to those of the inscribed six-

arched hill type, but bear the tree on the obverse instead of the reverse. The reverse of

these coins bears the Ujjain symbol. Nonavailability of sufficient specimens to perform a

full die study precludes a comment on whether the symbol has been depicted in its

modified form. Coins are chiefly known in alloyed copper and in absence of an

1
Sankalia, H. D., et.al., From History to Prehistory at Newasa (1954-56), Poona, 1960.
2
McCrindle, J. W., Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, London, 1885.
 70

indicative legend, their attribution to the Satavahanas is founded on their similarity with

the inscribed Regiospecific six-arched hill type.

3. Lion type: - the coins of this type are very small rectangular lead pieces bearing a

standing lion, facing to the right. The placement of this type amongst uninscribed coin

types is rather incongruent, as in extremely rare instances, traces of legend have been

noticed. At least a single coin bears a truncated legend, which can be restored to one of

the Satavahana names. It is probable that the coins might have borne legends, but most

of them seem to have it out of the visible field. The reverse bears the modified Ujjain

symbol. The occurrence of the single coin with a restorable name and the similarities

which the other coins bear with it justifies the attribution of these coins to the

Satavahanas. Another important observation about these coins is their occurrence at

Paithan only.

Inscribed coin types -

1. Elephant type: - the coins of this type display an elephant in a walking posture, facing

to the right. It is characterized by its upraised trunk, prominent tusks and broad semi-

triangular stumps of feet. The ears of the elephant are executed in a curious way,

represented as an incused triangle on its temple. The motif of elephant is accompanied

by associated symbols. One of them is characteristic to the coin type. It looks like a

primordial form of the modified Ujjain symbol. It is composed of four ellipses, one of

which is surmounted by a crescent. The ellipses are diagonally arranged. The symbol

therefore appears like the usual modified Ujjain symbol, but is devoid of the shafts

connecting the orbs. The other associated symbol usually occurs in front of the elephant.

Triangle-headed standard or Shrivatsa have been noticed. The coins of this type are

encountered in brass, yellow and white potin, Arsenical copper and less frequently, in
 71

lead. The legend is arranged along the elephant and sometimes is seen to encircle the

entire motif. The reverse of the coins is typical for the type, and displays a tree within an

elongated rectangular railing, bearing ellipsoid leaves, which spread away from the

center. The leaves may or may not end in projections. The tree in railing is surrounded

by ancillary symbols. Prominent among them is the river with fishes (placed below the

tree in railing) and bold Shrivatsa and Nandipada (flanking the tree in railing). Many

times a circular border with intermittent Shrivatsa symbols is visible enclosing the entire

motif.

There exist certain subtypes of the elephant type of Newase-Paithan region. A detailed

scheme of these will be presented in the corpus, but it would be worthwhile to enlist the

most noteworthy here. One of these subtypes exhibits a variation of the elephant as well

as the tree. Here the elephant is executed with more realism and a curved line is seen

placed below it. The tree on reverse has distinctly pointed leaves and they are arranged

on the central stalk juxtaposed to each other. The ancillary symbols are absent. The

finesse in execution may indicate a later date for the coins of the subtype. Another

subtype bears the elephant with a much different execution. The peculiarity of this

subtype is the occurrence of the legend on the reverse. The coins of both these subtypes

do not differ in metallic composition from their counterparts of the elephant type,

described above.

2. Bull type: - the noteworthy feature of this type is that most of its constituent coins are

complimentary to those of the elephant type, in terms of fabric, execution of motifs and

metallic composition. The difference occurs at the main motif. Coins of this type have a

horned bull instead of the elephant. The associated symbols also differ. While the

triangle-headed standard retains its place on some coins, the primordial form of the
 72

modified Ujjain symbol is conspicuously absent. On some coins, the three-arched hill

takes its place. The Shrivatsa is seen to have replaced the triangle-headed standard in

some coins, as seen in the elephant type coins. The legend surmounts the bull motif but

never surrounds it. One coin of the bull type, found in the Newasa excavations 1, displays

beautiful arrangement of ancillary symbols around the tree in railing on the reverse.

They include the Shrivatsa, Nandipada, Swastika and the triangle-headed standard.

The bull type coins are also encountered in copper, unlike the elephant type coins, which

are usually of an alloyed nature. The copper coins are usually square and of lighter

weight than those of alloyed metals. They bear the bull on obverse executed in the same

way as on the other coins, but the ancillary symbols on reverse are either absent, or

present as minor marks. The obverse sometimes bears associated symbols.

3. Seated lion type: - the coins of this type are mainly encountered in alloyed copper,

perhaps brass. They bear on the obverse a lion seated in profile on its hind legs. The

legend is seen arranged alongside the lion. The reverse bears a tree in railing similar to

that encountered on the bull and elephant type coins. Minor ancillary symbols are seen

on the reverse.

4. Gajalakshmi type: - coins of this type are of lead and so far found only at Paithan. The

type is linked to the other Regiospecific types by the presence of the typical tree in

railing on the reverse. The obverse bears the depiction of Gajalakshmi, the goddess of

wealth and fertility. She is shown standing on a lotus, and two elephants, also standing

on lotuses, are shown lustrating her with pots in their upraised trunks. The legend is

placed above the motif.

5. Six-arched hill type: - the constituent coins of this type are lightweight rectangular

pieces of alloyed copper, and bear a six-arched hill on obverse. The legend, usually seen

1
Sankalia, H. D., et.al., op. cit. (1960), p. 179, No. 6659
 73

truncated, is placed around the hill motif. The reverse bears a tree, which has a central

shaft and the branches emanate from it in a parallel fashion. The ends of the branches are

rounded with projections, indicating the leaves.

6. Ujjain symbol type: - the coins of this type are of Arsenical copper. A sole example is

known in lead. These bear the modified Ujjain symbol on obverse. The legend is

arranged around the symbol. The reverse bears a tree. It appears to have a railing, but it

is not clearly evident in most coins. The tree is different in execution to that on the other

Regiospecific coin types. It bears leaves that are typically split at the midvein.

7. Profile lion type: - unlike the other types listed above the coins of this type are both

inscribed and uninscribed. They depict a maned lion on obverse, standing in profile. The

execution of the lion is rather clumsy, and the legend is arranged encircling the entire

motif. The inscribed coins have so far been encountered showing the lion facing to the

left, but uninscribed coins have the lion facing either to left or the right. The coins are

exclusively lead issues.

Alongside the Satavahana coins the region of Newase-Paithan has also yielded

Regiospecific coin types of the Kshaharata Kshatrapa Nahapana. Unlike the coins of

this ruler from Nasik, these coins are chiefly counterstruck varieties. The undertypes

utilized for counterstriking are of three types the elephant type, the tree type and the

six-arched hill type. Only the coins of alloyed copper are found counterstruck. No coin

of lead has been found counterstruck by Nahapana. An interesting feature of these

counterstrikes is that they share a common device. All the undertypes had the tree in

railing motif, yet it is seen that the same motif has been utilized by Nahapana to

counterstrike the coins. This discretion seems to be maintained to retain the type

characteristics and not to cause a sudden change in the existing currency. Care seems to
 74

have been taken to eliminate the motifs with greater Satavahana affiliations. Thus, the

elephant, the Ujjain symbol and the six-arched hill, all are replaced by the dynastic

scepter of Nahapana, the thunderbolt and arrow. Legend seems to have been a part of the

counterstriking device of obverse but it is not clearly ascertained on coins. The

counterstriking of Satavahana coins by Nahapana, retains one of the elements of the

undertypes, and is not as drastic as the more famed counterstriking of his silver coins by

Gautamiputra Satakani.

Apart from counterstriking the Satavahana coins, Nahapana also issued his own

Regiospecific coins in the Newase-Paithan region. They retain the metrological

characters of the Satavahana coins and also one of the motifs. The same devices, which

were employed, for counterstriking are seen to have been utilized to strike independent

coins. The noteworthy feature of these coins is the occurrence of legend around the

thunderbolt and arrow motif. Nahapana has been styled as a Mahakshatrapa on these

coins, a title higher than Kshatrapa, seen on his silver issues. The retaining of one of

the devices of the Satavahana coins and employment of the same denominational system

together categorize the independent as well as counterstruck issues of Nahapana as a

type succession to the Satavahana coins. This type succession in the Newase-Paithan

region is crucial for establishment of the chronology for the coin types and inter alia, for

the historical reconstruction. It will be discussed at an appropriate place further in the

thesis.

4. Junnar: - the town apparently derives its name from Sanskrit Jra-nagara, which

means a town of antiquity. True to its name, the environs of Junnar, situated in the Pune

district on the banks of the river Kukdi, have scores of ancient monuments. As far as the

density is concerned, the hills adjoining the town offer one of the most prolific clusters
 75

of Buddhist monastic establishments, or the cave temples1. Not less than four complexes

have been known with many attempts left unfinished. The caves teem with votive

inscriptions, some of them of great historical significance, like the one of the minister of

Nahapana named Ayama, which offers a clear chronological detail of the year 46 2. The

arterial route for trade between Coast and hinterland of the Deccan in the Satavahana

epoch, the Naneghat pass, lies in close vicinity of Junnar. In fact, the emergence of

Junnar as an urban center has been linked closely with its proximity to the pass. Given

the inseparable link between trade, urbanization and monastic establishments during this

period, it is not surprising that the environs of Junnar should have so many caves.

Another significant establishment for Satavahana history near Junnar is the Devakula,

or Satavahana family shrine situated at the apex of the Naneghat pass. It is noteworthy

for its inscriptions, chiefly that of the queen Naganika, mentioning a long list of

sacrifices and donations given in their connection. The cave originally had the relievo

figures of prominent members of the queens family, which are now lost, except for the

traces of the feet of some of them. Nevertheless, the labels identifying them survive.

Both the inscription and the labels form very important historical evidence.

The find of Regiospecific coins at Junnar is a recent phenomenon. In the last ten years

the discernment of the collectors has infused the operations of the scavenging

communities at Junnar with sufficient monetary gains to prompt further discoveries.

Sites along the river Kukdi are periodically searched for Satavahana coins and many

times impressive gains are recorded. The Regiospecific coin types of Junnar may be

described as follows

Uninscribed coin types: -

1
Mitra, Debala, Buddhist Monuments, Calcutta, Reprint 1980, pp. 156-157.
2
Lueders, op.cit., no. 1174.
 76

The uninscribed coin types found at Junnar bear the Ujjain symbol enclosed within a

rectangular frame on reverse. This and other motifs suggest their similarity with the

inscribed Satavahana coins described above and hence their attribution to the

Satavahanas. The executional similarities of the motifs, which are same as those

encountered on the inscribed coins, also corroborate the attribution. Most of the

uninscribed coins are of copper and lightweight. The types can be enlisted as under

1. Shrivatsa type: - these coins bear the bold Shrivatsa symbol on obverse, as on the

inscribed coins of that type. However, the major difference apart from the absence of

legend is the occurrence of certain associated symbols with the Shrivatsa. Here, a tree in

railing, Swastikas, small taurines and Nandipadas are seen alongside the prominent

Shrivatsa, which is placed in the center. The reverse bears the Ujjain symbol enclosed in

a rectangular frame, which is some times double lined, or with dots interspersed within

the double lines.

2. Seated lion type: - the coins of this type have a lion seated in half profile on its hind

legs on obverse. It has a mane and may face to the right or the left. Its execution reminds

of the lion of inscribed lion type-II and seated lion type coins. However, other

differences ensure its classification as a different type. These include occurrence of

many small symbols around the lion, the swastikas and Nandipadas. Noteworthy is the

placement of a three-arched hill below the lion, and the occasional presence of the sun

symbol, which is unique to this type amongst all found at Junnar.

3. Standing lion / lioness type: - these coins bear a maneless lion or lioness on obverse

and a tree in railing on the reverse. The animal may face to the left or right. Its stance is

majestic and it is rarely associated with a symbol like the Ujjain symbol. The tree in

railing on the reverse is not like the usual forms of this symbol seen on Satavahana
 77

coins. It has hollow, well-executed leaves, which number from five to seven. The coins

are exclusively of copper, quite small and rectangular in shape.

4. Lion type: - the constituent coins of this type bear a lion very similar to the

characteristic Junnar lion seen on the inscribed lion type-I coins. The main difference

is that it faces to the right instead of left, and is of an inferior execution. The coins are

similar in weight and fabric to the standing lion type coins described above, and bear the

diagonally placed Ujjain symbol enclosed within a rectangle on the reverse.

Inscribed coin types -

1. Lion type -I: - coins of this type portray a majestic lion, standing in profile, facing to

the left. The depiction of the lion is so characteristic that it can be described as the

Junnar lion. The lion sports a mane composed of dots and carries a motif of three-

arched hill below its narrow waist. He is shown standing on a platform, facing a standard

to its left. Sometimes a wavy line with dots interspersed between its curves is seen

below the platform. The standard in the front of the lion consists of a ploughshare or a

ritual post enclosed in a railing, surmounted on a triangle headed standard. Very rarely, a

bow and arrow facing sideways to left replace the triangle-headed standard. The legend

is arranged above the lion motif, between the post and the hind legs of the lion. The tail

of the lion curls on its back. Collectively, the motif can be called one of the most

splendidly executed examples of Satavahana numismatic art.

The reverse of the lion type coins bears an Ujjain symbol with Nandipadas placed in its

quadrants. Certain variations in the Nandipadas have been noticed.

The lion type coins are encountered in lead and potin. The composition of the potin

coins has not been established, but the appearance of the coins suggests a range of

alloys. Some coins are made of yellow potin while others probably contain Arsenical
 78

copper. They seem to form an elaborate currency system in the base metal range with at

least three to four denominations. Many of the smaller coins do not bear the legend. The

lead coins however are comparatively infrequent, and do not exhibit as many

denominations as those of potin.

2. Lion type II: - these coins bear a maned lion, standing facing to the left, with certain

associated symbols like tiny Swastikas shown around it. The legend is prominently

displayed above the lion. The reverse bears a depiction of an elephant, executed rather

crudely, along with a triangle-headed standard. Some coins of this type are noticed

bearing the legend on the reverse. The coins are exclusively of copper.

It seems probable that the lion on this type of coins acted as a prototype for the type

listed above. The crudeness of its execution and fabric indicates that it most likely

antedated the lion type-I. The coins of this type are rare and not many specimens have

been encountered. They bear the name of one of the earliest members of the Satavahana

family (according to the Puranic narrative). The importance of these coins and certain

peculiarities associated with them will be discussed further at an appropriate place.

3. Lioness type: - these coins are similar to the lion type coins, though chiefly

encountered in lighter weights. They bear a lioness instead of the lion. It is identified by

the absence of the mane, a less robust body structure and a smaller head with pointed

ears. The legend is arranged, as in case of lion type coins, above the lioness. The ritual

post seen in front of the lion is also retained on most coins. The lioness stands on a

three-arched hill. Its tail curls on the back. The significant difference is seen on the

reverse. Here the Ujjain symbol is devoid of the Nandipadas and often enclosed in a

rectangular frame. Dots are placed within the quadrants. The placement of the Ujjain

symbol in the rectangle is diagonal.

 79

4. Seated Lion type: - the coins of this type are of Arsenical copper made of flattened

globules, as indicated by their longitudinally furrowed rounded edges and absence of a

casting shaft. They bear a lion, seated on its hind legs. Its mane is depicted suggestively

by showing a thickening at the neck. The tail of the lion curls upon its back. In front of

the lion the symbol of triangle-headed standard is seen, and below the motif, the curved

line representing a river with fishes in the curves is placed. The legend is arranged, as

usual, on the top of the lion. The reverse is very similar to the lioness type coins, bearing

the Ujjain symbol with dots placed in its quadrants, enclosed diagonally into a rectangle.

The orbs of the Ujjain symbol contain Swastikas within them.

5. Shrivatsa type: - the symbol Shrivatsa is seen prominently on the obverse of coins of

this type. The legend is arranged along the left side of it, and the reverse bears the

diagonally placed Ujjain symbol within a rectangle. On one subtype, the Shrivatsa on

obverse is flanked by a three-arched hill. Coins of this type are rare and bear the legend

along the top margin. The reverse remains the same. The coins are of alloyed copper,

probably potin.

5. Naganika type: - this type has the unique significance of being the sole type

whereupon the name of the queen and the king are both mentioned on the obverse.

Originally published1 as of silver, finding of more specimens in recent past has indicated

that the coins are of alloyed copper, either Arsenical copper or potin.2 The published

coin was in all probability of white potin and gave an appearance of silver. The coins of

this type are either round or square, and bear on obverse a rectangular cartouche in the

center. Within the cartouche, the name Naganika is mentioned in the genitive case as

Nganikya. Around the cartouche, the legend bearing the name of her husband Siri

1
Chinmulgund, P. J - A Unique Silver Coin of Satakarni and Naganika, JNSI, vol. 38-pt. 1, 1976, pp.6-11.
2
It is possible that the coin was made of white potin. Examples of yellow potin are known.
 80

Satakani is arranged in a clockwise fashion. The cartouche has projections on its sides,

which break this legend into sections. A Swastika is placed between the first and the last

letters of the legend. An extremely interesting feature of this type is it bears a figure of

horse along the left margin of the central cartouche. In fact the projections noted above

form into the horses legs on this side of the cartouche. This makes the type even more

significant, when examined in the light of the Naneghat inscription of the same queen

who issued these coins, mentioning several sacrifices including a horse sacrifice

(Ashwamdha). The reverse of the coins constituting this type bears the Ujjain symbol,

diagonally placed within a rectangular border, with dots in the quadrants. This

configuration on the reverse links the type with the other types listed above, namely the

lioness type, the seated lion type and the Shrivatsa type. This is important for arriving at

fixing a chronology for the Regiospecific types of Junnar.

The other extremely important observation about the Naganika type coins is that they

are many times encountered as counterstruck specimens. As many as three of the eight

specimens of Naganika coins examined, showed clear undertypes, while two others

show substantial topographic evidence to infer that they were counterstruck. This fact is

also very significant to construct the numismatic as well as historical chronology of the

Satavahanas at Junnar. Out of the specimens showing clear undertypes, one bears a coin

of the Nasik Elephant type-I, while the second bears the Junnar Seated Lion type. It is

very likely that out of the two, which do not bear clear undertypes, one has the same

Junnar Sated lion type counterstruck by the Naganika motif. The rarity of these coins,

occurrence of counterstruck specimens, and type characteristics such as the joint names

and presence of the horse indicate that the coins of the Naganika type were in all
 81

probability issued in an exigency. It is likely that they were struck as donations to the

priests at one of the two horse sacrifices mentioned in the Naneghat inscription.

5. Gajalakshmi type: - these coins bear a beautiful representation of the goddess of

wealth and fertility. She is shown seated cross-legged on a lotus, lustrated by two

elephants on both her sides. The elephants themselves stand on lotuses of long stalks and

hold small vessels or Kumbhas, in their trunks. At the base, two swastikas are seen

placed, besides the stalks of the lotuses carrying the elephants. A variety depicting three-

arched hills insteA.D. of the Swastikas has also been noticed. The legend is placed in a

linear fashion above the goddess. The reverse bears the Ujjain symbol, with Swastikas

within its orbs, enclosed in a rectangular frame. The coins of this type are noted in

Arsenical copper and bronze.

6. Facing lion type: - the obverse of these coins bears a lion standing with its body in

profile but in facing posture. It bears a mane executed with much similarity to that of the

lion types-I and II coins. The legend occurs along the lion in a semicircular fashion. The

reverse bears the Ujjain symbol within a rectangular frame. The coins are small

rectangular copper units.

The importance of he Regiospecific coin types of Junnar lies in the fact that they offer

some of the best examples of type succession ever noted in Satavahana numismatics.

The Kshaharata Kshatrapa Nahapana succeeded the Satavahana authority at Junnar. He

issued a series of his own coins in the same types as that of the Satavahanas. The type

predominantly utilized by Nahapana was the lion type-I. The coins are chiefly

encountered in leA.D. and potin, and are important in number of ways. The most

noteworthy aspect about these coins is that they bear the superior title of

Mahakshatrapa for Nahapana, like some of his coins from the Newase-Paithan region.
 82

Secondly, as far as the execution of the lion is concerned, they are extremely faithful to

the Satavahana prototypes, there being absolutely no difference between them. This

proves useful for providing a chronology for the evolution of the lion type-I coins at

Junnar, which can in turn prove significant for proposing a scheme for the Satavahana

rule in that region. The third important aspect about these coins is that they replace the

Ujjain symbol on the reverse with the dynastic scepter of Nahapana composed of the

thunderbolt and the arrow. The replacement indicates the dynastic association of the

Ujjain symbol, executed in the way it is on coins of this type, with the Satavahanas.

Curiously enough, it is accompanied by a bow strung with an arrow. The inclusion of

this symbol is confined only to the coins of Junnar. The association of a bow and arrow

with Nahapanas scepter is representative of certain historical developments, as will be

demonstrated at the appropriate juncture.

Apart from the lion type-I coins, Nahapana also issued uninscribed coins akin to the

seated lion type listed above at Junnar. However, the similarity in this case is limited

only to the weight standard employed. The portrayal of the lion is again very similar to

the Junnar lion of lion type-I coins of the Satavahanas. The reverse bears the dynastic

scepter of Nahapana.

There exists yet another ruling entity at Junnar that has struck coins in the same lion

type-I introduced by the Satavahanas. This is a ruler by the name that has been read as

Vasithiputa Isamahisa. His coins are enigmatic in many ways. He adopts the same title

as Nahapana, i.e. Mahakshatrapa, but places it on the reverse of his coins in its genitive

form. The legend on the obverse indicating his name is devoid of any title. The reverse

replaces emblems of both Nahapana and of the Satavahanas, with what can be termed as

the dynastic scepter of the new king. It is composed of a tree in railing, a staff or arrow
 83

and a laterally placed bow strung with another arrow. The coins of this ruler are very

important in relation to the dynastic succession at Junnar and have been commented

upon extensively in recent times.1 The coins of this ruler will be discussed in detail in

this thesis at a juncture that is convenient and appropriate.

5. Karhad: - the town of Karhad is situated on the confluence of the Krishna and Koyna

rivers in the Western Maharashtra. In ancient times the town was called as Karahakata.

The term seems to have originated as a topographic name rather than a town. But later

on it got associated with the town of Karhad. The antiquarian remains at Karhad include

a mound, locally known as Pantacha Kot, adjoining the river and a group of rock cut

caves of the late Hinayana period.

The region around Karhad yielding specific coin types extends from Bhor in the north to

Sangli in the south. This region contains some other centers of antiquity as well. Shirwal

and Wai are prominent amongst them and have yielded coins akin to those found at

Karhad. A hoard of Satavahana coins was found at Wategaon near Sangli 2. Coins similar

to those in the hoard with their smaller uninscribed counterparts are often encountered as

found from Karhad.

The major bulk of coins found within the region of Karhad are, however, not

Satavahana. They are chiefly of lead and contain several types, both inscribed and

uninscribed. The inscribed coins bear a legend that incorporates the title Kumara,

possibly of a feudatory origin. The occurrence of these coins and their description have

been reported for the first time in this thesis, (except for one minor and misattributed

1
Gokhale, Shobhana A Unique Coin of Isamahisa, ND, vol.15, 1991, pp. 31-40. For a detailed criticism
of this article, see Shastri, A.M. -Vasithiputa Mahakhatapa Isamahisa, in Numismatic Panorama: Essays
in memory of Shri. S. M. Shukla, eds. K. K. Maheshwari and Biswajeet Rath, New Delhi, 1996, pp.59-66.
2
Mirashi, V. V. Wategaon Hoard of Satavahana Coins, JNSI, 1972, pt-ii, pp. 205-212.
 84

notice by Gokhale and Mangalam1) and as such consist of some part of the original

contribution made herein to the subject. The importance of these coins, their attribution

and chronological placement will all be discussed in the relevant chapters. It would

suffice to say here that as a coin issuing authority, the Kumaras were completely

unknown before their mention in this thesis. The find of their coins at Karhad has

presented a terra incognita in the history of ancient Deccan. The description of these

coins is being given in a different manner here. Unlike the previous regions, the types

are not described here in great details owing to sheer multitude of minor varieties and

other intricacies witnessed in the coinage. More detailed reference can be found in the

Corpus. The metal utilized for these coins is softer and perhaps purer than other

contemporary coins. As a result of this the coins are often encountered in heavily

patinated condition, the patina being composed of white lead oxide and lead carbonate.

However, it seems to have protected the coin underneath and a cleaning treatment often

reveals it in good state of preservation. The denominational system is complex and

includes at least six weight ranges.

The chief characteristics of the coins of Karhad can be described in terms of the symbols

that occur on them. These are more or less exclusive to the region. They are described as

under-

1. The lion: the coins of Kumara chiefs portray a typical lion on the obverse. It is

invariably maneless, may face to the left or the right, and is depicted in a profile posture.

The tail of the lion is many times absent, but when present it is shown curled, either on

the back of the lion or extending away from the body. The lion is shown standing in

majesty, with its head held high in pride. His forelegs are straight and firm while his

1
Gokhale, Shobhana, and Mangalam, S. J. -Four Unique Coins of Sivala Kumara, JNSI, vol. 47, 1985, pp.
31-34.
 85

hind legs slope backwards, elegantly supporting the slender back and narrow waist. The

beast thus gives an impression of power and prestige. It is sometimes seen with minor

symbols like the tree in railing or the three-arched hill.

2. The Damaru: a symbol associated as one of the chief attributes of the Kumara

coinage, it is composed of two triangles joined to each other at the apex. A horizontal

line is placed at the intersection of the two triangles. It is usually seen alongside the lion

on obverse, but sometimes finds place on the reverse. It is not uncommon to find that the

triangles composing the Damaru are of different sizes.

3. The bow and arrow: this was perhaps the dynastic emblem of the lineage. Seen

usually on the reverse it is often associated with a wavy line, indicating the river symbol.

Various other symbols like the tree in railing are also encountered with the bow and

arrow. The two implements are always found in a strung condition and never separate.

As far as the names of the issuing entities are concerned, at least three to four different

names of the rulers of this region can be identified. But coin of one ruler amongst them

have been encountered in much greater number than others. He is named Kumara

Isamula or Isimula. The identification of this ruler has eluded the scholarly community

for long. The suggested identification, its substantiation on incontrovertible evidence

and the historical importance will be discussed further in the thesis.

Apart from the Kumara coins, the region of Karhad has yielded the coinage of two other

feudatories. One of them is a Maharathi, and the other holds the title of Gamikumara.

It might stand for the village headman. Coins of these two authorities form the second

series of Regiospecific coins of Karhad. The chief characteristic of coins of this series is

a bold Swastika. The legend is found arranged in a circular fashion. For the Maharathi

coins, it reads clockwise inwards, while for the Gamikumara coins it reads anticlockwise
 86

outwards. The reverses of these coins are distinct. The Maharathi coins are seen to bear a

composite motif of six-arched hill and other symbols such as the tree in railing,

Nandipadas, etc. On a realted type of Maharathi coin, however, a tree in railing very

similar to that encountered on the Satavahana coins of Newase-Paithan elephant type is

found. The reverse of Gamikumara coins bears the characteristic depiction of lion, as

seen on the Kumara coins. This similarity strongly indicates that these coins might have

been the precursors of the Kumara coins. The lower form of the title substantiates it.

The third series of coins of Karhad is composed of the Satavahana coins, akin to the

Wategaon hoard finds. They are both inscribed and uninscribed, the latter being

identified as Satavahana issues because of the similarity in type characteristics with the

former. Coins of this type bear an elephant with upraised trunk on the obverse, facing

either to the left or right, although elephant facing left are much more rare. The legend is

arranged in a circular fashion around the elephant motif. The reverse bears the

characteristically Satavahana form of the Ujjain symbol, with one of its orbs modified

by the placement of the crescent on it. The Wategaon hoard included the coins of the

two Vasishthiputras, Shiva Sri Pulumavi and Skanda Satakani only. But subsequently

coins of other rulers have been found, and it now appears that Gautamiputra Satakani

introduced the type. As such, It is one of the fewer Regiospecific types of the mature

Satavahana period. The smaller uninscribed fractional issues retain the elephant with

upraised trunk facing the right and the modified Ujjain symbol.

6. Kolhapur-Belgaum or South Maharashtra-North Karnataka: - the region includes

ancient centers like Brahmapuri, near Kolhapur and Vadgaon-Madhavpur, near

Belgaum. The specific coin types can be broadly classified into two series. One of them

belongs to an independent royal family while the other includes coins of a feudatory
 87

group, the Maharathis. It appears from the coins that more than one Maharathi families

were ruling in the region and the relation between them can not be ascertained

satisfactorily. It is also likely that they ruled at different times and places. However, the

finds of these coins are restricted to North Karnataka only, and the occurrence of certain

common main motifs presents the coins as a cohesive group. The accurate information

so as to indicate which types are found in predominance at which specific centers was

not available. The Regiospecific picture for Maharathi coins in North Karnataka is

therefore hazy. Nevertheless, the area of circulation of these coins at least indicates the

extent of Maharathi rule in North Karnataka. One certain observation that can be made is

the regions yielding Kura coins and the Maharathi coins overlap, and the former seem to

have succeeded the latter in North Karnataka. No Regiospecific coin types attributed to

the Satavahanas were encountered in this region.

1.The coins of the Kura dynasty: - the Kuras initiated their rule as a feudatory

(Maharathis) but later grew into a sovereign kingdom, with the title of Rjan, or the

king. The coins of this dynasty have been well studied and hoard evidence together with

excavatory finds has helped in forming an agreeable historical picture for its kings. The

coinage of the Kuras is uniform, with most of the coins depicting the dynastic emblem

of the strung bow and arrow prominently in the center of the obverse. The coins are

chiefly of lead, but a sub-series in potin is known. The reverse of Kura coins depicts a

six- or ten-arched hill, a river and a tree, all formed into composite motifs with certain

variations. The extent of Kura coin finds stretches from north of Kolhapur to the south

of Dharwad. The coins occurring in Maharashtra differ slightly from those in Karnataka.

The potin sub-series is encountered exclusively at Kolhapur. A major regional variation

occurs in the reverse motif, which is common to the potin coins and certain lead
 88

specimens found at Nerle, northwards of Kolhapur.1 Here the tree is placed on top of the

hill. The bow on the obverse is also executed somewhat wider at its base. On the lead

coins found at Brahmapuri, near Kolhapur and further south in Belgaum and Dharwad

districts of Karnataka, the tree is invariably placed next to the hill symbol. These

regional variations are important for historical deductions. Apart from the already

known Kura rulers, a few new names have been brought into light through recent

discoveries. It is important to note that all of these newly known Kura rulers seem to

have ruled in North Karnataka only, as indicated by the finds of their coins. Their coins

bear a different bow on the obverse, which is narrow at the base, and therefore looks

somewhat stubby.

2. The Maharathi coins: - these are encountered predominantly bearing the elephant.

They can be inscribed or uninscribed, chiefly struck in lead and bear the animal in more

than one characteristic form. But one of them takes precedence over the others, the coins

having been encountered in large numbers. On this type of coins the elephant is depicted

standing in profile facing the left with a prominent head that is shown larger in

comparison to the other body parts. Its back develops a typical sharp slant, and the trunk

appears long but not raised. Certain associated symbols appear alongside the elephant on

the obverse. These include the triangle-headed standard, bow and arrow and Nandipada.

In case of the inscribed coins the legend is arranged above the elephant. The other

inscribed coins bear a different kind of elephant. It is depicted in a much more realistic

manner than that seen on the type just described. The reverse motifs are multifarious, but

the tree, sometimes in a railing, and sometimes placed on the top of a five-arched hill

predominates.

1
Deo,S. B.-Coins from Nerle, JNSI, vol. 18, 1956, p.172.
 89

The reverse of the inscribed coins bears an elaborate tree in railing. On certain coins it is

depicted in a three-dimensional perspective. This is a very rare form for the tree in

railing symbol. The railing shows two curved lines coming out of its rim. The identity of

these prongs can not be ascertained, but in all probability they represent a kind of ritual

decoration that adorned the sacred tree. Similar decorations are seen on several

contemporary sculptural representations of the tree. Usually, there are no other symbols

associated with the tree on the reverse.

On the uninscribed coins, a variety of reverse motifs are seen. Prominent among these is

a decorative triangle-headed standard, which curiously has more than one tier. In this

form it looks more like a sacrificial altar. Some other coins depict the Shrivatsa in its late

form. With a central shaft flanked by two curved lines and another curved line at its

base, it looks very decorative. Other reverse motifs include the Damaru and the

Nandipada, but they are not frequently encountered. The Damaru also bears the ritual

decorations as seen on the tree of the inscribed elephant type coins.

Other Maharathi coins encountered in the area bear some different depictions. Some

coins have a bull on the obverse, with the later form of Shrivatasa seen on the reverse. It

is much similar to that on the reverse of the uninscribed elephant type coins. These coins

do not bear the name of any issuing authority but have the slogan Siddham inscribed at

the base of the Shrivatasa symbol. A solitary coin bears the triangle-headed standard on

obverse has been noted. It is inscribed and bears the legend around the symbol. It is

connected with other Maharathi coins through the depiction of the tree topped on a five-

arched hill on its reverse. Certain minor coins, probably issued by the Maharathis, are

known with the strange depiction of an animal surmounted on a couple of six-arched

hills are also encountered in this region. The symbol is similar to that encountered on the
 90

Magadhan Karshapanas of series IV, where a rabbit is shown placed on the top of a five-

arched hill1. These coins, with many other minor coins depicting a large variety of

symbols form a coherent group on the basis of their weight and metal, which is lead.

Due to their uninscribed nature, they do not offer any significant help as historical

evidence.

7. Vidarbha: - this appellation to the area yielding Regiospecific coin types is an

exception to the rule of not referring the areas by their classical names. It is employed

here largely because it is still a valid geopolitical name, used to denote the Akola,

Amaravati, Yavatmal, Wardha, Nagpur and Bhandara districts of eastern Maharashtra.

This area has been one of the earliest to be inhabited south of the Vindhya Range. The

earliest inhabitants of Vidarbha were probably the Bhojas, finding mention among

Rahikas, Bhojakas, and Petenikas of the Ashokan inscriptions2. Myhtologically, the

area of Vidarbha housed the maternal home of Rukmini, the consort of Arjuna, and

Damayanti, the queen of Nala.3 In the early historical period, Vidarbha formed a part of

the Mauryan Empire, as evident from the mention of its inhabitants as subjects of

Ashoka.

The post-Mauryan history of Vidarbha was shrouded in mystery until recent times.

However, excavations in the past half-decade have helped the situation to alter.

Extensive archaeological explorations at Pauni, Mahurjhari, Takalghat-Khapa,

Kaundinyapur, Paunar, Arni and Adam have yielded substantial information to create a

discernable historical picture for the region. Before discussing the Satavahana coin types

1
Gupta, P. L., and Hardaker, T. R., Ancient Indian Silver Punch-marked Coins of the Magadha-Maurya
Karshapana Series, Nasik, 1985.
2
Edict 13.
3
The mythical capital of Vidarbha was Kaundinyapura, the present Kundinpur.
 91

found in he region, it would be appropriate to discuss the post-Mauryan and pre-

Satavahana coinage of Vidarbha in short detail.

Uninscribed coin types: -

The region of Vidarbha has yielded scores of uninscribed coins probably attributable to

the Satavahanas on basis of their similarity with certain type characteristics of the

inscribed coins. Notable amongst them is a series of coin bearing the wheel, or Chakra,

as seen on the reverse of the inscribed elephant type-II coins. Some coins of this series

are noted with the effigy of standing Gajalakshmi on the obverse. Some others bear the

modified Ujjain symbol. These coins are chiefly encountered in alloyed copper. Many

other uninscribed coins made from flattened globules of brass or other alloys of copper

bearing elephant, bull, Ujjain symbol and other such marks of Satavahana affinity are

known from Vidarbha. A detailed classification of these coins is very much desired but

not performed here for the simple reason that such an exercise would not have led us to

derive historical conclusions of any significance. Nevertheless, some of these types have

been enlisted in the corpus to have an idea about coin-circulation in Vidarbha in general.

1. Early punch marked coins and coins of the Mitra and Bhadra rulers: - It was believed

by the protagonists of the long chronology of the Satavahanas that the dynasty

succeeded Mauryas in the Deccan immediately after the reign of Ashoka and the ensuing

fragmentation of the Mauryan Empire. However, numismatic evidence goes against this

belief. As explained earlier, the post-Mauryan period in the Deccan was typified by the

evolution of local coinages. The earliest of these series seems to have originated in

Vidarbha. The coins of this series are silver-coated punch marked coins bearing one of

the important features of a localized punch marked coinage, i.e. stereotypical or

 92

concretized placement of the symbols on obverse and reverse1. This is not like the

imperial punch marked coins, where the symbols are placed randomly and the reverse

invariably bears a multitude of minute marks indicating a wide acceptance and

circulation. These silver-coated punch marked coins soon gave way to copper punch

marked coins of both inscribed and uninscribed nature.

It was on a group of these inscribed copper punch marked coins that the name of the

earliest post-Mauryan ruler of Vidarbha was identified. He is Damabhadra. This period

of post-Mauryan coinage is important for another numismatic transition. The same

Damabhadra who struck punch marked coins, also initiated a die-struck coinage in his

name. The earliest die-struck coins in the Deccan begin to emerge at this time. Some of

them are uninscribed but bear typical motifs. This period thus represents crossing of a

technological watershed. It is very important because there are very few areas of India

where the ancient coins exhibit such a well-defined change from punch-marked to the

die-struck coins. The successive rulers with Bhadra-ending names include Satyabhadra,

Dharmabhadra and Sarvabhadra. Counterstruck coins have helped in establishing a

relative chronology for the Bhadra kings. Another group of kings issuing coins in the

same local currency system as that of the Bhadras included the rulers with Mitra-ending

names. These seem to be ruling contemporarily with the Bhadra kings. They are known

to bear the names of Bhumimitra, Kanhamitra and Suryamitra. Punch marked copper

coins of Bhumimitra are known and he seems to be the earliest ruler in the dynasty. The

others bear certain similarities with the Bhadra coins, which helps in providing an

internal chronology for these rulers, which has been discussed in a seminal contribution

by Shastri and Gupta.2 Although the subject is out of the scope of this thesis, it may be

1
The coins are reported from the Mangrul and Mana hoards. Vide supra for more details.
2
Shastri, A. M. and Gupta, C. S. Mitra and Bhadra Coins from Vidarbha, Nidhi, vol.1, 1990, pp. 9-24.
 93

worthwhile to note that certain crucial facts regarding the chronology are not mentioned

in their assessment of the numismatic data of the Mitra and Bhadra rulers. One of the

coins of Satyabhadra published by them is evidently counterstruck on the reverse of a

unifaced coin of Damabhadra.1 It is interesting that this Satyabhadra does not bear the

regal epithet preceding his name. It is therefore possible to infer that there were two

rulers named Satyabhadra one was chronologically proximate to Damabhadra, who did

not hold a royal appellation similar to the latter. The other was a close contemporary of

Suryamitra, as the type links and use of a regal title on his coins suggest. Shastri and

Gupta have rightly made the chronological placement of this ruler. The same ruler can

not be a near contemporary to both Damabhadra and Suryamitra at once. Counterstriking

of coins indicates that Satyabhadra-I succeeded Damabhadra, and Sarvabhadra

succeeded Dharmabhadra. Position of the other rulers, however, can not be ascertained

satisfactorily, in absence of corroborative numismatic evidence.

The find spots of Bhadra and Mitra coins are dotted all around Vidarbha. Paunar (dist.

Wardha), Pauni (dist. Bhandara), Adam (dist. Nagpur) and Arni (dist. Yavatmal) are

some sites to name. It appears from the find spots that both these dynasties held sway

over considerable tracts of land. Other Mitra and Bhadra rulers are also known to have

existed from their coins in the regions immediately to the North (Eastern Malwa-Vidisha

Damabhadra and Vishnumitra) and South (Kotalingala, dist. Karimnagar - Gobhadra)

of Vidarbha. It is probable that these families were interrelated and rose to power in the

post-Mauryan requiem. The transition between these families and the Satavahanas in

Vidarbha is known explicitly through numismatic evidence. At least two specimens of

Suryamitra coins are found to be counterstruck by Siri Satakani. These coins are

discussed in detail further.

1
ibid., pp. 19-20, fig. 16. See Corpus no. Vidarbha/11/vdb-11 for a corrected description of the said coin.
 94

2. The early regal issues from Vidarbha-Marathwada: - these coins, though in all

probability of a pre-Satavahana origin, can be grouped separately because of one

important feature. Unlike the Mitra and Bhadra coins (with exception of Suryamitra and

Satyabhadra-II) they bear the regal title of Rajan in their legend. Other differentiating

features include a much heavier weight standard and find spots spread over a

considerable expanse of land from Aurangabad in Marathwada subdivision of

Maharashtra through Vidarbha to the Northern part of Andhra Pradesh, bordering on the

south of Vidarbha. The more widely known coins of this group bear the legend

identifying the issuer as King Sebaka. They bear a bull walking to the right on the

obverse with certain associated symbols like the tree in railing and the six-arched hill.

The legend is displayed in bold letters above the bull. Elephant type coins are also

known.

However, the most characteristic attribute is seen on the reverse. It bears a bold and

ornate Nandipada, flanked by an equally elaborate Shrivatsa surmounted on an elliptical

pedestal. The Nandipada is executed in double lines thereby adding to its prominence,

and so are the Shrivatsa and its pedestal. The elephant type coins bear an open cross in

addition on the reverse. Smaller uninscribed fractions are also encountered bearing the

bull on obverse and the bold Nandipada on the reverse. They are thus easily attributable.

Other recently known issuer of coins in this type has been king Vigra1, whose coins have

been reported from Paithan. The other king who is known to have issued coins in a

similar type is Kukkuta. Some of his coins have been published erroneously by Siddiqui2

as Vakataka coins.

1
Kulkarni, P. P., ONSNL no. 113, July-August 1988, pp. 6-7.
2
Siddiqui, A. H. Some Coins of Vakataka Dynasty, in Oriental Numismatic Studies (ed. D. Handa), vol.
1, Delhi, 1996, pp. 99-105.
 95

The coins of the kings of the Sebaka group form a distinct pre-Satavahana series,

which does not have any numismatic bearing, in form of type-characteristics,

Regiospecific distribution or metrology, with the Satavahana coins. As such, they

remain out of the purview of this research, and have not been included in the

accompanying Corpus.

3. The Satavahana coins from Vidarbha: - This brings us to the description of

Regiospecific Satavahana coin types of Vidarbha. It is worthwhile to note that most of

the type-characteristics of Satavahana coins from Vidarbha are observed to in direct

succession of the Mitra and Bhadra coins. The motif of elephant, described below, is

seen first on a coin of Bhoomimitra. The characteristic tree with bifurcated leaves, which

is seen to have been depicted consistently from the localized silver punch-marked coins,

through the Mitra / Bhadra coins, is continued on the Satavahana issues. A comparative

study of such motifs clearly illustrates the type-links in the issues of these different

authorities and helps immensely to build a localized numismatic chronology. Along with

their consistency, the strongly regional character that many of these motifs exhibit,

serves to epitomize the tenets of Regiospecificity that contribute towards historical

reconstruction. The characteristic Satavahana coin types from Vidarbha are

Inscribed coin types: -

a) Elephant type-I: like other Satavahana coins, those from Vidarbha bear an elephant.

However, its execution is typical. It is shown in a profile walking posture, moving

mostly to the right. It has an upraised trunk, and the tusks and its gaping mouth are

shown prominently. One of its forelegs is in a raised position, bent at the knee. It is seen

with associated symbols. The river is usually placed below it, and the triangle-headed

standard is situated either in its front or horizontally on its back. Sometimes other
 96

symbols like the Nandipada are also seen on the back. The legend is either placed in a

semicircular fashion above it or on the reverse. The variations in placement of symbols

and legend gives rise to several varieties in the type. The reverse bears an extremely

ornate Ujjain symbol with one of its orbs modified as a Nandipada. It must be pointed

here that such an ornate Ujjain symbol is encountered solely on the coins of Vidarbha

and as such forms an important type characteristic. The orbs of the Ujjain symbol

contain two or three concentric circles and a bold dot at their center. The modified orb

generally has two bifurcated curvilinear prongs joined at the center through a pointed

projection. The Nandipada thus formed looks elegant. In addition to these, the Ujjain

symbol has other symbols with usual Satavahana affiliation placed within its quadrants.

These are the triangle-headed standard, the Shrivatsa, Swastika and a Nandipada. The

legend is sometimes arranged in a clockwise fashion around this symbol. The coins are

chiefly made of copper or alloyed copper.

b) Elephant type-II: these coins bear an elephant largely similar to that seen on type-I

coins with minor executional variations. The main difference lies in the arrangement of

associated symbols and the reverse motif. The Ujjain symbol surmounts the elephant and

the legend is placed laterally in a straight line alongside the right margin of the coin. The

reverse bears a bull, with its tail raised and curled on its back, tied to a ritual post. A

wheel with eight spokes emerging from the center through the perimeter having ends

with arrow tips is shown placed above the bull. A standard topped with a cockerel in

profile erected within a railing is seen to the bulls right. These symbols evidently lack

Satavahana affiliation, except possibly the wheel or Chakra. They are adopted from the

coins of Suryamitra. The Satavahana type thus retains one of the characteristics of its

predecessor and should be termed as type succession to that of Suryamitra. The motif is
 97

believed to represent the ritual letting loose of a virile bull (Votsarga). Its virility is

suggested by the unusual depiction of a raised and curved tail, which adds force to the

motif. One such coin was found in the excavations at Pauni.1 A unique variation in this

type with standing Gajalakshmi on the reverse instead of the bull has been noted. Coins

of this type have been noted in alloyed copper.

c) Elephant type-III: - the elephant is seen on these coins on the obverse, much similar in

execution to that on the type-I and II coins. But unlike them, it has been noted facing

either to the left or right. The reverse of these coins bears a tree in railing with seven

leaves arranged circumferrentially. Other minor symbols such as the Swastika or

Nandipada are seen on both sides with several minor variations in their placements. An

interesting occurrence is of the coins of type-III counterstruck on those of type-I. They

are found made of copper. The legend usually occurs above the elephant.

d) Taurine type: - the obverse of constituent coins of this type bears a prominent taurine

with other symbols. Among them an Ujjain symbol with concentric circles forming its

orbs and a small elephant with its trunk hanging down are noteworthy. The reverse bears

a characteristic tree in railing symbol. It has leaves split at the top with a dot placed

between the bifurcation. The railing usually has four divisions and taurines placed on its

top cardinal points. A wavy line representing the river symbol is placed below the

railing. The occurrence of minor symbols such as Swastikas is not uncommon. The

legend is found arranged on the top of the taurine on obverse. The coins are chiefly

encountered in alloyed copper, probably Arsenical. The uninscribed coins are also found

in lead. One unique example in lead portrays an elephant in half profile with its trunk

hanging down on the reverse instead of the tree in railing.

1
Deo, S. B., and Joshi, J. P., Pauni excavations, Nagpur, 1972, p.99, pl. LXVII, no. 7.
 98

e) Lion type: - the coins of this type bear a lion standing facing to the right in half

profile. It has short but slender legs, a tail that curls on its back and prominent triangular

ears. A tree in railing is seen to its right. The execution of the motif is very similar to

that seen on the reverse of the taurine type coins. The reverse bears the modified Ujjain

symbol with orbs made of three concentric circles. The legend is arranged around the

Ujjain symbol. The coins are usually found made of alloyed copper. Smaller uninscribed

units are also known.

f) Arched hill type: - coins of this type have a six-arched hill in the center with one or

two straight lines below it representing the river. Sometimes the hill is surmounted with

a crescent. The legend is arranged all around the motif in a clockwise manner, beginning

at 12 oclock. The reverse bears a tree in railing with seven leaves.

The types enlisted above are mainly attributed to the early Satavahanas. In the post-

Gautamiputra Satakani period, Vidarbha seems to have evolved a Regiospecific lead

coinage. Metrologically these coins are related to the Bodhi and Sena coins1 of Tripuri,

near Jabalpur. The geographic proximity of Vidarbha and Tripuri indicates that this

similarity is more than coincidental. These coins are an excellent example of how the

regions yielding Regiospecific coins tended to merge gradually to evolve certain

mutually acceptable coinages before a completely uniform currency was available. The

coins of Vidarbha minted in this lead standard have one more significance. They are

portrait issues.2 They bear the portrait of the ruler, much like that encountered on the

silver coins, on obverse and a device made of the six-arched hill and Ujjain symbol on

the reverse. The reverse motif also bears similarity with that of the silver portrait issues,

1
BMCAWK, p. (207) (211).
2
Nath, Amarendra, The first ever reported lead portrait coins of the Satavahanas, Nidhi, vol. 1, Nagpur,
pp. 25-30.
 99

except that it is devoid of the sun symbol. The placement of the Ujjain symbol is

diagonal, and the Tamil-Brahmi legend is not present. Apart from these differences, the

lead portraits are diminutives of the silver portrait issues. The only other coin of lead in

the same metrological standard is an elephant type coin attributable to Skanda Satakani,

published by Amarendra Nath1. Here the obverse bears an elephant facing in profile to

the left with its trunk hanging down, and the legend arranged around it in a circular

fashion. The reverse bears certain similarities with that of lead the portrait type and

indicates a link with the type. Both these type are reported as found from Adam.

A significant post-Gautamiputra coin type encountered in south Vidarbha and bordering

northern part of Andhra Pradesh is the one bearing the sun and crescented moon on the

obverse. The legend is arranged around this motif in a circular fashion. The coins are

aesthetically attractive and bear the diagonally placed Ujjain symbol enclosed in a

rectangular frame on the reverse. It is further embellished by the placement of dots in the

quadrants of the Ujjain symbol. Round coins of this type are encountered in either

Arsenical copper or potin and lead, while smaller rectangular denominations with

truncated legends are met with in copper or bronze.

There are certain other inscribed coins of the Satavahanas from Vidarbha whose rich

variation in type characteristics precludes their fine classification into types and

varieties. Each of these has been assigned as a separate type-number in the corpus.

Karnataka

Important Satavahana sites such as Sannati and Chandravalli are situated in Karnataka.

Besides, an overview of the Regiospecific coin types of North Karnataka has already

been presented while discussing the coins of the Kuras, due to their connection with

South Maharashtra. Following areas in Karnataka have yielded Regiospecific coin types-

1
ibid., A Lead Issue of Siva Skanda Satakarni, Numismatic Studies, vol. 1, Delhi, 1991, pp. 59-62.
 100

1. Banavasi: - the region around Banavasi yielding specific coin types extends from

Karwar in the North to Shimoga in the South. The coins are found in the districts of

Uttara Kannada, Dharwad and Shimoga located in Central Karnataka. The district of

Dharwad overlaps in the Regiospecific scheme of Banavasi and Kolhapur. The town of

Banavasi was known as Vaijayanti. It had established considerable importance as a

thriving urban center, and the famous rock cut caves at Karle in Maharashtra are credited

to have been excavated through generous donations of Bhutapala, a Shreshthin or senior

merchant of Vaijayanti. In later years the town had a temple built by the Chalukyas,

called as the Madhukeshwara temple. It is in the vicinity of this temple that a hoard of

the universal type of Satavahana coins (the potin elephant and Ujjain symbol type) was

found during excavation exercises1. Another important edifice in the temple complex is

the Chhyprastara or memorial stone of the queen of Satavahana ruler Vasithiputa

Shiva Siri Pulumavi. Other noteworthy inscriptions from the area include the Vasana

(dist. Dharwad) inscription of Pulumavi and the Mallavalli (taluk Shikarpur, dist.

Shimoga) and Banavasi inscriptions of Haritiputra Vinhukada Chutukulananda Satakani.

The Regiospecific coin types of the area can be divided as those of the Satavahanas and

other issuing authorities. They can be described as follows

1. Eight-arched hill type: - the constituent coins of this type occur predominantly in lead

but two rare examples of bronze or alloyed copper have been noted. The type can be

further classified into inscribed and uninscribed coins. The inscribed coins are usually

encountered in two denominations but rarer small fractions have also been noticed. The

coins bear on obverse an eight-arched hill. The number of the arches is not a Triangular

number, so the motif is not symmetric as in case of three, six or ten-arched hills. Instead,

it contains the first row of four arches, second row of three arches and one wide arch

1
Murthy, A. V. Narasimha, Coins of Karnataka, Mysore, 1975, p. 51.
 101

placed as the crowning row. This symbol is a peculiarity of coins of this region and not

encountered in any other series of ancient Indian coins. The hill motif may or may not

have a straight line below it. The legend is arranged above the hill motif in a

semicircular clockwise manner. The names of issuing entities seen in this type include

Mulananda, Chutukulananda and Sivalananda.

The reverses of these coins bear a tree in railing with five to nine leaves. The leaves are

typically elongated and many times end in a knot with a projection. The railing displays

nine compartments and two curvilinear prongs coming out of it, probably denoting ritual

decorations. The tree is flanked by one or more than one associated symbols. It is

interesting to note that these symbols are ruler-specific. Two varieties of Mulananda

coins are known. On one variety the legend bears the L of Mulananda as the dental

syllable, while the other depicts it as the palatal syllable. The reverse of the coins of

Mulananda with dental L has a Nandipada to the right of the tree in railing. The tree on

the Mulananda coins with palatal L and also some of those with the legend

Chutukulananda, have four symbols associated with the tree in railing on the reverse.

They include the Nandipada, Swastika, Shrivatsa and the triangle-headed standard. The

coins with Sivalananda legend have a laterally placed bow strung with an arrow to the

side of the tree in railing. A few Chutukulananda coins without any associated symbols

on the reverse have also been noted.

The uninscribed coins in this type bear the hill on obverse and certain other symbols on

the reverse. Some of them have the Nandipada, while some others have a Shrivatsa in

modified form. They can be of two types. On one of them the free-ending curves of

Shrivatsa are embellished florally, with three petals shown at each of the four free ends.

This seems to be an attempt at assimilating the lotus attribute of goddess Lakshmi with
 102

her symbolic form. The second modification is through placing the triangle-headed

standard on the top of the Shrivatsa. The purpose of this modification can not be

ascertained. A single uninscribed specimen of heavier weight having the hill flanked by

the Shrivatsa on the obverse has been noted.

2. Hill type: - some other kings with Ananda-ending names have issued the coins of this

type. They contain a six- or ten-arched hill in the center on obverse and a tree in railing

on the reverse. The coins are exclusively known in lead. Unlike the coins of the previous

type, the legend here is arranged all around the hill motif in a clockwise manner. The

name Mulananda is not encountered in this type. Names of two kings are known in this

type with their matronymics, viz. Haritiputra Sivalananda and Vasithiputa

Mahasivalananda. The third king issuing coins in this type is known from his Mallavalli

and Banavasi inscriptions, Vinhukada Chutukulananda Satakani. His placement in the

dynastic lineage and the significance of his coins occurring in this type will be discussed

in the appropriate chapter. The other Satavahana king issuing coins in this type is

Vasithiputa Pulumavi. Their significance will also discussed at a later stage.

3. Hill and tree in railing type: - these coins are the other Regiospecific issues of

Vasithiputa Pulumavi from Banavasi. They bear a tree in railing in the center with a six-

arched hill placed on its side, on the obverse. The legend is arranged in a circular fashion

around the motif. The reverse bears the modified Ujjain symbol. The coins are known

only in lead. At least one specimen bearing the name of Mahasivalananda, mentioned

above, is known in this type. As can be guessed, the inter-occurrence of two

Regiospecific coin types for Mahasivalananda and Vasithiputa Pulumavi is of

considerable historical significance, and will be discussed in detail in the relevant

chapter.
 103

4. Coins of other kings with Ananda-ending names: - certain other kings with Ananda-

ending names are also known from their coins found in the Banavasi region. These coins

do not fall in any of the types described above. They are of lead and usually have an

elephant facing to the left or right on the obverse. The names of the kings include

Mulananda, Mahananda, Harananda and Muluvananda. All of them bear the regal title of

Rajan, or king preceding the name. They bear the tree in railing on the reverse,

associated sometimes with a double curvilinear line, representing the river with fish in it.

The coins of Harananda depict the bull on obverse. Certain copper coins bearing the

name of Mulananda bearing majestically executed lion, facing to the left, are also

encountered. A unique coin bearing his name with the horse on obverse has also been

noted. This coin is also made of copper. Some coins of these Ananda kings have been

encountered countermarked with certain motifs. Coins countermarked with different

motifs more than once are also known.

Certain other lead coins are encountered in this region which can not be classified into

the types noted above. These are mainly uninscribed and bear composite symbols of

interesting varieties. They include a triangle-headed standard topped on an ornate

Nandipada. Such composite symbols in their ornate forms are a peculiarity of the coins

of this region.

2. Chitradurga: - the Regiospecific coins of this region are Maharathi coins, exclusively

lead issues of varying weights. They have been stratigraphically documented in the

Chandravalli excavations1. The coins belong to one predominant Bull type. The obverse

of coins constituting this type bears a humped bull, standing in half profile, facing either

to the left or right. The legend is arranged around the bull. Uninscribed coins,

1
Wheeler, R. E. Mortimer - The Chndravalli Coins (1947), Ancient India, bulletin of the Archaeological
Survey of India, vol. 4, pp. 287-293.
 104

attributable to the same issuing authority depending on the similarity in the motifs, are

also known.

The reverse of the bull type Maharathi coins from Chitradurga district enables their

further classification. Three kinds of reverses have been noted. One displays the hill and

tree. The hill is usually multi-arched with numbers ranging from six to ten. The tree in

railing is placed on its side; the placement can vary from left to right. It has seven to nine

leaves, elongated in a characteristic fashion. The railing is often tall, multi-

compartmental and bears the curved lines emanating out of the top margin, standing

probably for ritual decoration. Minor symbols like the triangle-headed standard or

Swastika are also seen in the field. The second variety of reverse bears a prominent six-

arched hill surmounted by the crescent and surrounded by several associated symbols.

These include the Swastika in both its forms, the clockwise and the anticlockwise, the

curved line representing a river, a Nandipada and a triangle-headed standard. The third

variety has the tree surmounted on the six-arched hill. Curved lines suggestive of ritual

decorations flank the hill on both sides.

The uninscribed coins belong to two of these varieties. Some of them have the tree in

railing, while some others have the six-arched hill on the reverse. The obverse uniformly

bears the bull. In case of the coins with the hill on the reverse, Swastika and the triangle-

headed standard are present besides the hill as associated symbols.

The legends occurring on these coins attribute them to a Maharathi family that has been

identified as Sadakana Kalalaya. However, the available numismatic evidence casts

some fresh light on this identification. Three legends were reported on coins from

Chandravalli, viz. Sadakana Kaalya Mahrathisa, Sadakana (Chuu?)kanha

Mahrathisa and Sadakana Kanhasa Mahrathiputasa. The coins with first legend are
 105

known with the first two variations in the reverse motif. Those with the second legend

bear only the hill flanked by the tree in railing. The coins having the third legend have

the tree coming out of the hill as the exclusive reverse motif. Some more legends have

been encountered since, and a detailed discussion regarding the history of this Maharathi

family will appear in the appropriate chapter.

3. Sannati: - the site of Sannati adjoins the Bheema river and lies in the Shahapur taluka

of Gulbarga district. In recent past it has yielded Satavahana relics of importance and

seems to have a thriving Buddhist center, as evident from the remains of Stupas

unearthed in the excavation. Several inscriptions have been found and some of them

mention the names of Satavahana monarchs, but most being of votive or memorial

nature. The coins found at Sannati have not been published in detail, except a short note

by I.K.Sarma1. However, an examination of finds made by an inhabitant of a nearby

village Haranakere, named D.N. Akki, has allowed forming some ideas about

Regiospecific coins at Sannati.

One of the types of coins published by Sarma bear a three-arched hill topped by a

triangle-headed standard on obverse. The legend runs above this motif in a semicircular

manner. The reverse bears modified form of the Ujjain symbol. These coins are heavy

and made of lead. Not many have been encountered. The second type of coins noted by

Sarma has been found in considerable numbers at Sannati. D.N. Akkis accumulations

from surface at Sannati also contained a few coins of this type. They bear the triangle-

headed standard on the obverse, with the legend arranged around it. The reverse bears

the modified Ujjain symbol. These coins are light and small issues of lead. Their legends

indicate that both these types are of a pre-Gautamiputra Satakani period.

1
Sarma, I. K. Lead Coins of King Satavahana from Sannati, SSIC, vol.3, 1993, pp. 65-72.
 106

The most important finds in Akkis collection included the Hill-type Satavahana coins.

These are specific to the neighboring region of Kondapur (described further). The coins

bore the name of Gautamiputra Satakani around the hill symbol. It shows that by the

time of Gautamiputra, the Regiospecific coinage at Kondapur had superceded the local

coins at Sannati. The reason for this phenomenon could be the rapid commercial

development of Kondapur as an overland trading post, thereby spreading its economic

influence to adjoining regions, which must have been forced into accepting the

Regiospecific coins of Kondapur as a standard regional coinage. This is an important

stage in the development of Regiospecificity.

Andhra Pradesh

The state of Andhra Pradesh includes three geographical subdivisions namely Telingana,

Rayalseema and Coastal Andhra. The Telingana subdivision borders on the North with

Maharashtra and Madhya PrA.D.esh and on the West with Karnataka. It includes the

districts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Nizamabad, Medak, Sangareddi, Mahbubnagar,

Warangal, Nalgonda and Khammam. The Rayalseema subdivision touches Karnataka on

its West and Tamilnadu on its South. It includes the districts of Kurnool, Cuddappah,

Anatapur and Chittoor. The coastal Andhra belt stretches to the East of the eastern Ghat

mountain range, bordering the sea. The South part of this coastal region includes the

districts of Nellore, Prakasam (Ongole), and Guntur. The northern part incorporates the

districts of Krishna, West Godavari, East Godavari, Vishakahpatnam and Srikakulam.

The reason behind giving a detailed geographic breakup of Andhra Pradesh is its bearing

on the numismatics and history in general. The region of Coastal Andhra Pradesh has

great potential for the early historic period. The development of urban centers in South

India reached its peak in the coastal Andhra region. The main reasons for such an
 107

important historical development lie in the geography of the region. Two great rivers,

the Krishna and Godavari drain the region, and also have their mouths in this region.

Their deltas are very fertile and coupled with the abundance of water for irrigation,

augmented by the seasonal monsoons leave the region with a considerable agrarian

surplus. Moreover, the estuarine systems afford an easy navigable route for trade in this

agrarian surplus. It is no wonder therefore the region emerged as one of the most

flourishing areas of Ancient India as far as trade and commerce were concerned. Many

of its thriving commercial centers are referred to in contemporary western accounts such

as the geography of Ptolemy. The sea trade with Rome imbued the region with immense

wealth. As the general rule of relationship between monastic establishments and trade

goes for this period, several Buddhist centers of eminence came up in the region.

Notable amongst them are Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Dharanikota, etc.

Needless to say, Art and Architecture blossomed as never before.

Th establishment of Satavahana rule in the region has an inseparable link with the surge

in commercial activities. The elucidation of Satavahana chronology in the region will

help in providing a proper perspective to these important unfoldments, and give a better

understanding of the process of economic development of this region in ancient times.

This is what precisely will be attempted taking into account the numismatic evidence in

the relevant chapter. Moreover, a cohesive political picture is yet to be provided for the

historical developments in the region. This also can be attempted by studying the coins

of various issuing authorities with respect to the development of Regiospecific coin

types and applying the numismatic methodologies to them.

The second important region as far as trade in ancient Andhra Pradesh was concerned,

was the Telingana subdivision. Like the Coastal Andhra region, this region also
 108

witnessed an upsurge in urbanization. However, the sustainment of urban centers in

Telingana was primarily due to their location on the overland trade routes, unlike those

in Coastal Andhra, which thrived on maritime trade. The overland trade route ensured

passage of goods between the towns on the West and East Coast of peninsular India. The

situation of urban centers in Telingana was therefore strategic to this movement of

goods. Their location alongside the rivers ensured that they acted as comfortable respites

in an otherwise arduous journey. The sites in Telingana include Peddabankur,

Dhulikatta, Kotalingala, Sangareddy, Jogipet, Kohir, Panigiri, Nelkondapally, Polakonda

and the numismatically very important site of Kondapur.

The third geographical subdivision of Andhra Pradesh has less historical significance

than the other two. The centers here developed mainly as trading posts on the route

connecting the Malabar Coast to the Andhra Coast. They include Satanikota and

Veerapuram. Both these sites have yielded coins of chronological importance.

After a brief overview of the geographic regions in Andhra Pradesh, we turn to the

description of the coin types themselves. A slightly different approach has been

employed in this case because some sites situated in the aforementioned subdivisions

have yielded coin types that are extremely specific. In other words they can not be

described as hailing from the subdivision in general, but have to be treated in the context

of their specific provenance. This phenomenon is observed especially for the Telingana

subdivision, where at least three sites have yielded very specific coinages. As it has been

described earlier, the Regiospecificity of the Satavahana coins wanes in the post-

Gautamiputra Satakani period. In case of other regions like those from Maharashtra, the

Regiospecific occurrence of post-Gautamiputra rulers is minimal. But for Andhra

Pradesh, where the empire seems to have spread as a result of the conquests of
 109

Gautamiputra Satakani, the Regiospecific element is very much evident even in the

coins of very late Satavahana rulers like Chanda Sati. Most of the other regions that had

exhibited the rise of Regiospecific coinage were either lost or had a much more uniform

coinage constituted of the universal potin elephant type and silver portrait type coins

during the reign of the late Satavahanas. This is amply evident from the far-flung

distribution pattern seen for both these coin types. It is important to note that the three

regions within a region noted above have chiefly yielded coins of pre-Gautamiputra

period. Their Regiospecificity as far as coin types are concerned does not extend beyond

the coins of Vasithiputa Pulumavi. These observations are extremely important for

elucidating a chronological scheme for the advent of the Satavahana Empire in Andhra

Pradesh, as will be shown later.

Telingana: -

1.Kotalingala: - The most significant site to have yielded an extremely localized base

metal coinage is Kotalingala, situated on the confluence of the rivers Godavari and

Peddavagu, on the northern border of Karimnagar district in Telingana, Andhra Pradesh.

Excavations conducted at the site have revealed habitation starting from the megalithic

period and gradually developing into an urbanized township1. As usual, a Buddhist

monastic establishment was also found. The coins are surprisingly uniform in their

fabric and metal, even for different issuing authorities, although a very gradual decrease

in weight has been observed until the period of Vasithiputa Pulumavi, the last

Satavahana king to issue Regiospecific coins at Kotalingala. The coin types encountered

at Kotalingala can be broadly classified as pre-Satavahana and Satavahana coins. Those

belonging to the pre-Satavahana rulers bear the names of Gobhadra, Samigopa, Siri

1
Krishna Sastry, V. V., The Proto- and Early Historical Sites of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1983, pp.
115.
 110

Narana, Kamvaya Siri and Siri Vaya. The mutual placement of these rulers is a

controversial subject, although scholarly consensus favors Gobhadra and Samigopa to be

the earliest rulers. Typewise, the coins bear a close similarity with the pre-Satavahana

coins of Vidarbha. Considering the geographic proximity of the two regions the political

connection between them can not be ruled out. More significant is the fact of inter-

regional occurrence of the Kotalingala and Vidarbha types. It is very likely that the

coinage of Kotalingala is a direct extension of Vidarbha coin types, albeit in a different

weight standard. This noteworthy point will be elucidated further. It would suffice to say

here that there seem to be more and more indications favoring this hypothesis for the

origins of the Regiospecific coinage at Kotalingala.

The Satavahana coins at Kotalingala bear the names of Siri Satavahana, Siri Satakani,

Chhimuka Siri Satavahana and Vasithiputa Pulumavi. Except certain coins with the

legend Siri Satavahana, most of them are in the elephant type. The anomalous coins of

Siri Satavahana group bear close similarity with the Samigopa coins, including the

extremely ornate Nandyavarta symbol on the reverse. They are excellent examples of

numismatic type succession as they retain most of the characteristics of their

predecessor, except the legend indicating his name. The numismatic chronology for the

interface of Satavahana rule is thus clear, with coins bearing the legend Siri Satavahana

being the earliest. The issuer of Siri Satavahana coins soon switched on to the elephant

type coins. The elephant on these coins is shown marching to the left, with one of its

front legs raised and the trunk upraised showing his prominent tusks. It is associated

with other symbols. The wavy line representing the river is seen below the elephant,

embellished by dots in the curves. A tree with elongated leaves in a railing is seen in the

front of the elephant.

 111

The elephant type shows minor variations for successive rulers. The associated symbols

and the posture of the elephant are two main elements of the type that exhibit change.

On the coins with legend Siri Satakani, the chief associated symbol is the Swastika,

placed on the elephants back. The elephant retains its posture with its trunk upraised.

For the coins of Chhimuka, the elephant is usually depicted with its trunk hanging down.

The associated symbols include Nandipada, Shrivatsa and the triangle-headed standard.

These are positioned on the back of the elephant, just below the legend. They do not

necessarily occur together. The coins bearing the name of Vasithiputa Pulumavi are

small and mostly do not bear any associated symbols.

The reverses of Kotalingala coins are distinct for the Regiospecific types. The coins of

Gobhadra are unifaced. Those of Samigopa, Kamvaya Siri and Siri Vaya bear an ornate

Nandyavarta symbol, which has four horns like those of the Nandipada, arranged around

a central circle. The symbol on the coins of rulers mentioned above is double-lined. The

occurrence of the same symbol on the reverses of coins attributed to three rulers

suggests a kinship existing between them. The Satavahana rulers changed this reverse

motif with their favorite, the Ujjain symbol. However, the Ujjain symbol occurring on

coins of Kotalingala is extremely particular. It is usually displayed as a composite or

cluster of more than one Ujjain symbols, interspersed with Swastikas in their quadrants.

Many times the orbs of contiguous Ujjain symbols are joined together, creating a pattern

of lines and roundels. The orbs are generally made of two concentric circles.

The more significant Kotalingala coins are those bearing the feudatory titles. Two

feudatory authorities are known to have issued coins at Kotalingala, namely the

Mahatalavaras and the Mahasenapatis. These coins bear characteristic symbols of the

feudatory families. The Mahatalavara coins have a horse, while the Mahasenapati coins
 112

have a prominent Swastika on their respective obverses. The legend is usually arranged

around the motifs. No Mahatalavara coin has been encountered with the name of the

particular individual holding the title, it is only the title that is extant on the coins. One

Mulataka, who must have held the title, has issued the Mahasenapati coins. A detailed

discussion on the historicity of these feudatories and the significance of their coins

occurring at Kotalingala will be discussed in the chapter dealing with the feudatories of

the Satavahana era.

The metallic composition of coins of Kotalingala has been described variously as

copper, brass and potin. As physical examination suggests, the term alloyed copper

would ideally suit the description. Arsenic seems to be one of the chief alloying

components. Those described as of brass are in reality of yellow potin. The metal of

early issues such as of Gobhadra and Samigopa is akin to that utilized in the pre-

Satavahana coins of Vidarbha.

2. Peddabankuru: -The other site to have yielded Regiospecific coins in Telingana is

Peddabankuru, located in close proximity of Kotalingala. The coins of this site are

invariably cast specimens, a fact that adds to their peculiarity. They bear on the obverse

an elephant with its trunk hanging down. This motif shows certain similarities with its

counterpart from Kotalingala, especially on the coins of Chhimuka from that site.

Certain ancillary symbols such as the Shrivatsa are seen above the elephant sometimes.

The reverse bears the composite Ujjain symbol as seen on the Kotalingala coins. The

occurrence of legends on these coins is rare. Some specimens are known to bear the

name of Vasithiputa Sri Pulumavi in truncated form.

Despite their superficial similarity in motifs with Kotalingala coins, the coins of

Peddabankuru show some important differences. The shape of coins is exclusively

 113

square in Kotalingala, while it is exclusively round for coins of Peddabankuru. The

minting technique differs for both these sites as noted earlier. The point of much

significance is that even though the metallic composition and weight match with a

narrow margin for coins of both these sites, their inter-occurrence is extremely limited.

This observation throws light on the acceptance factor for circulation of Regiospecific

Satavahana coins. Kotalingala and Peddabankuru are sites situated closest among those

showing Regiospecificity of coin types. The presence of two independent coinages in

such close proximity epitomizes the tenets of Regiospecificity.

3. Kondapur: -The last and most important site in Telingana is Kondapur. Situated in the

Kalabgur taluk of Medak district it has yielded a plethora of numismatic finds in both

excavations as well as stray finds. Most of the coins described by Rama Rao 1 in his

catalogue are reported from Kondapur. Regiospecifically, the coins found at Kondapur

can be categorized in the following types

1. Elephant type: - this is the predominant type at Kondapur. Made mostly out of lead

the coins bear an elephant with upraised trunk on the obverse. The reverse bears the

modified Ujjain symbol, with very thick borders for the orbs and the shafts. The

elephant is usually devoid of any associated symbols but some coins display a peculiar

bow with three curvatures. The legend is arranged above the elephant, starting from its

hind legs and ascending up to the raised trunk. Coins of a predominant variety in this

type show much similarity with the motifs on the universal potin elephant type. These

coins are either round or rectangular in shape.

Another important variety that deserves mention depicts the elephant standing on a

pedestal in profile facing the left, with its trunk hanging down. It bears a triangle headed

1
Rama Rao, M., Satavahana Coins in the Andhra Pradesh Govt. Museum, A. P. Govt. Series no. 2,
Hyderabad, 1961.
 114

standard in its front. The legend is arranged above the elephant in a semicircular manner.

The reverse bears a beautifully executed Ujjain symbol. It has double-bordered orbs with

dots placed inside them. The shafts are also double lined. These coins are encountered

only in rectangular shape.

2. Three-arched hill type: - the constituent coins of this type are mainly of lead and bear

a characteristically executed three-arched hill on the obverse. The arches are short and

thick. The base upon which the two lower arches rest extends beyond their point of

intersection. It has thickened ends. A short and bold horizontal line is often placed below

the three-arched hill. The symbol bears a robust and rustic appearance. The legend is

arranged around the symbol in a circular fashion. It starts at the base and is inscribed in

an anticlockwise manner, reading outwards. The letters in the legend are equally robust.

They have very broad triangular heads and sharply narrow down towards their base.

The reverse of these coins bears an elaborate modified Ujjain symbol. Its orbs are

composed of two or three concentric circles with a dot placed in the center. The Ujjain

symbol can be with or without associate symbols. In case of the associated symbols

being present, they are Shrivatsas in their curvilinear form, placed in each quadrant. The

addition further embellishes the motif.

3. Swastika type: - these coins bear a prominent Swastika in the center. The legend is

arranged all around the Swastika in a clockwise fashion. Unlike the other two types

described above, most coins of this type bear legends indicating that the feudatories

issued them. Holders of two titles are known to have issued these coins, namely the

Mahasenapatis and the Mahagramikas. Coins of both the feudatories are known chiefly

in lead. However, its the motifs on their reverse that makes them extremely interesting.
 115

Some of the Mahasenapati coins bear the dynastic scepter of Kshaharata Kshatrapa

Nahapana on their reverse, which consists of a vertically placed arrow and the

thunderbolt. At least one coin has been reported with the modified Ujjain symbol on its

reverse. The coins name one Bhardwajiputra as their issuer. Mirashi identified him

with the Shaka king Mana of Mahisha dynasty1. Historians have been baffled by the

occurrence of symbols so characteristically associated with Nahapana on coins from an

area much far from his own territories. As will be demonstrated later, numismatic

evidence shows that Nahapana extended his sway deep into Maharashtra. Even then, the

eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh still remained fairly out of his reach. It was supposed

that some Kshaharatas escaped the extermination inflicted on the clan by Gautamiputra

Satakani, fled towards the East and established a New Kingdom to strike these coins.

This explanation and also the identity of the issuer as asserted by Mirashi, is wrought

with serious misgivings for chronology of the course of events during the Kshatrapa-

Satavahana conflict. It will be taken up for discussion in detail in the relevant section of

this thesis. It would suffice to say here that discovery of the Swastika-type coins of

Gautamiputra Satakani himself from Kondapur2 has necessitated a fresh review of the

problem. It is also to be examined in the wake of the fact that at least one holder of the

title has issued coins of Swastika type in the Regiospecific coinage of Kotalingala,

where the reverse motifs are completely different.

Less number of coins of the Mahagramikas is known in the Swastika type. The known

specimens are all of lead, and do not describe the name of the individual holding the

title, as on all coins it is truncated. On one coin, however, there are indications that it

1
Mirashi, V. V. Kondapur Coins of Saka Mana, JNSI, vol.11, pt. 1, 1949.
2
Reddy, D. Raja, and Reddy, P. Suryanarayana Swastika Type Satavahana Coins, ND, vol. 12-13, 1988-
89, pp. 17-23.
 116

should have begun with an M. The reverse of these coins is also indistinct but shows

trace of the (modified?) Ujjain symbol.

4. Crescent type: - very few specimens of these coins are known. They bear a crescent in

the center on obverse, with the legend arranged around it in an anti-clockwise manner

reading outwards. The reverse bears a six-arched hill surmounted by a crescent and

enclosed within a double rectangular frame. The coins are of lead. The identity of the

issuer of these coins has been debated because of the truncated nature of the legend. It

denotes the name of Sivala, but in what capacity he issued these coins remains the

subject of controversy. Greater details will follow while discussing the feudatory

coinage, but it would suffice here to say that fresh data published from Kondapur

excavations1 indicates that he could have been a Mahagramika.

5. Apart from the types described above, the site of Kondapur has yielded certain

interesting coins of Maharathis. They are mainly of the lion type, portraying a lion

standing in half profile or profile on the obverse. The reverse of all the coins differs in

its details. It bears varying motifs such as the Ujjain symbol, tree in railing, triangle-

headed standard, and curved (angular) line representing the river. Most of these symbols

occur on the reverse of the lion type Maharathi coins from Kondapur, either in

combination or as sole. The combinations include Ujjain symbol, tree in railing and the

wavy line or tree in railing and triangle-headed standard. The Ujjain symbol is seen also

without an accompaniment. A variant form of this symbol is seen on one of the coins

where it is depicted with orbs of two concentric circles and shafts of parallel lines. All

these Maharathi coins are made of lead.

1
Reddy, D. Raja, and Reddy, P. Suryanarayana, Coins of the Satraps of the Satavahana Era, Hyderabad,
1983, pp. 70-77.
 117

Besides the sites mentioned above the subdivision of Telingana is dotted with many

other sites yielding coins. But as explained earlier all these sites taken together present a

cohesive numismatic picture as far as the coin types that are found at these places are

concerned. The sites include Sangareddy, Jogipet (dist. Medak) Jangaon Warangal (dist.

Warangal), Devaruppala, Vardhamanakota, Polakonda, Panigiri and Nelakondapally

(dist. Nalgonda). The chief type of coins found here is the Horse type, issued by the

holders of the feudatory title Mahatalavara. The name of the individual is seen on a

few coins. These coins bear a horse, almost invariably facing to the left in profile, on

the obverse. It is associated with certain symbols. Prominent among these is the tree in

railing and the Shrivatsa. Some coins are also encountered bearing a wheel in front of

the horse. The reverse usually bears variants of the hill symbol enclosed within a

rectangular frame. The most commonly occurring form has the hill with wide arches.

They have the triangle-headed standard enclosed in the top arch. Sometimes all the three

arches enclose groups of dots arranged in a geometric fashion. The hill has a wavy line

representing the river at its base, enclosed in compartment within the rectangular border.

Coins with the same title are encountered issued in the Regiospecific coinage at

Kotalingala also. The other find-spots of Mahatalavara coins in the horse type include

Kondapur and Dhulikatta. A beautiful seal bearing the name of a Mahatalavara around a

horse in the center was found in the Peddabankuru excavations. This has helped in

restructuring the truncated legends on some of the Mahatalavara coins.

Rayalseema: -

Three sites in this subdivision have yielded specific coin types. They include

Veerapuram (Nandikotkur taluk, dist. Kurnool), Satanikota (dist. Kurnool) and Adapur

(dist. Cuddappah). The coin types can be described as follows

 118

1. Veerapuram: - this site is situated near to Satanikota, but further down the Krishna

river, after its confluence with Tungabhadra at Sangameshwaram. It was excavated by

the archaeologists at the Birla Archaeological and Cultural Research Institute,

Hyderabad. The site yielded pre-Satavahana coins belonging to a Maharathi family,

issued in a characteristic type.1 They bear an elephant standing in profile, facing either to

the left or right. It is associated with certain other symbols. The coins can be classified

further depending on these associated symbols. Two associated symbols are

encountered, namely the Shrivatsa and the triangle-headed standard, placed generally on

the back of the elephant. The legend is arranged along the border of the coin surrounding

the elephant in a semicircular fashion. The reverse of these Maharathi coins bears a six-

arched hill, with pellets placed in each arch. It is flanked on both sides by trees executed

with realism, having swaying branches and laden with leaves depicted as round dots of

varying sizes. The hill is placed on a wavy line representing the river, with dots in each

curve. The entire motif is enclosed within a rectangular frame with a separate

compartment for the river symbol.

Apart from the inscribed Maharathi coins, many uninscribed coins ascribable to the

same Maharathi group on the basis of the similarity in the motifs, were reported from

Veerapuram. Other uninscribed coins with motifs such as symbols like Shrivatsa or a

lion were also encountered at Veerapuram. The Satavahana coins were represented by

specimens of the Kondapur Three-arched hill and elephant types. It shows that the

Regiospecific nature of coins at Veerapuram had ended with the advent of the

Satavahanas. As in the case of Sannati, here also the predominant neighboring region of

Kondapur seems to have taken Veerapuram under its economic sway.

1
G. Kamalakar, and M. Veerender, Coins from the Veerapuram Excavations, BACRI Numismatic
Bulletin No. 3, Hyderabad, 1991.
 119

2. Satanikota: - the excavations at Satanikota yielded a coin of the Nandipada type. Two

more coins of this type have been known one from the Veerapuram excavations1 and the

other from a private collection in Hyderabad.2 The exact provenance of the coin from

Hyderabad has not been ascertained. Though the type is classified here as from

Satanikota, this can not be said with certainty. The only other coin in this type with

conformed provenance is from Veerapuram, a site situated not far from Satanikota. It is

possible that the type is equally attributable to both sites. But since the Veerapuram

coins show a predominance of the elephant motif, it is more likely that the Nandipada

type coins must have hailed from Satanikota.

All the three coins are of lead and display a prominent Nandipada in the center. The

Veerapuram specimen shows it mounted on a three-tier pedestal. The reverse of coins

from Veerapuram and Satanikota bear the tree in railing enclosed within a rectangular

frame. The reverse of the coin from Hyderabad is not illustrated.

There is more to the uncertainty about these coins. None of the specimens display a

clearly ascertainable legend. The excavators at Satanikota, together with A.M. Shastri

tried to ascribe their coin to Kumara Satavahana, an early ruler of the dynasty3.

However, P. L. Gupta demonstrated the flaws in this attribution in the editorial note

following the publication. Poor photographic data supplied by the authors accentuates

the problem. From whatever is visible, the word Kumara is certainly there, but it is

difficult to see what the authors have read after it. The Veerapuram specimen shows the

legend in truncated form, and not much sense can be made out of the extant letters. The

1
G.Kamalakar, and M. Veerender, op. cit., p. 40, coin no. 36.
2
Reddy, D. Raja, and Reddy, P. Suryanarayana, op. cit., p. 85.
3
Ghosh, N. C., and Shastri, A. M. A Coin of Kumara Satavahana from Satanikota, ND, vol. 5, pt. 1,
1981, pp. 8-16.
 120

legend on the Hyderabad specimen is equally uncertain. The only sure comment one can

make is that as a Regiospecific coins they belong to Rayalseema.

3. Adapur: - the site situated in the Nandalur taluk, Cuddappah district has shown up

considerable Buddhist remains including brickwork for Chaityas. A hoard of Satavahana

coins (?) was found here. It is apparent from the pieces similar to the coins of this hoard

in many private collections that the quantity of coins found was immense, running into

several hundred pieces. Most of the hoard was dispersed in trade. However another

group of similar coins was encountered in the excavations at Adapur.1 These coins are of

the Horse type. They bear it on the obverse associated with two symbols, namely the

Shrivatsa and a shaded ball. The Shrivatsa is placed on the horses back, while the ball is

near to his mouth. The animal faces to the right in profile. The legend is seen running

above the horse in a circular fashion. The reverse of the coins bears a six-arched hill,

with a dot in each arch and a tree in railing to its right. The wavy line representing the

river is seen at the base. Dots are seen in its curves. The motif is enclosed within a

circular border with a separate compartment for the river symbol.

The attribution of these coins is doubtful. Though they have been widely described as

issues of Vasithiputa Pulumavi or Vasithiputa Satakani2, most of these attributions are

arbitrary, as the photographs published alongside reveal. Very few specimens are

encountered with legible and readable legends. One remarkable coin in this type, where

the legend is fully extant but not read with accuracy, reveals the name of the issuer as a

king other than the Satavahanas3. He is a Kosikiputa (Kaushikiputra), belongs to the

Herannaka family, and holds the title of Rjan, i.e. King. The identification of these

1
Annual Report of the Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, 1974-77, p. 5.
2
CSE, p. 43.
3
Reddy, D. Raja, and Reddy, P. Suryanarayana, op. cit., p. 82, coin no. 2.
 121

coins as Satavahana issues should be reviewed critically. This will be done in the

relevant chapter.

Coastal Andhra Pradesh: -

The region of coastal Andhra is extremely important for Satavahana history, especially

for the later rulers of the dynasty. It is a vast territorial tract, stretching from Srikakulam

in the North to Nellore in the South containing two very fertile deltas, of Krishna and

Godavari. The logistics of early historical trade and urbanization in this area have been

already alluded to previously. It is no wonder therefore that the region is littered with

early historical sites, which cluster in between these deltas. The most noteworthy among

the sites lie in the Guntur and Krishna districts and include Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,

Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala and Bhattiprolu.

As far as numismatics of the region is concerned it presents a fairly cohesive picture.

The element of Regiospecificity is diffuse, as is expected to be in relation to the late

Satavahana period, and the specific coin types are distributed all along the coastal belt,

rather than being confined to any particular site. They can therefore be described as

specific to the entire subdivision. This is in sharp contrast to the Regiospecificity of coin

types associated with early Satavahanas, which are seen to be specific to sites, often

situated in close proximity and yet displaying a strong non-interregional occurrence of

coins. This dilution in the Regiospecific character of the late Satavahana coins from

Coastal Andhra can be explained. The Satavahanas extended their sway well into

Andhra Pradesh only in the post-Gautamiputra Satakani period. This is evident from

both the epigraphic as well as numismatic details, and has been agreed in principle by

the scholastic community. By this time, the two main universal types, namely the

silver portrait type and the potin elephant type, were already well established in
 122

circulation. The changing politico-economic situation in the Deccan warranted this

change. The introduction of these coin types eventually led to changing the

Regiospecific picture of Satavahana coins considerably. The regions yielding specific

coin types of this period tend to be lesser in number and wider in area rather than being

centered on a single urban center. The number of such regions slowly dwindles with

smaller regions merging to give way to a larger region, thereby increasing the area

covered under a coinage with greater uniformity. The example of Kondapur spreading

over to Sannati and Veerapuram has already been stated before. The Coastal Andhra

region remains the only region to yield Regiospecific coins until the fag end of the

dynasty. It seems probable that the Satavahana coinage in this region was essentially

trimetallic, composed of the silver portrait coins, the potin elephant coins and the lead

coins of Regiospecific types. The reasons for establishing such a trimetallic currency

were probably governed by the trade.

Coming now to the description of Regiospecific types, we find that even though the

picture is cohesive and spread over a large territory, they still retain their historical

importance. Application of numismatic methodologies mainly the studies involving

identification of type-successions proves valuable as source of historical information.

The types belong not only to the Satavahanas, but also to other independent dynasties

and feudatories. As such they present an interesting picture of contemporary ruling

entities. The types can be described as follows: -

1. Lion type: - these coins are almost exclusively of lead, and bear a lion standing in

profile on the obverse. Its stance is majestic, his head held slightly raised and the front

legs stoically placed. Usually the tail stands curled on its back. A tree in railing is seen

associated with the lion many times. The reverse of most of these coins bears a six-
 123

arched hill enclosed in a rectangular border. The arches are thickly executed and contain

dots or pellets inside. The border can be double-lined. Outside the border a crescent is

seen placed at the top of the motif.

The attribution of most of these coins, encountered chiefly in the vicinity of Amaravati,

was made to the Satavahanas1. But D. Raja Reddy and P.Suryanarayana Reddy

published a small monograph in which they proposed that the coins were issues of a

local Coastal Andhra dynasty calling itself the Mahameghavahanas as is evident from

certain inscriptions2. The important king Kharavela belonging to the early historical

period also uses this appellation for himself in his Hathigumpha edict. The efforts of

Reddy and Reddy were directed to identify the kings issuing these coins as belonging to

the same family as that of Kharavela, thereby attempting to present a continuous

historical picture for the region in the pre-Satavahana epoch. Leaving the controversy of

such an identification aside, the authors should certainly be credited with attributing

these coins to a pre-Satavahana dynasty of the region. Subsequent excavations at

Vaddamanu3, not far from Amaravati and Dharanikota proved their point. Before the

publication of monograph and the excavation most of the coins known in this type were

uninscribed. Their attribution to the Satavahanas were probably based on a single coin of

(Vasithiputa) Pulumavi in the British Museum,4 issued in the same lion type and bearing

a legible, though truncated legend. But the discovery of other inscribed coins of the type,

particularly those having the hill motif on the reverse changed the picture. Most of the

kings known from the inscribed coins have names ending in Sada, hence their

1
CSE, pl. XII, coins E-8 to E-10. In the corpus, pp. 225-226, the coins have been wrongly numbered as B-
8 TO B-9b.
2
Reddy, D. Raja, and Reddy, P. Suryanarayana, Coins of the Meghavahana Dynasty of Coastal Andhra,
Hyderabad, 1985.
3
Kasturi Bai, M. Coins from Vaddamanu Excavations, in Numismatics and Archaeology, Collected
papers for the 2nd international Colloquium, ed. P. L. Gupta and A. K. Jha, Nasik, 1987, pp. 102-112.
4
BMCAWK, pl. V, G. P.-2 and G. P.-3
 124

identification as Sadas of Coastal Andhra. This however does not affect the

identification of the British Museum specimen. It certainly belongs to Pulumavi. It is

interesting to note that the reverse of this coin does not bear the hill so characteristically

associated with the Sadas, but instead a modified Ujjain symbol, which is known for its

Satavahana affiliation. The historical significance of this type-succession will be dealt

with further.

A more fascinating aspect of coins in this type is the occurrence of many pieces with a

bold countermark. This is usually a Nandipada but one coin counterstruck with a tree in

railing is also reported1. The reason behind such a counterstriking can not be ascertained

satisfactorily but it might have been employed to reintroduce the coins into general

circulation.2

2. Three-arched hill type: - these coins bear a three-arched hill in the center on obverse.

The legend is arranged around it in a circular clockwise manner, reading inwards. The

hill is mounted on a wavy line representing the river. In most coins the hill is not

mounted by a crescent, and is devoid of other associated symbols. The reverse bears the

modified Ujjain symbol with its orbs composed of two or three concentric circle having

a dot at the center. The coins bear similarity with those of the synonymous type from

Kondapur, but are executed in a superior manner. They are exclusively of lead.

3. Six-arched hill type: - the type is essentially same to he three-arched hill type except

the hill has six arches. Other differences include dots within the arches, a crescent over

the hill and presence of associated symbols flanking the hill in the center. The wavy line

at the base of the hill is also extended longer. The legend surrounds the hill motif on the

obverse in a circular fashion. The associated symbols include an anticlockwise Swastika

1
IAR, 1962-63, p.2, pl. IV-a.
2
This is often indicated by the worn condition in which the undertypes exist.
 125

to the right of the hill and a triangle-headed standard to the left. The reverse is similar to

that of the coins of three-arched hill type, and bears the modified Ujjain symbol with

bold concentric orbs. These coins are encountered only in lead.

4. Ten-arched hill type: - the coins of this type are usually large and bear a ten-arched

hill surmounted by a crescent on the obverse. The legend is arranged in a circular

fashion around the hill. The hill itself is embellished further by incorporation of pellets

within the arches. A variant of this type displays the hill made of solid spheres, instead

of arches. The wavy line is much longer at the base of the hill. Associated symbols are

present on both sides of the hill. In case of this type they include a conch shell on the

right of the hill and a lotus in half profile to its left. The reverse bears the modified

Ujjain symbol with concentric orbs. The coins are exclusively of lead. One piece bearing

the name of the late Satavahana ruler Chanda Sati has a simpler form of hill, without the

crescent or the associated symbols1. The reverse also bears the modified Ujjain symbol

in a less ornate form, without the concentric orbs.

The three types listed above are complimentary to each other as far as their weights are

concerned. Those of the three-arched hill type are the smallest and the weigh increases

proportionately with the number of arches. It is quite likely that they form units of a

same currency system prevalent in Coastal Andhra. The hill type is the most extensively

encountered coin type of the Coastal Andhra region.

5. Horse type: - these coins bear a horse standing in profile facing generally to the right

on obverse. On some rare coins it faces to the left. Sometimes the coins bear a crescent

placed over the back of the horse. The legend is arranged around the horse in a circular

fashion reading clockwise inwards. The reverse bears the modified Ujjain symbol in its

1
Sarma, I. K. Important Numismatic Finds from Duvvuru and Alluru, District Nellore (A. P.), JAINS,
vol. III, 1980, pp. 12-15.
 126

ornate or ordinary form. On coins of Chanda Sati in this type the legend is seen arranged

in a semicircular manner extending from the tail of the horse to its mouth. All the coins

known in this type are of lead.

6. Elephant type: - the coins of this type have an elephant on the obverse. The posture of

the animal is profile, with its trunk hanging down, facing to the right. The legend is seen

arranged in a circular manner around the motif. The reverse bears a relatively less ornate

modified Ujjain symbol. The coins are known only in lead. So far only Yana Satakani is

seen to have issued coins in this type.

7. Ship type: - by far the most interesting and widely publicized coin type of the Coastal

Andhra region is the ship type. Seen as the true reflection of the maritime superiority of

the later Satavahanas it affords a valuable numismatic insight into the aspects of trade in

the Satavahana era. The coins of this type can be broadly described as having a ship with

masthead on the obverse. But a careful examination of available specimens reveals that

many structural differences occur in the ships design. The ships masts can number

between two to four, they can be rigged or freestanding, the poop of the ship can be of

various shapes, and the rear sometimes shows a fan-shaped projection. Presence of one

or two oars towards the rear and a buoy below the bow has also been noticed on some

coins. A detailed study of these variations forms an important evidence for Indian

Maritime history. However, being out of the scope of this research scheme, they are left

for historical studies of the future. What is important here is that these variations offer

parameters for classifying the ship type coins into further varieties. The coins are known

both as inscribed as well as uninscribed specimens. Generally those representing the

smaller denominations are uninscribed. Apart from the structural differences in the

design of the ship the placement of the legend and presence of other symbols also decide
 127

the varieties. The legend when present is displayed in a semicircular fashion along the

border of the coin, stretching from the poop of the ship to its rear. Some coins show a

fish and a conch shell below the ship, while some others have an undulating line, thereby

adding to the maritime affinities of the coin type. On some coins a tree in railing is

shown in association with the ship. Sometimes the ship is shown moored to the tree.

The reverse of the ship type coins is rather simple as compared to the motifs on the

obverse. It bears a modified Ujjain symbol, executed with simplicity. No associated

ornamentations or symbols are present.

This completes the description of Regiospecific Satavahana coin types. There exist

certain coins whose provenance is not very well established. Some of them belong to

such types, which might not have been described in the foregoing description. They have

been classified separately. After studying the Regiospecific types with special attention

to topographic aspects of the coins such as the overall fabric, execution of motifs and

occurrence of specific forms of symbols, it becomes possible to form generalizations

regarding these factors and their associations. In such cases, even if the provenance of a

coin is not known with certainty, one can at least attempt at proposing a plausible area to

which the coin type might belong. The generalizations seem to work fairly well for

Regiospecific Satavahana coins. As an example, we can look at the coins from

Vidarbha. Though they differ in the finer details an overall similarity in their execution

is immediately apparent. The motifs, which can be viewed in a generalized form, include

the elephant on these coins and the modified Ujjain symbol. The execution of the

elephant is very characteristic and the modification on the Ujjain symbol is always by

placing horned projections on one of the orbs. These bifurcated horns are typical of

Vidarbha. Such type-fossils can be identified for other areas as well. However, to
 128

retain objectivity, the coins that are designated to a particular area depending on such

generalizations, rather than an established provenance, are marked separately.

Having described the Regiospecific coin types, it would be proper to give some attention

to the universal Satavahana coin types. In the foregoing discussions the spread of such

types has been explained before. What remains to be elaborated is the nature and brief

description of the coin types, much on the grounds of the Regiospecific types described

above.

The universal coin types of the Satavahanas

Only two Satavahana coin types fit into being described as universal coin types. The

term is mainly utilized in opposition to the term Regiospecific. Both the terms are self-

explanatory when juxtaposed. Universal types are those types, which can not fall into the

basic tenets of Regiospecificity. Their occurrence is not limited to a specific area.

Instead, the constituent coins of these types are found all over the empire. The two

universal Satavahana coin types are

1. The potin elephant type and

2. The silver portrait type

The potin elephant type coins: - the coins of the potin elephant type are by far the

commonest Satavahana coins to occur. Hoards comprising of large quantities of coins in

this type are found regularly and end up in trade. The wide distribution and very large

number of these coins are reflective of the success that they had as far as the acceptance

of the people using them was concerned.

The coins have very simple motifs. The obverse bears an elephant, standing in half

profile facing to the right with its trunk upraised. The legend occurs as placed in a

semicircular fashion above the elephant. It begins at the base of the hind legs of the
 129

elephant and extends upto the tip of its upraised trunk. No associated symbols are seen.

The neck of the elephant bears a strange configuration of lines as an attempt to denote

the ears of the animal. The perspective of these lines has not been understood by

numismatists, and has been described them as jeweled neck1 or even identified them as

a rider on the elephants back. The reverse of these coins bears the modified Ujjain

symbol with small dots placed within the orbs.

As the historical significance of this type is limited it would not feature much in the

latter part of this thesis. The discussions pertaining to this type are therefore presented

here in its proper context. Few points regarding the physical features of the type need to

be discussed. The coins have not been studied by making an attempt towards classifying

them on pure numismatic grounds. When such a study is performed it becomes apparent

that the coins constituting the type are clearly divided into three series. The first of them

contains coins of better execution, heavier weight and a different metallic composition.

The legends encountered on these coins include the names of Siri Satavahana, Siri

Satakani and most notably, Chhimuka Siri Sata (vahana?). The uncertainty about the

reading of the last rulers name stems from the fact that it is seen on a unique coin, and

the successive portion of the legend is truncated, thereby eliminating the possibility to

ascertain whether the name ends in Satakani or Satavahana. But seen from other coins of

Chhimuka, the latter ending is more probable. Any views about the metallic composition

would be speculative in absence of chemical evaluation, but it is certain from physical

examinations that the metal of these coins is much smoother and has a chocolate feel to

it. The manufacturing technique of these coins seems to be consisting of casting the

planchets and subsequently striking with dies.

1
CSE, p. 234, coin no. B-54.
 130

Depending on the superior execution and heavier weight it can be concluded that the

coins of these series predate other examples of the type. This is also substantiated by the

occurrence of the name of Chhimuka on one of the constituent coins of this series who

was an early ruler of the dynasty. Their find spots are limited to central Maharashtra,

although the exact area can not be ascertained due to insufficient provenance data. The

coins thus border on Regiospecificity. As such they can be designated as the precursors

of the more universal coins, which seems to have evolved out of these early issues.

The second series of the type is truly universal, for it is the coins of this series that are

found all over peninsular India. They bear the peculiarities in execution of the elephant

noted above. The execution of the elephant is rather crude when compared to that on the

early series. The coins are lighter in weight, the metal is inferior and lacks the

characteristic chocolate feel. The manufacturing technique seems to have been

simplified. These coins are struck by flattening metallic globules, as indicated by the

radially cracked edges, to yield planchets and striking them with dies. This technique

enables a faster and more efficient production of coins. All these facts, combined with

the extensive area of circulation of these coins indicate a post-Gautamiputra Satakani

date for the coins. Indeed most of the coins found are from such regions that were added

to the Satavahana Empire by Gautamiputra and his Successors. The coins of this later

series are inscribed with the names of Siri Satakani, Siri Pulumavi, Siva Siri Pulumavi,

Siri Khada (Skanda) Satakani and Siri Yana (Yajna) Satakani. These legends make the

late chronological placement of the series even clearer. The intriguing question here is

the attribution of coins with the legend Siri Satakani. They have been ascribed to

Vasithiputa Satakani without giving any explanation for the attribution. The coins are

akin to those with the legends Siri Pulumavi and Siva Siri Pulumavi in their finer
 131

physical details. As this type link suggests, it is logical to see Vasithiputa Satakani as

issuer of these coins.1

The third series contains coins exhibiting further degrA.D.ation. Their metallic

composition is inferior containing increased amounts of softer components of the alloy,

as indicated by the brittleness of these coins. The execution of the elephant is very crude.

The legends are often illegible and rudimentary. These coins again border on

Regiospecificity, with their occurrence limited to north and northwest Maharashtra. The

coins bearing readable legends denote the names of the last Satavahana rulers like Karna

Satakani, Kumbha Satakani and Saka (?) Satakani.

It is certain from the foregoing discussion that a progressive degradation is witnessed in

the universal elephant type coins. A systematic elucidation of this can help in

proposing an internal chronology for the constituent coins of the type. Such an internal

chronology can then help in addressing the questions regarding attribution of certain

coins in the type. However, this being an extensive numismatic proposal on its own, no

such attempt has been made hereunder.

The extensive popularity enjoyed by the elephant type coins caused its imitations to

circulate. This is evident from the coin moulds to cast these coins found in the

excavations such as that at Kanchipuram2. The type survived in the post-Satavahana

Andhra Pradesh, where the Ikshvakus seem to have retained it. Although issued in lead

and mostly uninscribed the Ikshvaku coins certainly employed the elephant type coins as

a prototype. The survival of the coin type in Maharashtra however seems to have been

limited to Vidarbha as attested by the coins of the very late Satavahana rulers in the

Chanda and Tarhala hoards. A vacuum as far as indigenous coins are concerned ensued

1
CSE, p. 100.
2
Raman, K. V., and Shanmugam, P. op. cit., SSIC, vol. 1, 1991, pp. 23-29.
 132

in post-Satavahana Maharashtra. Most of the coins encountered in Maharashtra for this

period are the Western Kshatrapa issues.

The silver portrait type coins: - the earliest reporting of a Satavahana silver portrait coin

can be dated back to the last quarter of 19th century, when Bhagwanlal Indraji opened

the Stupa at Sopara to expose its reliquary. Among other finds such as relic caskets and

votive images he found a silver coin of Yajna Satakani1. Though he could not read the

name of the issuer with accuracy he identified it as a Satavahana issue and tried to

ascribe it to Chatarapana, a ruler he claimed to have existed from the presently

untraceable inscription of Damaghosha at Naneghat2. An electrotype of the coin reached

the British Museum and found proper ascription in Rapsons Catalogue 3. Subsequently

some other pieces with the names of other rulers were reported. Till late, the Satavahana

silver portrait coins were deemed extremely rare. One could encounter them reported in

the literature with a number describing the known specimens4. As such they attracted a

lot of charisma with both academics as well as collectors. But the total number surfaced

in last decade has nearly exploded this myth. Without prejudice they can now be

designated only scarce and that too for certain varieties. The number of published and

unpublished specimens together exceeds well over 300. Recently, A.M. Shastri has

voiced a similar opinion about supposed rarity of silver Satavahana coins 5. However it is

not only the rarity of these coins that have made them charismatic and interesting for

research. There are other aspects to it as well. The first is the unique significance of

these coins of being the earliest portrait issues of an indigenous issuing authority.

1
Indraji, Bhagwanlal Antiquarian remains at Sopara and Padana, JBBRAS, vol. XV, 1883, pp. 273-328.
2
ibid., p. 313.
3
BMCAWK, p. 45, pl. VII, El.
4
vide Maheshwari, K. K. A New Portrait Coin of Yajna Satakani, ND, vol. 3 pt. 1, 1979, pp.1-3.
5
Shastri, A. M. Satavahana Silver Coinage, SSIC, vol. 1, 1991, pp. 45-60.
 133

Indian coins depicting portraits before these were issues of foreigners such as

Scythians, Parthians, Kushans and the Greeks. However, this does not make the issue of

coins itself as indigenous. The Satavahana silver coins were doubtlessly the counterparts

of an originally alien currency that had found its roots in Western and peninsular India.

It is the currency of the Kshaharata Kshtrapas that can be looked into as a direct

precursor of the Satavahana silver coins. The Kshaharata coins themselves trace their

origins into the Indo-Greek Drachms weighing in the vicinity of 2.5-2.9 gms. The

simultaneous circulation of late Indo-Greek drachms and silver coins of Kshaharata ruler

Nahapana has been attested by both literary and numismatic evidences1. The factors

leading to the circulation of the Kshaharata currency in Satavahana domains have been

already referred to while discussing the decline of Regiospecific types. The demand and

acceptability of Kshaharata coins must have been high. This is reflected in several

Kshaharata coins encountered as holed pieces for jewelry purposes. The reason to hole

them was not confined to making jewels. These coins were also saved from loss in

circulation by converting them into jewelry, to be used later in possible troubled times.

Such an exigency was not fictitious, it must have occurred during the protracted

Kshaharata-Satavahana conflict. The preference given to Kshaharata silver coins for

such expedient spending is a measure of their popularity as a widely acceptable medium

of exchange.

The aftermath of the conflict saw the resurgence of the Satavahanas. Having noted the

utility of Kshaharata silver coins for the trade Gautamiputra Satakani seems to have

taken the wise course not to dislodge the popularly accepted currency regime. This was

the first step towards evolution of an independent Satavahana silver currency. The

Kshaharata coins existing in the circulation were simply assimilated into the Satavahana

1
Deyell, John Indo-Greek and Kshaharata Coins from the Gujarat Sea-coast, NC, 1984, pp. 115-127.
 134

system. The most efficient way to do it was to counterstrike them, thereby eliminating

the steps of melting, repurifying and preparation of blanks. The counterstriking itself

was not a one-time ordeal and seems to have gone on for a long time, as evident from

the varieties noticed in the counterstriking devices utilized on the coins in the famous

Jogalthembi hoard1. The counterstriking of Nahapanas coins by Gautamiputra Satakani

therefore has to be seen in the light of economic factors. The present view of many

historians, following that of Mirashi, to view the contents of the Jogalthembi hoard as

reflective of the purported extermination of the Kshaharatas, as claimed for

Gautamiputra Satakani in the Nasik inscription, suffers from a pseudo-nationalistic bias.

It might be humbly pointed out that to connect the contents of Jogalthembi hoard to the

details in the inscription at Nasik is not an objective approach towards historical

reconstruction. The inscription itself has very strong eulogistic sentiments, as will be

discussed later.

The motifs utilized by Gautamiputra Satakani include the arched hill, with three or six

arches and the modified Ujjain symbol. Both these devices show tremendous variations

individually as well as in their combination. The hill is with or without the wavy line

representing the river and sometimes with additional ornamentations in form of dots

placed within the arches. One rare variety from Jogalthembi hoard is with clockwise

Swastikas in the arches. The modified Ujjain symbol is comparatively less varied, major

variations seen include thick orbs and dots within the quadrants. The legend is arranged

around the hill symbol and shows variations in its initiation point. There seems to be no

order, in which the counterstrikes are effected, the motifs are struck over the obverse and

reverse of the undertype in an arbitrary manner. This shows that there was no deliberate

1
Scott, H. R. The Nasik (Jogalthembi) Hoard of Nahapanas Coins, JBBRAS, vol. XXII, 1908, pp. 223-
244.
 135

attempt at stamping out the authority of Nahapana in a numismatic manner. The order

of applying the counterstrikes would have been fixed for the devices to appear on the

important motifs on the undertype such as the portrait of Nahapana, had there been the

need of such an exercise. This again vindicates the stance that the counterstriking had

very little political importance to pose. The coins reported so far probably all originated

from the Jogalthembi hoard. Two more instances of finds of counterstruck coins were

noted during the field studies. One of them was from Buldhana district in East Vidarbha

in 1985-86 while the other was from somewhere in Malwa. The coins of this group

surfaced in the market at Indore during late 1994. Both these groups included the silver

portrait coins of Satavahana ruler Vasithiputa Pulumavi and Nahapanas silver issues

apart from the counterstruck coins. Several coins of Nahapana were holed.

The next logical step towards evolution of a silver coinage was to introduce coins with

identical devices on a fresh blank, i.e. without utilizing Nahapanas coins as undertypes.

Some specimens were published previously to justify such a claim.1 But upon close

examination these were found to be nothing more than excellent counterstrikes, wherein

nearly all the traces of the undertype had been wiped out. A very significant stride was

made when a silver coin was discovered while collecting data for this thesis. It is being

published here for the first time.2 It is the only non-portrait Satavahana silver coin ever

noticed. This coin bears the same motifs as those utilized for the counterstriking, but not

identical with those seen on counterstruck coins. The hill on this coin is composed of six

pellets and has an undulating line below it to represent the river symbol. The reverse

bears the modified Ujjain symbol, executed with slender elegance. However, the

significance of this coin does not end here. The aspect of utmost importance is the

1
Maheshwari, K. K. New Silver Coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni, ND, vol. 5, pt.-ii, 1981, pp. 14-15.
2
See Corpus Miscellaneous/23/msc-23.
 136

occurrence of the legend, inscribed around the hill, in pure Sanskrit. Amongst all the

inscribed testimonies of the Satavahana era this is the only instance where Sanskrit has

been employed. When the issue of this coin is seen as a logical succession to the

counterstruck coins it transpires that it was probably issued as a type towards the end of

the rule of Gautamiputra Satakani.

There are no confirmed portrait issues of Gautamiputra Satakani in silver. Though one

coin has been published its attribution is extremely tentative, as it does not bear clear

legends1. However it would not be unreasonable to expect his portrait issues. The radical

element of issuing portrait coins was introduced, as we see it today, by his son

Vasithiputa Pulumavi. The introduction of the portrait was a logical step towards

bringing the coins nearer to their prototype. The corresponding contemporary currency

units included the silver portrait coins of the Karddamaka Kshatrapas under Chashtana

and numerous Roman silver coins. The Roman denarii were heavier by nearly 750 mgs.

and as such had to be refabricated into indigenous currencies. In fact it has been

metallurgically proven that Nahapanas coins were made from Roman silver. 2 It would

be extremely enlightening to perform such studies on Satavahana silver portrait coins

although no such attempt has been made Another noteworthy aspect about the post-

Gautamiputra scenario as far as the silver coins are concerned is the relative scarcity of

their issue. Coins of both rulers, namely Chashtana and Vasithiputa Pulumavi are scarce.

This can be attributed to the large number of Nahapanas silver coins that must have

survived in the circulation. The extensive circulation, which these coins enjoyed, is

reflected in their worn condition as they are found today. The subsequent issues for the

1
JNSI, vol. XXI, pl. VI-1, 1a, pp. 107-109.
2
Turner, Paula An Investigation of Roman and Local Silver Coins in South India, 1 st to 3rd Century A.D.,
Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of London.
 137

Western Kshatrapas are profuse.1 However the same does not seem to be the case with

the Satavahana silver coins. They remained scarce and most probably their issue was

limited. This can be probably attributed to the trade patterns in the regions under control

of these two dynasties. Satavahana rule by then had been confined to Andhra and as we

have seen the region has a profuse Regiospecific coinage of lead. Add to it the

universal potin elephant type coins and we can see that the mercantile needs were

probably satiated. For higher value transactions coins of a third highly acceptable metal

were now around. These were the imported Roman Aurei. All these factors must have

led to a limited issue of the silver coins. Their scarcity can be explained plausibly in this

manner.

As far as the type characteristics are concerned the Satavahana silver coins can be

viewed as direct extensions of their prototypes. The portrait of the king is placed on the

obverse and the legend describing his name is placed around it in a clockwise manner.

Linguistically, this legend has the same elements as legends seen on any other

Satavahana coin. The reverse bears the six-arched hill surmounted by a crescent and the

modified Ujjain symbols. A wavy line representing the river is placed neatly below these

two symbols and a rayed Sun above them. The hill is placed to the right of the Ujjain

symbol on most coins. On certain rare coins the position is seen reversed. Another

legend denoting the name of the issuer is arranged in a circular clockwise fashion around

these symbols. This legend has been a matter of great debate, mainly regarding its script,

paleography and linguistic leanings. It certainly has South Indian elements to it, the most

noteworthy being use of the word Hiru or Tiru as an equivalent of Siri (Shri) in the

obverse legend. The language has been described as Tamil or Telugu, and regional

sentiments have played high in the ensuing debates. Without getting into the

1
This is indicated by the large amounts of these coins that often turn up in the trade even today.
 138

controversy, as it has very little significance to the political restructuring of the era,

certain observations can be registered regarding the basic nature of these legends. They

include

I) The legends on obverse and reverse are complimentary to each other, conveying

exactly the same meaning but apparently, in two different versions of Prakrit. One of

them (obverse) is evidently the language in which most of the Satavahana records, either

epigraphic or numismatic, have existed. The other (reverse) is ostensibly different, not

known to have employed in any other written record.

II) The scripts for both legends show remarkable regional variations, which are similar

to the paleographic forms of a predominantly south Indian script. This was identified in

the past as Tamil Brahmi from the earliest recorded inscriptions known in Tamilnadu.

But it is well understood that this form of script was not confined to Tamilnadu. Similar

paleographic elements have also been noted in the inscriptions from the Stupa at

Bhattiprolu in the vicinity of Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.

III) The basic reason to ascertain why these two languages have been employed, that too

only on the silver portrait coins, has so far not figured in any academic discussion on

these coins. A plausible viewpoint would be to compare these coins with their

prototypes. As it has been said earlier the immediate precursors of these coins are the

silver issues of Nahapana. Two independent series are seen to have emerged out of this

very popular coin type the later Western Kshatrapa issues of the house of Chashtana

and the Satavahana silver coins, under discussion. Nahapanas coins themselves

followed the Indo-Greek model. Now it is a matter of objective comparison to see the

common aspect of all these different series of coins they are all multilingual. The Indo-

Greek issues are bilingual whereas the issues of Nahapana and his immediate successor
 139

Chashtana are trilingual. Occurrence of legends on both obverse and reverse is another

similarity. The Indo-Greek bilingualism can be explained as placement of their own

language on the obverse while that of the acquired territories on the reverse. As type-

derivatives the Kshaharata coins retained the Greek in corrupt form whereas by the time

of Karddamaka Rudradaman it had gone rudimentary. The Satavahana bilingualism has

to be seen as the next extension of such type-derivation. Thus, the Satavahanas placed

the language of their own province on the obverse and that current in the acquired

territories on the reverse.

The fact that remains to be explained is the exclusivity of the use of this language on the

silver coins. No other contemporary coin makes use of this language, as one would

expect had it been colloquial to the province. Probable explanations may include the

general monolingual nature of all other coins, which might not have given a room for

regional expression. The variant used on the obverse was certainly deemed superior as

seen from profuse inscriptional and literary use, whereas the variant on the reverse does

not seem to have been favored. Various reasons can exist for such a linguistic apathy

and we need not go into the details.

The silver portrait coins are known to be issued in the names of the following

Satavahana kings

Vasithiputa Siri Pulumavi

Vasithiputa Siri Satakani

Vasithiputa Shiva Siri Pulumavi

Vasithiputa Khada Satakani

Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani

Gotamiputa Siri Yana Satakani and

 140

Madhariputra (Siri?) Pulumavi

The last mentioned king is a new discovery made in this thesis and his chronological

placement will be discussed at the appropriate juncture. Also, so far only the full

denominational units of one Drachm weight have been reported for Satavahana silver

portrait coins. But in the corpus accompanying this thesis certain fractional units of half

and quarter Drachms have been included for the first time.

Historically, the portrait coins have helped in resolving some prolonged debates. One of

them was regarding the identity of Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumavi. An inscription

denoting the setting up of his queens memorial stone was found in Banavasi, and the

editors of this inscription chose to identify the king as the son and successor of

Vasithiputa Siri Satakani, who was in turn the successor of Vasithiputa Siri Pulumavi 1.

Mirashi contended the word Siva used in the inscription was merely an honorific.2 He

forwarded several other arguments in the favor of his statement. He somehow could not

accept the order of three rulers bearing the same matronymic (Vasithiputa) in immediate

succession. But the discovery of a portrait coin of Shiva Siri Pulumavi established his

identity beyond doubt.3 A. M. Shastri4 has excellently demonstrated the same. More

discoveries in the past years have aggravated the problem of Vasishthiputras

succeeding each other by now we know of five rulers sharing the same matronymic.5

The underlying basis of Mirashis argument seems to be the assumption to treat all the

rulers having the same matronymic as uterine brothers, and as such they could not have

succeeded each other over a long period of time. The logic of treating individuals with

1
Murthy, A. V. Narasimha, and Bhat, H. R. Raghunatha, Studies in Epigraphy, vol. 1, 1975, pp. 34-39.
2
Mirashi, V.V. Siva Sri as an epithet of the Satavahana kings, JNSI, vol. 45, 1983, pp. 117-118.
3
Nagaswamy, R. A Bilingual coin of Vasithiputa Siva Sri Pulumavi, Andhra Pradesh Journal of
Archaeology, vol. 1, 1979, pp. 105-114.
4
Shastri, A. M, The Satavahanas and the Western Kshatrapas, Nagpur, 1998, pp. 116-130.
5
vide supra.
 141

same matronymic as uterine brothers somehow seems to be irrelevant, as nothing could

have stopped a king borne of a lady of Vasishtha gotra to marry a woman of the same

gotra and produce offsprings of the same matronymic as his. The problem of arranging

these five Vasishthiputras in their proper chronological context is of a complicated

nature and would be discussed in the relevant chapter. There again the use of portrait

coins, as instruments of historicity will be highlighted.

A comparison between the successor coinages of the Indo-Greek Drachms indicates that

the reverse of these has motif bearing a dynastic affiliation. Thus, for the coins of

Nahapana it bears the thunderbolt and arrow and for the issues of Karddamaka

Kshatrapas it has the three-arched hill flanked by the crescent and sun. Extending this

analogy to the Satavahana issues we may infer that the arched hill and the modified

Ujjain symbol both can be identified as the dynastic emblems of the Satavahanas. The

latter had always played such a role as seen from numerous Satavahana coins. In fact, it

would be worthwhile to point here that Satavahana rulers were known for their affinity

with this symbol. This is evident from a reference found in a much later literary work,

the Deshinmamla of Hemachandra. He mentions, while commenting on the

Ghsattasai and its compiler, the Satavahana king Hala, that the alternative names of

Hala were Kuntala, Pusa and Chaurchindha.1 The last mentioned appellation stands for

the Sanskrit Chaturachinha, meaning (the one identified with) a four-armed symbol.

The modified Ujjain symbol fits perfectly in the description. The literary mention of

Hemachandra, though very late, indicates that the affinity of the Satavahanas with the

modified Ujjain symbol had survived to his time. Its occurrence amongst the elements

constituting the dynastic emblem of the Satavahanas is thus well justified.

1
Bhayani, H. C. in Raghavan Felicitation Volume, p. 77, as quoted by Mirashi, V. V., op. cit.(1979), p.
[161].
 142

Map 1

Areas yielding Regiospecific coin types and contemporary urban centers

1. Ujjain 16. Adam 31. Peethapuram
2. Vidisha 17. Karhad 32. Chandravalli
3. Mallar 18. Brahmapuri 33. Nadner
4. Tripuri 19. Sannati
5. Bharuch 20. Kondapur
6. Maheshwar 21. Kotalingala
7. Prakashe 22. Peddabankuru
8. Nasik 23. Vadgaon-Madhavpur
9. Junnar 24. Banavasi
10. Sopara 25. Satanikota
11. Newase 26. Veerapuram
12. Paithan 27. Amaravati
13. Arni 28. Vaddamanu
14. Paunar 29. Nellore
15. Pauni 30. Duvvuru