PRACTICAL
PREPARED BY
Dr. K. SARAVANAN &
Dr. P. THANGAVEL
Professors
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS & PLANT BREEDING
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
ANNAMALAI NAGAR 608 002
TAMIL NADU INDIA
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
1.
2.
CONTENTS
2. Hybrid rice
3. Wheat Triticum sp
Banana Musa sp
Citrus Citrus sp
Floral Biology
1. The rice inflorescence is a panicle that is composed of spikelets.
2. A spikelet consists of two glumes, the rachilla and the floret.
The rachilla is small axis between the rudimentary glumes (the sterile lemmas) and the
fertile floret. The floret includes the lemma, palea and the flower. The flower consists of six
stamens unlike three in other cereals, one pistil containing one ovule and perianth represented
by odicules.
Anthesis:
Pollen shedding starts with the opening of flowers. Blooming of spikelets starts at the
apex of the panicle and proceed downward. The blooming normally occurs between 10 Am and
2Pm. A panicle remains in bloom for 2 to 4 days but may extend upto 7-10 days. Blooming is
asserted by temperature, humdity and light. Rice flower is normally self pollinated. The extend
of natural crossing varies from zero to 3% with an average of about 0.5% depending upon the
variety, the season, and the environment.
Selfing:
Selfing is very easy as for as paddy is concerned. We have to select the panicle and
remove the already opened flowers and cover the entire panicle with the paper cover or cloth
bag.
Seed
Age of
Note Duration Rate (Kg Spacing (cm) NPK (Kg / Ha.)
seedling
/ Ha.)
Short Below 120 days 60 12.5 x 10 22 days 120 :38:38
Medium 120 to 135 days 40 20 x 10 30 days 150: 50:50
Long Above 140 days 30 20 x 15 35 to 40 150:50:50
days
Ex.No.2
Date : HYBRID RICE
In hybrid rice seed production 3 lines are involved namely A line (male sterile line),
maintainer line (B), and restorer line (R).
F 1 Fertile
Hybrid Rice seed production
To produce hybrid seeds, male and female parents are planted alternately in specific
row ratios. The most common ratios are 6:2 and 8:2.
The following procedures are used to promote the cross pollination.
1. Planting across the wind direction to increase pollen dispersal on female plants.
2. Clipping the flag leaves of male sterile or restorer lines at booting to facilitate pollen
circulation.
3. Application of 20-30 ppm Gibberellin.
4. Supplementary pollination by rope pulling or rod shaking every 30 minutes during
flowering.
HYBRID RICE RELEASED IN INDIA
Yield
Hybrid
State Name Parentage Duration (MT / Remarks
Name
Ha)
Medium height, Male 10
CORH 1 Coimbatore,
IR 62829A x IR 10198 66 2R 110115 6.08 days shorter in age,
(MGR) Tamil Nadu
Medium fine grain.
Maruderu,
Medium height, Male 28
APHR 1 Andhra IR 58025A x Vnjaram R. 130- 135 7.14
days longer in age.
Pradesh
Maruderu,
Male 20 days longer in
APHR 2 Andhra IR 62829A x MDU 9992 R 120 125 7.52
age.
Pradesh
Medium height, Male 15
Mandiya 120
KRH 1 IR 58025 A x IR 9761 14 IR 6.02 days longer in age,
Karnataka 125
tolerant to blast
Male and female
synchronized flowering.
Chinsura, West
CNRH 3 IR 62829 A x Aajaya R. 125-130 7.49 Medium height, medium
Bengal
fine grain
BASMATI RICE
Traditional Basmati varieties are tall, prone to lodging, late and poor in yield. The
incorporation of basmati quality in the high yielding semi-dwarf backgrounds has been quite
challenging one.
It is largely due to the complex nature of the quality as such and the complicated
inheritance of the quality components.
Rice of quality are characterized by pleasant aroma, linear kernal elongation on cooking
and soft texture.
Genetically, aroma is recessive and follows mendelian inheritance. Most of the other
components are polygenically inherited. Through stepwise convergent mode of breeding, IARI
breeders were successful to evolve high yielding basmati like varieties / culture. For example
Basmati 370, Pusa 150, Pusa 523, Pusa 443, Pusa 449, Pusa 506 & Kasturi (Basmati 370 x CR
88-17-1-5).
Ex. No: 3
Date : WHEAT
Triticum sp ( 2n = 14, 28, 42)
Floral biology
The inflorescence of wheat is a spike (spikelets attached to main rachis directly ie.
without pedicels) or ear. The spikelets are attached at the nodes of the zig zag rachis. The rachis
is solid and consists of alternate flattened nodes and inter nodes. A single spikelet is attached to
eachnode. In the spikelets there are florets which may be 3 to 5 in number and top most flower
will be usually sterile. The spikelet is having a pair of stiff glumes which are sterile enclosing the
florets. The colour of the glumes may vary from red, brown or black. Each floret is having a
lemma which is broad and having awn. Palea is thin and membranous.
Androecium : stamens three, the filaments are slender, anthers are bilobed and versatile, each
lobe has two loculi. The pollen grains are spherical or oval with smooth surface.
Gynoecium : superior ovary , unilocular, styles two, plumose stigma with 80 to 100 stigmatic
branches.
Emasculation techniques
Normally hand emasculation is the only method followed. The steps involved are as
follows.
Cut off the upper and lower spikelets of the ear with scissors. Of the remaining spikelets
remove completely every alternate spikelet on both sides of rachis. Press the glumes gently and
insert the needle to open the glumes, lemma and palea. Remove the three anthers in each floret
one by one. If the anthers are green and erect they can be removed together but if they are in
advanced stage of development they should be removed one by one. Normally the lower two
florets are emasculated and the rest are clipped off. After emasculation pollen from the selected
male parent is collected which will be yellow in colour. Pinch them and dust the pollen on the
emasculated flower. Cover the crossed head with butter paper bag properly labeling it. Fifteen
days after pollination, bags can be removed.
Botany
In maize, male and female flowers are borne separately on the same plant
(monoecious). The male inflorescence (tassel) is located at the top of the plant. Tassel is a
branched panicle in which paired spikelets (one sessile and one pedicelled) are produced on
both the central axis and the branches.
Each spikelet consists of two lower most empty bracts called glumes, two staminate
florets each having three stamens and enclosed by lemma and palea. The female inflorescence
known as 'cob' or 'ear' arises about midway at a node on the main stalk. It is considered as a
modified lateral branch originating from an axillary bud on the main stem. The internodes of
this lateral branch are telescoped to form stout axis. From the lower node of this axis, modified
leaves in form of overlapping sheaths cover the inflorescence. These are called husks. On the
ear shoot, pistillate spikelets are borne in pairs in longitudinal rows. Each spikelet has two
flowers, one fertile and one sterile. This results in an uneven number of rows of kernels on the
ear. The hair like structures emerging from the top of the husks are called silks. Silk functions
both as stigma and style as it is receptive to fresh pollen grains throughout the entire length.
Hybrids
1. Single cross Hybrid: A single cross is a hybrid progeny from a cross between two
unrelated inbred (AxB)
2. Three way cross: A three way cross is the hybrid progeny from a cross between a
single cross and an inbred. (AxB) x c.
3. Double cross hybrid: A double cross is the hybrid progeny from a cross between two
single crosses (AxB) x (CxD).
4. In India Several hybrids namely, Ganga 1, Ganga 101, Ranjit, Deccan, VL 54, Ganga Safed
2, High Starch, Ganga 3, Ganga 4, Ganga 5, and Deccan 101 were released.
Floral Biology
The panicle varies from very loose to compact. The panicle has a central axis divided
into nodes and internodes. The secondary branches give rise to branches of third rank. The
panicle is generally carried well clear of the boot leaf, but in some varieties the lower part of the
panicle remains surrounded by the leaf sheath. In some varieties, the peduncle is recurved,
giving a pendent head referred to as gooseneck.
The panicle consists of the spikelets, which usually occur, in pairs. One member of this
pair is sessile, hermophrodite and fertile. The other is pedicellate, male or sterile. The sessile
spikelet consists of short central axis or rachilla and two glumes enclosing two florets. The
upper floret is fertile while the lower is reduced to scale (lemma). The fertile floret has a lemma,
a palea, 2 lodicules, 3 stamens and an ovary having 2 small styles each terminating in a feathery
stigma.
Flowering occurs generally prior to sunrise and in the early morning and may extend to
mid day under certain conditions. Blooming starts in the uppermost pancile branch and
proceeds downwards. The stigmas are receptive before flowering (equal to protogyny) and
remain receptive for 6-8 days. Pollen is viable only for a few hours under natural conditions and
loses its viability rapidly. Fertilization is completed within 2-4 hours after pollination.
Sorghum is normally self-pollinated but the stigmas exposed before the anthers dehisce
are cross-pollinated. Cross-pollination may be as high as 30% in Sudan grass. Therefore,
sorghum is classified as often cross pollinated.
Emasculation
1. Hand Emasculation: Only a part of the panicle is emasculated and remaining panicle is
clipped away. During clipping flowered tip and the lower panicle branches are
removed. About 50 florets (in clusters of two or three) which would normally flower the
following day are selected for emasculation. The emasculation needle is inserted at the
middle of florets and moved across the glume behind the anthers. The needle is rotated
90 and anthers lifted out. The emasculated panicle is covered by suitable paper bag.
2. Hot water method : In this method, the sorghum head is immersed in water at 48 C for
10 minutes.
Pollination
Pollination should be done as soon as almost all of the florets comes to flower. On a dry
morning when normal pollen shedding is occurring between 6 and 7 A.M. the hand pollination
may begin around 9.30 A.M. Delaying pollination into afternoon should be avoided. The pollen
is collected in paper bags done is case of maize. Sorghum pollen kept in bags is viable for a short
period (10-20 minutes). For collection, appropriate heads may be bagged. If there is heavy dew
at night and the morning is calm with little air movement, the heads can be inserted into the
bags. In the morning and pollen shaken from them another technique is to clip the heads from
the plant early in the morning before pollen shedding and to place the heads in boxes or flower
pots kept in protected place. It is useful if the dew is heavy and there are early morning winds.
It is also useful when the head is poor pollen shedder. The collected pollen is dusted over an
emasculated head.
Hybrid Breeding
Seeds of hybrid sorghum are produced using cytoplasmic genetic male sterility, known
as A, B and R line system. Kafir 60 and ms combine kafir were the intial male sterile lines used
in hybrid sorghum programme.
The male sterile parent is called A line and its maintainer is called as B line. A and B
lines are isogenic except that the A line is male sterile and B line is male ferule. The difference in
lines is only in the cytoplasm where A line has sterile cytoplasm and B line has fertile cytoplasm.
Male sterile line A & B line is maintained in same field or different fields. The planting
ratios of A and B lines are 4:2. The isolation distance required is 300 m from other grain
varieties and 400 m from forage sorghum and Johnson grass. Four rows of B line are planted
around the field. B line is maintained by growing in isolation or by bagging the heads of B line
plants.
Similarly A line is planted in isolation with R line in ratio of 4:2 and the seed produced
on A line is hybrid and fertile. R line is maintained by growing in isolation or by bagging the
heads.
Sorghum growing areas of the state can be clearly classified into different groups each
with its traditional land races of varieties.
Several wild species have been used in crosses with pearl millet. For example, Napier
grass (Pennisetum purpureum) to develop perennial fodder varieties.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is called cylindrical spike like ear, with tapering tip. A rosette of bracts
consisting of bristles and spikelets united at the base are known as involucre that enclose a
flower cluster arising from the central rachis. Each involucre may include one to nine fertile
spikelets having one upper and one lower floret. The lower floret is staminate or sterile. The
staminate lower floret consists of a single lemma and three stamens. The upper floret is fertile
and has three anthers and one pistil with two feathery stylar branches. These structures are
enclosed between lemma & Palea.
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number is 2n: 14. The 7 pairs of the chromosomes are grouped
into 4 categories.
1. The two longest having median centromeres.
2. Two some what shorter with median to submedian centromeres.
3. Two medium sized with submedian centromeres.
4. The nucleolus organizing - short chromosome pairs.
Pearl millet is cross - pollinated because of protogyny. The stigmas remain receptive for
one to two days. Anthers emerge in two ways, the first way involves the perfect flowers and the
second way commences 2-3 days later involving the staminate florets. Anthesis starts from the
upper third of the head and proceeds towards the base. Under field conditions pollen grains are
viable for 5-7 hours. Around 5C pollen grains may be viable upto four days.
For cross pollination, about four fifths of the upper portion of the Spike is clipped and
the left over portion is bagged before the emergence of the stigmas. Likewise the ears of the
pollen parent are also bagged. As soon as the stigmas of the female parent emerge, the entire
panicle is dusted by shaking a pollen shedding spike of the male parent.
AxB B AxR
A Line F1
Maintenance of Maintenance of Hybrid seed
A line of Isolation B line in Isolation in isolation.
.
RAGI
Eleusine coracana 2n=36
Origin
Asia and Africa.
Species
Eleusine africana, Eleusine indica
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is terminal umbel of 2-10 straight thick sessile spikes 1-5 long with 1-
2 additional spikes one fourth to 3 below. The spike are otherwise called as fingers. They may
be 4-6. The number of fingers depend on variety. Length of the finger may also vary in different
varieties. Spikelets are often curved with 2-10 flowers. The lower glume is ovate, obtuse and
keeled with two lateral nerves close to keel. Based on the arrangement of spikes in an
inflorescence, the shape of the ear head is classified into
1. Top curved 2. In curved 3. Fist like 4. Open type 5. Cox - comb
Hand Emasculation
The entire plant is covered with a polythene bag on the previous day itself, in order to
create humidity inside the bag. The humidity thus developed facilitates the opening of flowers.
Then the anthers are removed by using needles or fine forceps.
Hot water Technique: The spikes before anthesis are immersed in hot water at 52C for 2
minutes.
For pollination contact method is followed in both the techniques. The spike, which is
ready to open in the next day morning, is taken from the selected male plant with sufficiently
long stalk and tied over the emasculated female spike. The other end of the stalk of male spike is
kept in water taken in polythene bag. This helps to keep the stalk moist for 2-3 days.
Floral biology
Inflorescence is a spike, terminal, dropping. The spikelets are oval or elliptical in shape
with two to three bristles. The spikelets contain two flowers partially protected by two
membranous glumes. Lower floret with L1 and P1, sterile, upper floret with L2, P2, stamens
three, styles two, lodicules two, fruit a caryopsis.
The spikelets are more or less crowded on the spike like branches of the panicle. The
anthers are purple in colour. Order of flowering is from tip to the bottom of panicle. The total
flowering period extends from 19 22 days. Anthesis 5 am to 10 am. Self pollination is the
general rule.
Pollination :
Collect the panicle from male parent which are in the process of flowering. Shake the
panicle on the emasculated florets. Tie the male panicle to the emasculated female panicle.
Cover it with butter paper bag which was immersed in water. The water in butter paper bag
will maintain humidity.
Ex.No 5.
Date : RED GRAM
Cajanus cajan 2n: 2n x 22
Origin
Africa
Progenitor
Cajanus cajanifolius
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number of red gram is 2n: 2x =22. The somatic chromosomes
are very small (1.35 to 2.7). The total length of chromosomes is
75.4 .
Floral Biology
The flowers borne is short racemes. Bracts are small with a think medium nerve
enclosing 1-3 young flower buds. The calyx tube is campanulate with numerous glandular hairs.
The corolla is highly zygomorphic, papilionaceous, and generally yellow. It includes one
standard petal, two wing petals, and two keel petals. Stamens are 10 diadelphous [(9) + 1]. The
stamens show dimorphism. Of the 10 stamens, four have short filaments and six including the
odd posterior one, have long filaments.
The ovary superior, sub sessile, densely pubescent with 2-9 ovules. The style is long,
filliform and glabrous. The stigma is capitate.
The pod - setting may be a low as 2-4 percent in proportion to the flowering. This is
more a problem when crosses are made. Plant breeders may use seradix B Gibberillic acid and
GA paste made by GA 500 ppm to increase the pod set in hybridization.
Duration
Variety Parentage Season Seed rate (Kg/Ha) Yield (Kg/Ha)
(in days)
R I R I
Pureline selection from
SA 1 180 Jun Aug 10 5 1250 -
Tiruppathur
Pureline selection form
CO 2 120 Feb Mar 25 12.5 750 1500
No . 4728
CO 4 PS from gene pool 130 Dec Jan 25 12.5 800 1750
CO 5 Mutant of CO 1 110 - 25 12.5 760 1440
CO 6 Mutant of SA 1 170 to 180 Jun Aug 10 5 893 -
Pureline selection from 2.3 /
BSR 1 180 Perennial Jun Jul 5 2.5 -
Myladumparai Plant
5200 (3
ICPL 87 ICRISAT variety 110 to 130 Jun Jul 30 1.5 -
picks)
Vamban Jun Aug,
Prabath x NY 34 95 to 100 - - 850 1200
1 Feb Mar
Jul Aug,
CORH 1 MST 21 x ICPL 87109 115 to 120 - - - -
Dec Jan
Jun Jult,
CORH 2 MS CO 5 x ICPL 83027 120 to 130 - - - 1000
Sep Oct
Vamban ICPL 341 x Bhavanisagar June /
170 to 180 - - - 1049
2 Local Aug.
June, Sep
Pureline selection from
APK 1 95 to 105 Oct Feb - - 906 -
ICPL 87101
Mar.
Floral biology
Anther dehiscence takes place in the bud a day before the flower opens. The flowers
bloom between 8 am to 11 am and proceed upto 3 pm. They open in two successive days and on
the second day the opening is earlier and the process is over by 11 am. The percentage of
cleistogamy varies from 10 40 per cent.
Equipment required
Fine forceps, small vial of alcohol, jewel tags, fine sharp pencil
Selfing
The mechanism which promotes self-pollination is cleistogamy and therefore, self
pollination is the rule in this crop, so there is no need of bagging. To have hundred per cent
selfing, bagging may be done.
Crossing
Buds that will open in one dya should be selected for hybridization. The bud is gently
held between thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and the standard is just turned above with
the help of forceps. Take out all the ten anthers by exposing wings and keel to ensure that all the
10 are removed and no anthers bursts. Observe carefully with magnifying lens for any remains
of anthers and bagging is done. Always dip the forceps in alcohol between the emasculations.
Pollination
Flowers from the male parents should be picked in the morning of anthesis and dust its
pollen on the receptive stigma of the emasculated bud. If the pollen from these flowers is to be
used for late afternoon pollination, it can be refrigerated in separate bags until needed. Evening
emasculation and morning pollination as well as morning emasculation and immediate
pollination have been used. However, morning emasculation and immediate pollination was
found to be better. The pollen from one bud can pollinate 4- 6 emasculated buds.
Progenitor
Vigna radiata var Sublobata.
Cytology
The somatic chromosome number of mungbean is 2n: 2x = 22. The haploid chromatin
length is less than 20 . The arm ratio is 1.00 1.75, shows metacentric, 1.75 30
submetacentric, and > 3.0 subterminal chromosomes, majority of the chromosome of green
gram are metacentric. There are no subterminal and centric.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is terminal or axillary raceme with about more than 10 flowers /
peduncle. The flower is a typical paplionaceous with 5 sepals, 5 petals, 10 diadelphous (9+1)
stamens and monocarpellary ovary with hairy style.
Emasculation
For emasculation the young flower bud is held between thumb and forefinger. The
dissecting needle is inserted just under the standard obliquely along the top of the bud. The left
side of the standard and the left side of the standard and the left wing are pushed out ward
away from the bud and the left keel is removed in pieces. Exposed anthers are removed.
Pollination immediately after emasculation gives poor pod set as compared to evening
emasculation / next morning pollination.
BLACK GRAM
(Vigna mungo) 2n: 2x = 22
Origin
India.
Progenitor
V. mungo var. Silvestris
Cytology
The somatic chromosome number in black gram is 2n:2x =22. The haploid chromatin
length has been reported as 1.70. Majority of the chromosomes are metacentric i.e. arm ratio is
1.00 - 1.75. There are no subterminal / acrocentric chromosomes.
Floral Biology
Hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, hypogynous, complete, bright yellow or lemon yellow or
pale yellow, 5 sepals, gamosepalous, 5 petals, poly petalous, 10 stamens, diadelphous, filaments
alternately long and short, anthers uniform dithecous, introse, dorsifixed, style terminal hairy,
unilocular ovary with few ovules on marginal placentation.
Anthesis and Pollination
Flowers start opening early in the morning and completely open between 7.00 and. 8.00
A.M. The anthers begin to shed pollen in the evening and anthesis is complete by mid - night in
closed buds. The next morning such buds are chosen for artificial crosses. Since the pollen
shedding takes place long before the flower opens, self pollination is the rule. Cliestogamy
prevails up to 40 percent.
Emasculation and Pollination
For emasculation the young bud is kept between thumb and forefinger of the left hand.
The point of dissecting needle is inserted just under the standard petal in an oblique position
along the top of the bud. The left side of the standard and the left wing petal are pushed
outward away from the bud and held with the thumb of left hand. The left hand of keel is
removed in piles with forceps. The pistil and stigma are then exposed and the anthers are
carefully removed with forceps.
Evening emasculation followed by next morning pollination gave the highest pod
setting. For pollination, matured anthers are collected from open flowers and pollination is
done by gently pressing the ripe anthers against the stigma. The flowers may be bagged after
pollination until the pods are formed / matured.
List of improved varieties in black gram
Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (Kg/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
Pureline selection from Suitable for rice
ADT 3 70 to 75 Jan Feb 720 (R) -
Tirunelveli fallows
ADT 4 (T9 x ADT 2) x Pant U14 70 to 75 Jan Feb 600 (R) - -do-
Pureline from Kanpur
ADT 5 65 Jan - 1323 -
variety
Pureline selection form
CO 5 70 to 75 Dec Jan 740 1270 -
Musiri local
Derivative form T9 x
KM 2 60 to 65 Dec Jan 690 - -
L64
Derivative from
TMV 1 65 to 70 Dec Jan - 1320 -
Midhiulundu x KM 1
Vamban 1 KM1 x H76 1 60 to 65 Dec Jan 700 840 -
Jun Jul, Drought tolerant
VBN 2 Spontaneous mutant. 60 to 70 750 -
Sep Oct resist to YMV
More protein
Jun Jul
VBN 3 LBG 402 x LBG 17 65 to 70 775 826 content, resistant to
Jan Feb
yellow moisaic
T9 Pureline selection 65 to 70 Dec Jan 750 1250 -
Suitable for black
K1 (KBG512) CO 3 x US 131 70 to 75 Jul Aug 707 -
cotton soil
Jun Jul, Not suitable for
VBN (BG) 4 CO 4 x BTU 102 75 to 80 Sep Oct, 790 890 clayey and problem
Feb- Mar soils
Jun July,
VBN (BG) 5 VBN 1 x UK 17 65 to 70 820 Resist to YMV
Sep- Oct
COWPEA
Vigna unguiculata 2n = 2n x 22
Origin
Africa
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number is 2n- 2x = 22. The chromosomes are small (1.6 -
3.7m). It consists of 1 short (19m), 7 medium (26 36m) and 3 long (4 + 45 m)
chromosomes.
Floral Biology
Bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic complete, pentamerous sepals 5, gamosepalous,
valvate, corolla papilionaceous, deters 5, polypetalous stamens, 10 diadelphous (9+1);
Filaments alternately long and short; anthers uniform, dithecous, introse, dorsi fixed, ovary
superior, monocarpellary unilocular with many ovules on marginal placentation style terminal
stigmas capitate, oblique.
Anthesis and Pollination
A high rate of flower abortion occurs in the cow pea plant which normally produces
100-500 flower buds, or which 70-88% shed before anthesis and of the remaining abort half
about prematurely and rest produce the mature fruits. The flowers open between 7.00 and 9.00
A.M. The time of dehiscence of anthers may vary from 10.00 to 12.45 hrs and that the
fluctuation was closely influenced by environmental factors-
Emasculation
The flower buds likely to bloom the next day is selected for emasculation. The bud is
held between the thumb and the forefinger with the keeled side upper most. A needle is run
along the ridge where the two edges of the standard unite. One side of the standard is brought
down and secured in position with thumb. Same thing is done with one of the wings. This
exposed keel is spilt on the exposed side, about 1/16 inch from the stigma/ A section of keel is
also brought down and secured in position under the end of thumb. Now 10 stamens are seen.
They are removed with pointed forceps afterwards. The disturbed parts of standard, wing and
keel are brought into original position as far as possible. To prevent drying out of the
emasculated bud, a leaflet may be folded and pinned around the bud. A tissue paper can be used
to cover and protect the bud.
Pollination is done next morning from a freshly opened flower. The standard and wings
of male flower are removed. By slight depression of the keel, stigma covered with pollen grains
protrudes out. This itself can be used to brush for pollination cowpea flowers are highly
sensitive and drop off easily with slight mechanical disturbance or injury.
List of improved varieties in Cow pea
Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (Kg/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
Hy. derivate (C 521 x All
CO 2 95 - 1375 -
C49 seasons
All
CO 4 Sele. From Russian Giant 85 - 960 -
seasons
Irradiation with All
CO 5 50 to 55 - 2150 Fodder
Gammarays seasons
All
CO 6 MS 9804 x C 152 65 to 70 670 - Vegetable type
seasons
Jun Jul, High yielding than
Irradiation of CO 4 with
CO (CP) 7 65 70 Sep Oct, 900 - CO 6, P 152, Vamban
20 KR Gammarays
Feb- Mar. 1
Jun Jul,
Paiyur1 Selection from VM 16 - 900 - -
Feb Mar
Devpd. by selection at All
Pusa 152 70 to 75 - 1200 -
IARI seasons
All
VBN 1 Selection from IDF 2020 55 to 65 - 950 White coloured seed
seasons
Througho Vegetable type, less
Purline selection from
VBN 2 75 to 85 ut the - 10581 fibre, golden colour
ID81 DI228 10
year seeds
Floral Biology
The inflorescence are axillary racemes. Soybean has a typical paplionaceous flower with
a tubular calyx of five unequal lobes. The corolla consists posterior banner petal, two lateral
wing petals and two anterior keel petals. The 10 stamens are in monodelphous pattern. The
Stigma is capitate. Hairs are present on the pistil, and the outer surface of the calyx tube.
Emasculation and Pollination
In freshly opened flower the diadelphous stamens are elevated and the anthers form a
ring around the stigma. The pollen is thus directly shed on stigma resulting in to a high
percentage of natural self-pollination.
Natural cross - pollination varies from about less than 0,5% to 1%. The pollination may
occur a day before full opening of the flower i.e. the pollination may occur within the bud.
The environmental conditions necessary for successful artificial hybridization and
techniques involved of artificial hybridization is enhanced when the plants are free of moisture
or nutrient stress.
Special care is needed while emasculating the flower buds as they are very small.
Parental cultivars may be grown in pots so that the plant could be raised to desired height for
emasculation. For increased span of flowering, two three sets of sowings of the parental
cultivars are usually required. A floral bud at the appropriate stage is swollen and the corolla is
visible through the calyx. Five sepals are removed with forceps by jerking one stroke
pollination. In this process, 10 stamens are usually removed and if a few are left, they are
removed.
Pollination is carried out immediately after emasculation. Open flowers are collected
from male parent corolla is removed and the emasculated flower but stigma is brushed with the
anthers of the male flowers whose corollas are already removed. In event of a successful,
pollination a pod is visible in about seven days. The scar made by removal of the calyx, aids in
identifying the crossed pods. On a node, only crossed buds are allowed to develop and the
others are removed.
List of improved varieties in Soybean
Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (Kg/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
CO2 UGM 21 x JS 335 75 to 80 Adi / 1343 - -
Marghzhi
pattam
ADT 1 Pureline selection from 85 to 80 Jan Feb - 1270 Rice fallows
HILL
Cytology
The chromosome number in a hypogaea is 2n=4x= 40. These chromosomes pair mostly
as bivalents but few multivalents have also been observed. The somatic chromosomes are small
and most have median centromere. The cultivars distinguished based on caryotypic differences.
At least 15 of the 20 chromosome pair have been differentiated.
Aneuploids are frequently reported. They occur spontaneously and can be produced by
chemical treatments or ionizing radiation. Out of 33 named species, 26 have chromosome
number confirmed. Most species are diploid (2n=20), Polyploid (2n=40) are reported in
Arachis.
Anthesis
Before anthesis the flower bud is 6 to 10 mm long, the day before anthesis 10-20 mm
and at anthesis 50-70 mm long.
The stigma becomes receptive to pollen 24 hours after the flower opens. Anthesis and
pollination usually occur at sunrise with self pollination taking place within the closed keel of
the flower. About 40% of the flowers fail to begin peg development and another 40% about
before pod development. The flowers wither 5 to 7 hours after opening.
Ringcut Procedure
In this procedure the vexillary aestivated corolla of the bud to be emasculated is excised
by a circular cut with a sharp blade at about 2 mm from its base (between 4 and 6pm). The
exposed anthers are removed with fine pointed forceps. This takes about 1.5 minutes per bud.
After emasculation an extended style is noticeable by about 8 am the next day. The female
flower is pollinated by applying pollen directly from a flower or with a fine brush. More than six
flowers can be pollinated in an minute.
The crossed flowers are marked by the excised corolla and immediate labeling is not
required. Proved gynophores (pegs) having dried flower at the tip. These gynophores are
introduced into small wire rings (4 mm diameter) marked with code number for cross sixty -
seventy days later. The plants are harvested and the pods carrying labels are isolated. The rainy
season is suitable for artificial hybridization. Soil is irrigated after pollination. Plants should not
be sprayed immediately after pollination. After pollination, other flowers developing on the
plants are removed. This helps in proper development of pegs from the hybridized flowers.
List of improved varieties in Ground nut
Duration Yield (Kg /
Variety Parentage Season Type
(Days) Ha )
TMV 1 Ms. Sel. Form Salown 135 Jun Jul 1450 Spreading
Jun Jul,
TMV 2 Ms. Sel form Gudiyatham 105 1250 Bunch
Dec Jan
TMV 3 Pure line from Brazil 135 Jun - Jul 1450 Spreading
TMV 4 Pure line from Caroliana 135 Jun Jul 1450 Spreading
TMV 6 PS from Virginia bunch 125 Jun Jul 950 Semi spreading
Jun Jul ,
TMV 7 Pureline from Tennsee 105 1400 Bunch
Dec- Jan
TMV 8
TMV 9 Extract of 3490 x 477 105 Jun Jul, 1530 Bunch
Dec Jan
Spontaneous mutant from 120 to
TMV 10 Jun Jul 1650 Semi spreading
Argentina 130
TMV 11
TMV 12 PS from Uganda 105 Jun Jul 1650 Bunch
Jun Jul,
CO 1 Ah 6279 x TMV 3 105 1675 Bunch
Dec Jan
CO 2 Mutant from POL 1 105 Apr May 1650 Bunch
June July, 1750 (R)
CO3 VRI 3 x JL 24 105 Bunch
Dec - Jan 2150 (I)
Apr May,
Jun- Jul Oct- 1500 (R) Moderately resistant
CO (GN) 4 TMV 10 x ICGS 82 110
Nov, Dec- 1950(I) to Tikka and Rust
Jan
Jun Jul, Bunch, drought
CO (GN) 5 Co 2 xICGS 86010 125 1585 (R)
Aug resistant
Apr -Mar
POL 1 PS from Malaysia 105 1450 Bunch
Dec Jan
Extract of Native Apr -Jun
POL 2 105 1500 Bunch
Tanganika x Pollachi red Dec-Jan
Apr Jun, 1500 (R)
VRI 1 TMV7 x FSB 7-2 105 Bunch
Dec Jan 1875 (I)
Jun Jul, 1791 (R)
VRI 2 JL 24 x CO2 105 Pods Bold
Aug Sep 2060 (I)
Jun Jul, 1668 (R)
VRI 3 J11 x Robou 33-1 90 Bunch
Dec- Jan 1882 (I)
105 to 1660 (R) High yielder, tolerant
VRI 4 VGS x NCAC 17090 Jun Jul
110 2171 (I) to rust, long shelf life
105 to 2133 (R) Resistant to rust 45
VRI (G)5 CG 26 x ICGS 44 Jun Jul
110 2384 (I) days seed dormancy
115 to Suitable for rainfed
ALR 1 POL 2 x PPG 4 Apr Mar 1840
120 resistance to leaf spot
Apr Mar,
(DH3-20 xUSA-20 ) (NCAC
ALR 2 105 Jul- Aug, 1740 Bunch
2232)
Dec- Jan
Bunch type Resistant
Apl May,
[(R 33-1x 1CG (FDRS) 68 110 to 1683 (R) to Rust
ALR 3 June- July
x (NcAC 17090 x ALRI)] 115 1886 (I)
Dec, Jan
Mass selection from Jun Jul,
JL 24 95 to 105 1650 Bunch
Taiwan variety Aug
ICGS 44 x (Robou 33 1
BSR 1 101 All seasons 2845 -
Nc Ac 2821)
Jun Jul, 50% oil percentage,
VRI (GN) 6 ALR 2 / VG 9513 100 105 2000
Dec Jan shelling 75%
Flower Biology
Flowers arise from the leaf axis as well as from the upper portion of the main stem.
There may be one to three flowers per axil. Sesame flowers are Zygomorphic calyx is 5 small,
corolla is a two lipped, five lobed united at the base (tubular), and campanulate. There are
about five stamens, out of which four are functional and one is sterile. Stamens are inserted at
the corolla base and arranged in two pairs of two number.
On pair is shorter than the other. The stigma is bifid. Ovary is superior. The fruit is a
capsule, which may be bicarpellate or tetra carpelate.
Selfing
Selfing can be done by smearing of semisolid clay on the upper portion of the tubular
petals of unopened flower, there by preventing the flowers from opening. This semisolid clay on
drying does not allow the tubular petals to open, but hold them closed.
SUNFLOWER
Helianthus annus 2n : 2x : 34
Origin
United states of America
Cytology
The genus Helianthus has a basic chromosome number of 17 and includes diploid,
tetraploid, and hexaploid species. The 17 chromosomes divide into four groups based on the
position of the centromere. The first group has two pairs of satellite chromosome with sub
median centromeres, the second group has five pairs with sub median centromeres. The third
group has six pairs with sub median centromeres. The fourth group has four pairs with sub
median to sub terminal centromeres. The chromsome length of 17 chromosomes varies from
3.05 to 6.20m.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is called capitulum or head. The flowers of outer whorl of the head
and called as ray florets. The other flowers arranged in concentric rings over the reminder of
the head are called as disc flowers.
Sunflower is highly cross pollinated crop, mainly through insects and to limited extent
by wind. The flower opening starts from outer side of the head and proceeds towards centre of
the head. The heads bloom within 5-10 days depending upon size and season. Anthesis occurs
between 5 to 8 AM. The pollen grain viability lasts for 12 hours. The stigma remains receptive
for two - three days.
Setting is done by bagging of the head. The bagging material could be cotton cloth, paper
bags or plastic netting. Emasculation is done as follows.
Hand Emasculation
Emasculation done by removing the anther tube with forceps early in the morning.
Unemasculated flowers are removed.
Without Emasculation
Considering hand emasculation tedious sometimes crosses are made without
emasculation. Hybrid plants are differentiated from selfed ones on the basis of vigour or the
presence of marker genes.
Pollination
Pollination is carried out by collecting pollen from heads which are already bagged prior
to flowering. Pollen can be collected from flowering heads in to paper bags by light tap of the
hand on the back of the head. Pollination is usually done in the same day morning after
emasculation. Pollen can be applied by a small piece of cotton, a camel hair brush, a small
section of lead. Paper or other suitable material that is dipped in the pollen and gently drawn
over the receptive surface of the stigmas. Freshly collected pollen is more effective in
pollination. Pollen can be stored without serious loss of viability for 1-2 weeks in cork
stoppered vials at ordinary room temperature.
Development of Hybrids
The basic step in developing a hybrid cultivar as follows.
1. Development of inbred lines.
2. Testing combining ability.
3. Conversion of inbreds into cytoplasmic male sterile and restorer lines.
4. Production of hybrids.
For developing inbreds, phenotypically superior plants are selected in a base population
and are selfed. During harvesting also selection is made for desirable traits. After harvesting
selection is done for oil content in the laboratory. Plant-row progenies are grown in the
following season. Again selection is done both among and within progenies, and the selected
plants are self-pollinated. This process is continued upto 5-6 generations and inbred lines are
produced. During inbreeding, it is desirable to select for self-fertility so that the inbred lines are
easily maintained and produce highly self fertile hybrids which may give rise to high seed yields
when insect pollinator population is less than optimum.
The inbred lines produced are crossed with open pollinated populations to produce top
cross progenies or may be used in production of single crosses by crossing with two tester lines
of good general combining ability. The hybrids thus produced are evaluated and combining
ability determined. For these programmes, the seed is either produced by hand pollination
without emasculation or by natural crossing in isolation. For complete hybridization induction
of male sterility by giberellic acid is also done.
The inbred lines are used in the production of single crosses of three way hybrids using
cytoplasmic male sterility and fertility restorer system. The inbred lines can be converted into
cytoplasmic male sterile lines by repeated back cross method.
Development of fertility restorer line is accomplished by incorporation of dominant
restorer genes in the male parent through back crossing where established inbred line is used
as recurrent parent.
In another method, the line carrying the restorer gene may be crossed with a
cytoplasmic male sterile line and from the resultant male fertile hybrids, lines homozygous for
the restorer genes and having other desired characters may be isolated by continuous self
pollination. Under the above scheme of cytoplasmic and genetic fertility restoration system. A
line is maintained by planting it in isolation along with B line and A line is planted is another
isolation with fertility restorer line to produce commercial hybrid.
Varieties
Col - Selection from cernianke 60, Russian Origin, Head diameter 8 to 10 cm. Resistant
to Alternaria leaf spot.
Modern - Selection from cernianke 65 being early and dwarf suitable for mixed as well
as multiple cropping system. Suitable for all seasons. Tolerant to drought, seeds deep black in
colour, 100 seed weight 4-5g Diameter of Head 12-15 cm.
Hybrid BSH -1
Female : CMS 234
Male : RHA275
High self fertility, head diameter 12-15 cm, 100 seed weight 6-8g Tolerant to drought.
Floral biology
The genus Brassica belongs to curuciferae family and it contains many species of
economic interest. B. napus, B. carinata and B. juncea are self fertile although a great degree of
cross pollination may occur.
The flower is regular, bisexual and hypogynous with four free sepals into two whorls.
The inflorescence is racemose and flowering is indeterminate, beginning at the lowest bud on
the main raceme. The flower begin opening vary early in the morning and are fully opened by 8
9 am. The flowering period may last 2 3 weeks. The stigma is normally receptive for three
days after the opening of flower (Mohammad, 1935). As soon as the flower opens, the anthers
become extrose and dehisce when the petals completely shed. All the pollen are shed on the day
flowers open, provided the dry weather occurs. The flower forms a funnel shaped structure
during the evening. The pollen can be stored for 4 5 weeks without the loss of viability. The
pollen analysis of different Brassica species indicates that fertilization is affected within 24
hours after pollination. The syncarpous ovary develps into pod (siliqua) with two carpels
separated by a false septum. The strains with three or four carpels have also been reported in
literature.
Equipment required
Dissecting forceps, dissecting scissors, tags for recording parents and dates, Glassine
bags for covering spikes, paper clips for closing glassine bags, pencil.
Selfing
Select the young buds on the raceme. Remove all the opended buds. In the self-fertile
species B.napus and B juncea, self pollinated seeds can be obtained by simply enclosing the
young buds with a glassine bags. Move the bags upto the raceme at least twice or thrice during
the flowering period. Remove the bags just after the transformation of bud into siliqua
Crossing Techniques
For successful hybridization, select young buds which are about to open for
emasculation. The bud is opended with the help of fine and pointed forceps. The sepals, petals
and anthers are removed. Some breeders prefer to leave the petals and sepals as such since
they protect the stigma. Generally the emasculation is accomplished during the day but evening
are mostly preferred or favoured. The number of buds to be emasculated depends upon the
type of hybridization. In interspecific or intergeneric hybridization, large number of buds are
emasculated to get few seeds. Protect the emasculated bud from the foreign pollen by using the
plastic bags for upto one week following the pollination. If a number of different cross
combinations are to be attempted on the same raceme, small plastic bags may be used to
protect each flower. The small lighter tags are attached to the pedicel after pollination. Lastly,
write the name of the cross and date of pollination on the tags.
Pollination
First of all collect the pollen from the male parent by using the camel hair brush. Dust
the pollen on the tip of the stigma of the emasculated bud gently. Collected pollen can be stored
upto five weeks without the loss of viability. Cover the emasculated bud after pollination with
the plastic bags. Care must be taken to clean the camel hair brush between the different
pollinations.
CASTOR
Ricinus communis ( 2n = 20)
Related species
R. chinensis, R. thanzibarensis, R.cambogensis, R. africanus, R. mexicanus
Floral biology
The main stem terminates with a primary inflorescence which is large and known as
spike. The spike consists of unisexual flowers known as staminate and these flowers are
grouped at the base. The pistillate flowers are located in the upper part of inflorescence;
hermaphrodite flowers have also been observed, usually at the top of the inflorescence. The
stigma is divided into three branches towards its upper portion. Ovary is covered usually with
fleshy green spikes out growth. Pollen is shed late in the morning in dry weather. The capsule is
normally triloculate and contains three and occasionally four seeds. Castor is a cross pollinated
plant and some amount of self-pollination can occur. The female flower opens before the male
flower and hence, there is a high degree of cross-pollination. The flowering period may be long.
The period of opening of flower is longer than that of the female flower. The flowering period of
one flower lasts for one to two days.
Selfing
Bag the inflorescence before the mature bud are open. All the open flowers should be
removed prior to bagging.
Crossing
Select the young inflorescence, Remove all the staminate buds and all such
inflorescences are bagged and tagged. A week later, staminate flowers of the desired male
parents are collected in the morning when anthers are about to dehisce. Keep the flowers for
about two hours in a fully open paper bag. Apply the loose pollen with a camel hair brush to the
stigmas of emasculated flower after lifting the bag. The bar is again tied with a paper clip.
Repeat the pollination of the same inflorescence two or three times for 2 to 3 days interval as
the pistilate buds open.
The instruments and hands used in the pollination should be wiped with 95 per cent
ethanol after each operation to avoid contamination.
COCONUT
Cocos nucifera ( 2n = 32)
India has the second largest area under coconut; the first being the Philippines. In Sanskrit it is
called kalpavriksha the tree of heaven or the Paradise tree which provides all needs of life. It
is industrial crop yielding both oil and fibre.
Floral biology
Cocos nucifera, a tall slender unarmed palm of height 20 25 m, carries a big crown
with large sized leaves and bunches of fruits. Inflorescence is a spadix. It stout and erect
enclosed by the tough spathe which splits when inflorescence is mature. The axis of the
inflorescence is simply branched with the branches bearing sessile flowers, both staminate and
pistillate. Each of the branches may carry one or more sistillate flowers at the base and a
number of staminate flowers throughout the length of the branch or spike.
The palm is monoecious with staminate pistillate flowers on the same plant.
Pistillate flowers : Ovary superior, tricarpellary with three ovules, the stigma is not prominent
and stigmatic knobs become receptive as the ovary emerges out of the perianth lobes.
Staminate flowers : Numerous small having a perianth of six lobes a small, acute outer whorl
of 3 and an inner whorl of 3 longer stames six anthers erect linear.
Fruit : a drupe; the outer layers of the pericarviz., the epicarp and mesocarp are fibrous. The
endocarp is very hard and forms and shell. Within this endocarp soft white endosperm
enclosing inside a big cavity filled with extra cellular fluid. The embryo lies at the base of the
seed.
Inflorescence : it takes nearly 34 months for the inflorescence to develop from the time of
initiation to opening of the spathe. It has been worked out that a single spadix may have 150 to
5000 male flowers and 25 60 female flowers with an average of 3000 male flowers and 25
female flowers per spadix.
Emasculation
All male flowers should be removed 3 days after inflorescence open. This process is
known as emasculation. Spikelets are cut about 15 cm away from the female flowers. Remaining
male flowers should be removed by hand.
Bagging
Emasculation is carried out 3 days after the natural opening of inflorescence. Poorly
developed female flowers are removed 14 days after the opening of the inflorescence.
Inflorescence is then covered with the muslin cloth bag which has a polythene window and a
sleeve. After the inflorescence is inserted in to the bag it should be carefully closed and
insecticide is applied at the base to prevent the entry of insect. The inflorescence should be
bagged atleast 6 days before the female flowers become receptive. This is because under
normal conditions pollen could be viable for about 6 days and when the inflorescence is bagged
after 14 days of opening if there is any pollen it will not be viable when female flower become
receptive.
OIL PALM
Elaies guineensis (2n = 32)
The oil entered international trade in 19th century for the production of candles, soap
and lubricant. The first plantation started in 1910. now it is the second largest crop. It
contributes 20 per cent of vegetable oil content.
Floral biology
Erect tree, attaining 3m. crown with 20 40 leaves. Inflorescence, a spadix, monoecious,
male and female inflorescence separate in the same plant, sometimes in the same inflorescence.
Inflorescence compound spike or spadix with spirally arranged spikelet. Male short, stout
peduncle. Each with 1200 closely packed minute male flowers sunck in the rachial tissue of the
spike. Each male flower will have 6 perianth, 6 stamens with sagetate anther. Female spadix,
rounded and 30 cm long and carrying many spikelets. Female flower terminated by spine and
pair of bracteole. The style dwarfed at top. Fruits are borne in large bunches of nearly 2000.
average weight of each bunch 23 kg. some time 82 kg. fruit sessile ovoid drupe varying from
yellow to orange or nearly black.
Pollination
Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop. Assisted pollination is done to ensure fertilization of
all female flowers. However, this is not necessary if the pollination weevil Elaedobius
kamerunicus is introduced in the plantation. They congregate and multiply on male
inflorescence during flower opening. The weevils also visit the female flowers and pollinate
them effectively.
Ex. No. 9
Date :
COTTON
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number in Asiatic cotton is 26 while that in the new world cotton
is 52. The somatic chromosome length of G. hirsutum has been shown to vary between 0.8 and
1.8 micron and that herbaceum between 1.5 and 2.5 micron. The relative chromosome size for
the seven genomes (A-G) has been classified into.
1. The C genomes have very large chromosomes.
2. The E and F genomes have large chromosomes which are slightly larger than those of A
and B genomes.
3. The B genomes have large chromosomes, some of which are slightly larger than those of
the A genomes.
4. The A genomes have moderately large chromosomes.
5. The G genomes have chromosomes which are moderately large chromosomes.
6. The D genomes have small chromosomes.
Botany
Two types of branches are usually produced - vegetative or monopodial and fruiting or
sympodial branches. Vegetative branches structurally like the main stem, they bear flowers and
fruits only after rebranching. The fruiting branches or sympodial branches may be produced by
both the main stem and the vegetative branches. All the flowers and bolls produced on cotton
plant originate from fruiting branches.
Floral Biology
There are three triangular bracts at the base of the flower. They completely enclose and
protect tender, growing flower parts. Calyx has five sepals which remain attached permanently
with the boll. Five petals from the corolla which may be white, yellow or red. The petals turn
pink or red the day after pollination and later fall from the plant. There are numerous stamens,
which form a tube around the style. Anthers are arranged in five rows on the staminal tube.
Pistil has 3-5 carpels. The flower buds appear at first as small, green pyramidal structures
known as Squares.
Hybridization
Normally pollen is shed directly on the stigma when the anthers open pollen is rarely
windborne as it is heavy and sticky. Cross pollination to the extent of 5 to 30% is possible by
insects, mostly honey bees.
For hybridization, emasculation is done one day earlier of flower opening. Corolla is
removed by hand or cut away with small scissors. At this stage the anthers are compressed
around the staminal column and the protruding stigma can be seen. Sepals are also cut away.
Stamens are removed with forceps. Ripe anthers are collected from the pollen parent in a small
cool drink straw whose one end is closed. This straw containing the anthers is slipped over the
stigma of the emasculated flower and this structure is enclosed with the bracts by wire.
Alternatively, ripe anthers can be rubbed over the stigma of the emasculated flower.
List of improved varieties in Cotton
Duration Yield
Variety Parentage Season Remarks
(in days) (Kg/Ha)
MCU5 Multiple cross 165 Aug Sep 1850 Extra long staple 70s
Verticillium wilt
MCU-5VT Multiple cross 165 Aug sep 1850
tolerant
X- ray irradiation of Jan Feb,
MCU7 140 1330 Medium staple 40s
XL 1143 EE May Jun
MCU 9 MCU 8 x MCU 5 165 Aug Sep 2100 Extra long staple 70s
Gamma lrradiation of 2100 /
MCU 10 150 to 160 Sep Oct Medium staple 40s
MCU 4 750 ( R)
MCU 5 x Egyptian
MCU 11 155 to 165 Aug - Sep 2200 Extra long staple
hirsutum hybrid
High yielding than
MCU 12 LRA 5166 x MCU 11 150 to 160 Aug / Feb.
MCU5, LRA 5166
Laxmi x Reba B.50 x 2000 /
LRA 5166 150 Sep Oct Medium staple 40 s
AC 122 750(R)
K8 Multiple cross 170 Sep Oct 550 Rainfed, Medium staple
K9 H4 x 0896 150 Sep Oct 725 -do-
K10 K9 x 11876 140 Sep Oct 725 -do-
Suvin Sujatha x Vincent 200 Aug Sep 1020 Extra long staple, 100s
Jayalaxmi DS 28 x SB (YF) 425 180 Aug - Sep 2880 High yielding 36.5%
Interspecific hybrid
TCHB 213 150 Aug - Sep 2215 Early maturity
TCH 1218 x TCB 209
Summer irri. & rice
SVPR 1 MUC 6 x AC 129/2 135 Feb Jul 1542
fallows medium staple
Drought tolerant,
SVPR 3 LH 900 x 1301 DD 135 to 140 Feb Mar 1294 (I)
tolerant to stem weevil
Paiyur 1 MCU 10 x SRT 1 140 to 145 Sep Oct 1173 Medium staple
TNB 1 Giza 7 x SB 1086 160 Aug Sep 1800 Extra long staple 100s
Varalaxmi Laxmi x SB 289E 180 Aug Sep 3750 Extra staple 80s
Khandwa 2 MB x Reda Feb- Mar,
JKHY 1 165 3500 -
B 50 Sep Oct
PKV-HY-2 AK 32 x DHY 286 1 175 -do- 3500 -
Supriya MCU5 x CP 1998 150 -do- - White fly tolerant
ADT1 Selection from MCU 7 120 to 125 -do- 1260 Rice fallows
KC 2 MCU 10 x KC1 140 to 150 Sep Oct 772 Medium staple 40s
Origin : Africa,
C. capsularis white jute, C. olitorius called Tossa yellow to grey colour.
Floral biology
The inflorescence in both species is a condensed axillary cyme with a group of 2 to 5
flowers. The flowers have 5 sepals and 5 petals. In C.capsularis, the flower is 0.3 to 0.5 cm in
length and has 20-30 stamens and in C.olitorius, the flower is about 1 cm in length and has 30-
60 stamens. Ovary superior, 5 carpelled, syncarpous in axile placentation. Style is short and
stigma is flat.
Anthesis
It starts one to two hours after sunrise in C.capsularis and about an hour before sunrise
in C.olitorius. the stamens usually burst before anthesis. Self pollination is the rule in both
species. The natural crossing C.capsularis is higher rate and it is due to the wind pollination and
insect visitation.
Pollination
Pollination is made following morning upto 9.30 am in case of C. olitorius and upto
around 11 am in case of C. capsuaris. The stigma of the emasculated flower is lightly touched
with a ripe anther and the pollen is dusted on the stigma. After pollination, the flowers are
bagged for 24 hours. Seed capsules matured in about 6 weeks.
Varieties
JRC 321, JRC 212, JRC 7447, JRC 212, D 154, JRO 1108, JRO 632, JRO 878, JRO 7835, JRO
620
Ex.No. 10
Date :
SUGARCANE
Saccharum sp.
Origin
New Guinea for S.officinarum, Northern India for S.barberi, and S.sinense, S.barberi
originated in North India from S. spontaneum by mutation and selection, or hybridization
between S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. The wild progenitor for S. officinarum is S.
robustum.
Cultivated Species
1. Saccharum officinarum (2n=80)
Cultivars of this species are called noble canes because of their fine thick stem to
differentiate them from thin canes of S.barberi and S.sinense. The process of crossing with
S.spontaneum and back crossing to the noble cane is called nobilization. It is only suitable to
typical conditions and requires a favourable soil land climate to perform well. The stems are
stout and thick, high in sucrose, low in fibre and with a comparatively soft rind. Culms are pale
or dark green to dark yellow, red or purple, sometimes striped. Leaves are broad. These are
susceptible to most major diseases including mosaic, streak, red rot, root rot and gummosis.
3. Saccharum sinense
It was distributed in India under the name China and became an important commercial
cultivar of the pansahi group which occur between Bihar and Bengal in India. Clones of S.sinense
are tall, hardy and vigorous with wide adaptability and early maturity. The leaves are broader
than those of S.barberi. It has high fibre content and poor quality juice. The inflorescence rachis
has long hairs. Glumes are four and the lodicules are non-ciliate. They have resistance to Mosaic,
root rot, and gummosis but susceptible to red rot and streak.
Wild Species
1. Saccharum spontaneum
This is like a perennial grass with free tillering and often with aggressive rhizomes. The
culms are slender, hard pithy and often hollow with little juice. The internodes are long whitish
at maturity usually with waxy bloom. Natural hybridization of this species with S.officinarum
may have produced S.barberi and S.sinense.
2. Saccharum robustum
It is a perennial, grow up to 10m. The stems are hard, woody and pithy in centre with
little juice. Inflorescence rachis is without long hairs. Third glume is reduced or absent.
S.robustum probably gave rice to S.officinarum with which it is inter-fertile. It is completely
susceptible to Mosaic, Virus and leaf scale.
Cytogenetics
S.officinarum had diploid chromosome number of 2n=80. Clones with minor deviation
in chromosome numbers (aneuploids) are also found Triploids (2n=120) are found rarely
among setted progenies of S.officinarum.
Diploid chromosome number in S.barberi and S.sinense has been reported to vary in the
five morphologically distinct group as.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is open panicle and is known as arrow or tassel. The panicle are
characterized by shape, degree of branching and size. On the ultimate branches, the spikelets
are borne in pairs at each node.
Two spikelets, one sessile and one pedicelled borne together at each node. They are
surrounded by a basal ring of silky hairs which are longer than spikelet. A spikelet contains the
following parts starting from. the outer portion.
i. Outer glume (glume 1 Gl)
ii. Inner glume (glume 2 G2)
iii. Lower sterile floret, represented by sterile lemma, i.e. thrid glume (G3) shorter than
outer and inner glumes.
iv. Upper hermaphrodite, floret consisting of fertile lemma (fourth glume), which is
absent in S. officinarum but present in S spontaneum and a fertile palea,
There are two lodicules, whorls of three stamens and a single carpel.. Fruit is minute
caryopsis, about 1 mm long. Whorls of silky hairs at base help in wind dispersal. Mature fruits
are shed after about three weeks of fertilization.
Crossing
Lack of flower induction and synchronization are barriers in sugarcane crossing
programme. Flowering of sugarcane is rare in subtropics. Experiments of photoperiod
requirements have indicated that sugarcane can be classified as intermediate day plant based
on the development of panicle and flowers. A dark period around 12.30 hr in general, has been
found necessary for induction of flowering. Sites have been identified in India, Brazil, Barbados,
Hawai, Fiji, Indonesia, and Philippines where most clones of sugarcane flower. In varieties
difficult to flower, exposing the plants to 4 hr extra darkness in continuation of normal height
for 6-8 weeks at the transformation stages has been found effective.
Synchronization of flowering between early and late flowering varieties is possible by
manipulation of 4 hr extra darkness and 4 hr extra light.
Marcotting
It was first used in India and now used in many countries. Generally, a plastic sleeve
containing a growth medium is secured about 5 to 10 nodes above the base of the stalk to
induce rooting.
Potted Plants
For clones and species not representing to the sulfurous acid technique or marcotting,
the sugarcane clones are grown in small containers.
Crossing in Field
The system is common in India. Pollen proof enclosures made of cloth (cloth lanterns)
are used to cover the arrow of female and male parent before anthesis. Male arrow (which is
protected) is introduced into this lantern and it is shaken for 5-6 days.
The crossing may be done either with the arrows attached to the parent plants or with
arrows served and transported to a central crossing area and maintained in a living condition
by means indicated above. Female and male arrows can be enclosed in a common lantern if they
are planted to each other.
List of improved varieties in Sugarcane
Cane
Duration
Variety Parentage Season yield
(Months)
(MT/ Ha)
CO
Q 64 x CO 775 10 Mid 124
C671
CO C 771 CO 419 x CO 658 10 Mid late 140
CO C 772 CO 740 x CO 658 10 Mid late 144
CO C 773 CO 658 x CO 1305 10 Mid late 98
CO C 774 CO 785 x CO 658 11 Mid late 160
CO C 775 CO 658 x CO 1305 11 Mid late 123
CO C 776 CO 419 x CO 775 11 Mid late 113
CO C 777 CO 419 x CO 853 12 Mid late 171
CO C 778 CO 785 x CO 658 10 Mid late 166
CO C 779 CO C 419 x CO 853 12 Mid late 205
CO C 740 CO 464 x CO 440 12 Mid late 125
CO 62198 CO 34 / 120 x CO 775 12 Mid late 125
CO 419 POJ 2878 x CO 290 12 Mid late 113
CO C 740 CO 464 x CO 290 12 Mid late 125
CO 6304 CO 419 x CO 605 12 Mid late 115
CO C 85061 Derived from CO 6304 11 Early 129
CO C 86062 MS 68 /47 GC 11 Early 134
CO Si 86071 CO 775 x CO 842 11 Mid late 132
CO C 8001 PO 2974 x CO 658 11 Mid late 103
CO C 8201 CO 740 x CO 62174 12 Mid late 140
CO C 8021 CO 740 x CO 6806 12 Mid late 138
COC 90063 CO 6304 x CO C 671 12 Mid late 124
CO C 92061 CO 7314 CC x CO 6314 as female 12 Early 131
CO C 62174 CO 798 x CO 605 12 Mid late 115
CO 8208 CO 62198 x CO C 671 12 Mid late 136
CO 85019 CO 7201 x CO 775 12 Jna Mar 115
CO C 91061 CO C 779 GC 10 - 11 Early 131
CO C 85061 CO 6304 GC 10- 11 Early 128
CO G 93076 CO C 772 x CO 419 12 Mid late 132
CO 84036 Sele. From CO 7314 12 Mid late 134
CO 8362 CO 6304 x CO 671 12 Mid late 124
CO 86010 CO 740 x CO 7409 10 to 12 Early 146
CO G94077 CO 740 x CO775 11 Early 133
Co. si 95071 CO C 671 / MS 6847 10 Early 143
Co. si 96071 CO C 82061 8 to 11 Early 132.7
CO C 98061 Derived from C 80172 10 to 11 Early 120
CO Si 98071 PO 91 x CO 62198 12 Mid late 144.7
CO 86249 COI 64 x CO A 7601 12 Early mid 128.7
CO C 99061 CO. 6806 x CO. 740 11 to 12 Mid Late 130 .3
SUGAR BEET
Beta vulgaris. ( 2n = 18)
Related species :
B. macrocarpa (2n = 18), B.foliosa (2n = 36, 52), B. flomatogona (2n = 18,36),
B. procumbens (2n = 18), B. webbiana (2n = 18)
Floral biology
Terminal open panicle. Flowers occur singly or in groups of 2-7, small, sessile, bracteate,
bisexual, pentamerous, perianth 5, lobed, stames 5 ovary 3 carpelled, syncarpous, unilocular,
style and stigma are short. The perianths of a cluster of flowers borne in a single axil, fuse to
form a multigerm or seed ball.
Sugar beet is normally cross pollinated crop. Sugar beet exhibits high degree of self
incompatibility although high self-fertile lines exist. Cross pollination is also through with and
insects.
Selfing
It is achieved and natural crossing is prevented by bagging branches of seed beets.
Although sugar beet is self-incompatible, under proper environmental conditions (cooler
climate), a few seeds will be set from self-pollination.
Crossing
Artificial cross-pollination are made in sugar beet by removing all flowr clusters in a
branch except 8 to 10 that are just ready to bloom. Then, 5 stamens are emasculated with a
dissecting needle or a fine pointed pencil. Pollen from the desired male parent is dusted over
the stigma of the emasculated flower through camel hair brush. Pollination is made 1 week after
emasculation. Hence, emasculated flower is bagged to prevent contamination from foreign
pollen.
Varieties
Diploid mutigerm variety : Resistant to major sugar beet diseases
Danish polyploidy multigerm variety : Maribo Magnapoly, Maribo Megapoly
POTATO
Solanum tuberosum ( 2n = 48)
Related species :
S. stenotomum (2n = 24), S. Sparsipilum (2n = 24),
S. demissum (2n = 72), S.chacoense (2n = 24)
Floral biology
A few flowers in monochasial cymes, pedicelled, hermaphrodite, bracteate, calyx 5,
gamosepalous, 5 lobed, petals 5, five lobed, gamopetalous, stames 5, epipetalous, ovary
superior, bicarpellary with many ovules in axile placentation, style simple stigma capitate.
Antheis
Time of opening and closing of flowers vary with varieties. Flowers open mostly in the
early morning. Cool weather favours flower formation. Pollination is through insects. Most of
the varieties are male sterile and self incompatible lines are also not ruled out. Diploid species
are male fertile and produced abundant pollen.
Crossing
Emasculation is done in the evening. Flower buds that open in the next day morning are
selected and rest of the buds and flowers in the branch are removed. The petals are gently
pushed apart along the sutures and 5 stamens are removed with fine pointed forceps. Then,
the emasculated flowers are bagged.
Pollination
Pollination is done in the early morning. Fully mature anthers from varieties possessing
viable pollen are selected. The anther may be held in hand in an inverted position and the
pollen released over the stigma by splitting open the anther lobe with fine-pointed forceps.
After pollination, the flowers are again bagged.
To overcome the difficulty in production of flowers and flower drop, cut floral branches
are grown in the glass house. In this procedure, stems are cut and placed in a solution
containing IAA 5ppm for about 1 day and then transferred to another wide mouth-bottles
containing nutrient solution. The nutrient solution is replaced for every 15 days. Satisfactory
pollination can be made on the cut branches.
Varieties
Kufri red, White Rose, Kufri muthu, Up to Date, Great Scot, president, Magnum bonum,
Kufri kisan, Kufri kuber, Kufri kundan and Kufri sindhuri.
TOBACCO
Nicotiana tabacum ( 2n = 48)
Related species :
2n = 18 2n = 24 2n = 48
N. alata N. sylvestris N. tabacum
N. sanderae N. tomentosa N. rustica
N. longidorfi N. glutinosa
N. glauca
N. panculata
N. tomentosiformis
Floral biology
Terminal receme flowers, pedicellate and hermaphrodite. Sepals 5 forming a calyx tube,
pubescent, corolla 5, pubescent, tubular, stamens 5, 4 being long and 5th being shorter, ovary
superior, bicarpellary, many ovules on axile placentation. Style slender, stigma capitate.
Tobacco is normally self pollinated, although 4 per cent cross pollination occurs due to
insects.
Selfing
Crossing
Artificial cross pollination are easy, if normal mature flowers are used. All open flowers
are removed before emasculation. The proper stage for emasculation may be identified by the
presence of pink colour in the tip of the petals of the unopended flowers.
The nearly mature flowers are emasculated by tearing the petals apart and removal off
anthers. At the same time, flowers from the desired pollen parent are selected and with the
point of a sharp knife, a slit is made to the mature anther and the pollen is dusted to the stigma.
After pollination, the flowers are tagged and bagged to keep away from foreign pollen.
Ex.No. 11
Date :
FORAGE CROPS
A. Forage Grasses
Floral biology
In general, the inflorescence is pyramidal branched panicle; flowers are sessile form
spikes, spikelets often with G1, G2, L1, L2, Lodicultes 2, stamens 3 and gynoecium is syperior one
celled ovary, bifid stigma. Blooming normally begins near the apex of the inflorescence and
progresses more or less regularly towards the base. Blooming favoured at temperature 20 to
25 C. There is wide variation in anthesis of flowers.
Crossing technique
Floral biology
The flowers are typical legume types ; Calyx 5 united, corolla 5(standard 1, wing 2, keel
2 free), stamens 10 ( 9 + 1 or 8 + 2, staminodes in few), gynoecium superior, monocarpellary.
The petals partially joined and enclose the stamens and pistil. Most legumes are self pollinated
and nectar is secreted at the base of the corolla tube. In red clover (Trifolium pretense) the
stigma slightly protrudes above the anthers at the time of flowering. When the insect alights on
the keel, due to pressure by weight, expose anthers and stigma. In alfalfa or Lucerne (Medicago
sativa) pollen is dispersed by an explosive action commonly known as tripping.
Young buds are covered with partument paper bags in selfing. Tripping by force is done
in racemes of alfalfa.
Emasculation of flowers and crossing is done as in black gram/green gram.
Relate species
1. A. moschatus Medikus- subsp. Moschatus var moschatus- subsp. Moschatus var
betulifolius (Mast) Hochr- subsp biakensis(Hochr) Borss- subsp tuberosus (Span) Borss
2. A. manihot (L) Medikus- subsp tetraphyllus (Roxb ex Hornem) Borss var tetraphyllus -
var pungens
3. A. esculentus (L) Moench
4. A. tuberculatus Pal & Singh
5. A. ficulneus (L) W & A.ex. Wight
6. A. crinitus Wall
7. A. angulosus Wall ex. W, & A
8. A. caillei (A. Chev) Stevels
Out of the above, the first three species are wild and cultivated forms, whereas the
remaining are all wild forms. The adoption of this new classification requires the amendment of
the determination key of Abelmoschus to acommodate the distinction between A. esculentus and
A. tuberculatus as well as the distinction between A. manihot, A. tetraphyllus and A. callei. The
existing botanical descriptors (A. tuberculatus, A.manihot and A.tetraphyllus) need to be
compared with the variation in the accessions of the global base collection and other existing
collections. The intraspecific classification in A. moschatus, A. tetraphyllus, A. esculentus and A.
angulosus should however receive further attention (IBPGR, 1991).
The chromosome number (2n) of A. esculentus L. (Moench) have been variably reported
by different authors, The most frequently observed somatic chromosome number, however, is
2n=130, although Dutta and Naug (1968) suggest that the numbers 2n=72, 108, 120, 132 and
144 are in regular series of polyploids with n=12.
Floral Biology
Bisexual, solitary, axillary with about 2 cm long pedicel, epicalyx 8 to 10, narrow hairy
bracteoles which fall before the fruit reaches maturity. Calys 5, hairy sepals completely fused
and form a protective covering for bud. Calyx split longitudinally as flower opens and falls with
corolla after anthesis. Corolla 5, yellow with crimson spot on claw, 5-7 cm long, obovate. Anther
filaments united to form a staminal column (monodelphous staminal tube). Staminal column
fused to the base of petals, numerous stamens, anther reniform. Ovary superior,
pentacarpellary syncarpous, ovules in axile placentation, stigma 5-9 deep red.
Selfing
Bagging is desirable to ensure self pollination
Crossing
The removal of androecium (stamens) from bisexual flower is called as emasculation.
The buds opened next day, were selected in female parent and emasculation was carried out by
removing the androecium along with the corolla. These emasculated buds were covered with
butter paper pockets to avoid cross pollination and also for easy identification of emasculated
flower for pollination. The emasculation was carried out daily from 2-00 to 6-00 pm. Care was
also taken to remove the unemasculated flowers as per treatment and during emasculation to
avoid genetic contamination in the crossed ones.
The transfer of pollen from male parent to female parent is called as pollination. The
just opened flowers were picked from the male parent in a separate brown paper pockets and
used for crossing of emasculated flowers. One male flower was used to pollinate four, six, eight
and ten female emasculated buds as par the treatments and after crossing different colour
thread was tied to the pedicel of the crossed buds for easy identification of the crossed bud.
Pollination was carried out daily between 8-00 am to 4-00 pm depending upon the treatments.
The crossing was carried out for a period of eight weeks from the initiation of flowering. The
buds and flowers that appeared subsequently after the stopping of crossing programme were
manually removed to facilitate better development of the crossed fruits and to avoid the selfed
seeds in the hybrid.
BRINJAL
Solanum melongena L (2n = 24)
Floral biology
Brinjal flowers are large, violet coloured and solitary or in clusters of two or more.
Flower is complete, actinomorphic and hermaphrodite. Flower consists of calyx: sepals 5,
united, persistent; corolla: petals 5, united, usually cup shaped; Androecium : stamens 5 ,
alternate with corolla; Gynoecium: carpels are united, ovary superior. The hypogynus
gynoecium is syncarp located obliquely in relation to the median. In most varieties the perfect
flowers are borne singly and opposite the leaves. In brinjal, heterostyly is a common feature.
Four types of flowers have been reported depending on the length of styles, viz. (i) long-styled
with large ovary, (ii) medium-styled with medium size ovary, (iii) Pseudoshort-styled with
rudimentary ovary and (iv) true short-styled with very rudimentary ovary.
It has been reported that long and medium-styled flowers produce fruits whereas
pseudo-short and short-styled flowers do not set any fruits. Further, chances of cross
pollination are more in long style flowers. The percentage of long and medium styled flowers is
a varietal character. Fruit setting of long- styled flowers varies from 70% to 86.7% in different
varieties. In medium styled flowers, fruit set ranges from 12.5% to 55.6%. All varieties have
flowers with different style length. The position of the stigma in relation to stamens varies with
the cultivars and can also vary in different flowers of same cultivar. Stigmas are either found
above, on the same level as or below the stamens and the highest percentage of fruit set is
found where the stigma is above the stamens. In short-styled flowers the androecium is fertile
but the stigma is smaller with underdeveloped papillae and lower sugar content than that in
long-styled flowers. There is no pollen germination on the stigma or penetration of pollen tube
into short styles.
Selfing
Bagging is desirable to ensure self pollination
Crossing techniques
For emasculation, a healthy long or medium styled, well developed bud from the central
portion of the plant is selected. The bud is opened gently with the help of fine pointed forceps
one or two days before the opening of the bud and all the five anthers are carefully removed.
For pollination, freshly dehiscing anthers are picked up and are slit vertically with fine needle to
get sufficient pollen at the tip of the needle. Pollen are applied on the stigma of the emasculated
flower bud. It is labelled and covered with small pollination bag.
CHILLIES / CAPSICUM
Capsicum annuum L (2n = 24)
Floral biology
Usually borne singly and are terminal, but due to the branching they appear to be
axillary; pedicels upto 1.5 cm long. Calyx campanulate, shortly dentate 10 ribbed, about 2 mm
long enlarging and enclosing base of fruits. Corolla rotate, campanulate, deeply 5-partite 8-15
mm in diameter, white or greenish stamens, 5-6 inserted near base of corolla, anthers bluish,
dehiscing longitudinally. Occasionally anthers are yellow in colour. Ovary two celled, superior,
style simple, white or purple, stigma capitate.
Both self and cross pollination occur, the later being about 16 per cent by bees, ants and
thrips. Flowering begins 1-2 months after planting and it takes another month for fruiting.
Flowers open in the morning between 5.00 am and 6.00 am. Anthers normally dehisce between
8.00 am and 11.00 am. Flower opening and anther dehiscence depend on the weather
conditions to a large extent. During cool as well as cloudy days, the flower opening is delayed.
Pollens are fertile on the day of anthesis and stigma is receptive for about 24 hours after flower
opening.
Selfing
Bagging is desirable to ensure self pollination
Crossing
Flowers are emasculated in bud stage. Pollen is transferred to the stigma either from
mature undehisced anthers by scooping it out through the lateral sutures with the needle or by
touching a freshly dehisced anther to the stigma with the forceps. Hands and tools (a pair of
sharp-pointed forceps, a needle, a pair of scissors) are washed with 95% ethyl alcohol. A roll of
cheese cloth, some light weight cotton string and balls of different colours of thread are also
needed. Pollinated flowers are identified by loosely typing coloured thread around the delicate
pedicels, preferably enclosing a leaf petiole for protection. Different colours of string can be
used for different crosses on the same plant, and white for the selfs. Pollinated flowers are
protected from bees by a double layer of cheese cloth, loosely wrapped around the branch,
enclosing leaves and flowers, and securely fastened. Appropriately marked plastic labels
describing the cross, the date, are attached to a bamboo stake marking the chosen plant.
Pollinated flowers are periodically checked and the cheese cloth removed in 4-6 days. Fruits
normally mature in about 45 days.
Ex.No. 13
Date :
TOMATO
Lycopersicon esculentum ( 2n = 24)
Origin peru
Related Species
L. pimpinellifolium , L. cheesmanii, L. parviflorum, Lpennelli, L. hirsutum,
L. chilense, L. peruvianum.
Floral Biology
Yellow in colour, borne in clusters, extra axillary in position, the flower cluster appears
like racemose cyme with dichotomous branching. Flower pedicel is highly pubescent, very thin
and green in colour. The flower cluster is called a truss. Calyx grey in colour, 5 7 sepals,
alternate with petals, persistent, valvate aestivation, corolla 5-7, bright yellow in clour,
alternate to sepals, valvate aestivation, Stamens 5, greenish yellow, free at the base and united
at the top. The anther dehisce longitudinally. Gynoecium multi coloured syncarpous with
numerous ovules in each locule; style pale green and present within the anthredial cone.
Selfing
Bagging is desirable to ensure self pollination
Crossing
Emasculation is usually done 1 day prior to anthesis. At this stage, the sepals have
started to separate and the anthers and corolla are beginning to change from light to dark
yellow. The stigma is fully receptive at this stage allowing for pollination even immediately after
emasculation.
CUCUMBER
Botany
It belong to family cucurbitaceae, genus cucumic, C. sativus L.
The key characters of this genus are fleshy fruits, many seeded pepo, solitary flowers,
lemon yellow to deep orange or shallowly lobed leaves not pinnatified, and corolla is
rotate, deeply 5 parted and small.
The genus cucumis has 40 spp, of which 8 are from India. All these are nonoecious. It at
7 and 12 base chromosome.
Flower biology
Inflorescence Inflorescence is cymose . Cucumber is monoecious i.e. male and female
flowers present on the same plant. Flowers are bracteate , pedicellate , unisexual,
actinomorphic , pentamerous and epigynous . Anthesis The whole developmental process from
the initial bud stage to the stage when the flower is detached from the pedicel was divided into
8 stages. Opening and closing of the male flowers are mainly influenced by the sunrise and
sunset, that is, by light and the time of the day.
Anthesis
Anthers in all varieties dehisced between temperature ranges of 20.5-21.5C. Pollen
fertility was considerable up to noon and by afternoon (2.00 PM) fertility was greatly reduced,
and it was negligible by evening. Stigma receptivity was for very short duration and pollination
should be carried out within 2 hours after anthesis. Rise in temperature causes early drying of
stigmatic secretion. Different floral abnormalities like mixed inflorescence, hermaphroditism ,
fusion, dimorphic female flowers, reduction and increase in the floral parts were observed. A
greater tendency was observed in exotic collections towards these abnormalities.
The whole development process from the initial bud stage to stage when lower detaches
fro pedicel has been divided into 8 stages. opening and closing of flower depend on sun raise
and sun set that is light and time of day. Temperature of anther dehisce between 20.5 to
21.5c.pollen fertility is considered up to noon and by afternoon and by evening it is reduced.
stigmatic receptivity is of very short duration and pollen should be carried within 2 hrs of
anthesis.rise in temperature causes early drying of stigmatic secretion.
Pollination
All the vine crops depend on insects to transfer pollen from the male to the female
blossoms. Each female blossom must be visited 15-20 times in order for adequate pollination to
occur. Poorly pollinated fruit develop as crooks and nubs. Introduce one colony of honeybees
for every hectare (2.5 acres). Aim to have the hives in the field at first bloom.
Family : Myrtaceae
Floral biology
The guava flower has a superior calyx with 5 lobes and the corolla of 6-10 petals
arranged in one and two whorls. The androecium consists of 160 to 400 thin filaments carrying
bilobed anthers closely packed together. The gynoecium consists of an inferior ovary,
syncarpous with axile placentation and subulate terminal style. The style is smooth and red at
the summit. It is larger than filaments but bent over stamens in bud stage . Three flowering
seasons were reported in the peninsular regions of India, namely, ambe bahar, mrig bahar and
hatti or hastha bahar. In north Indian subtropics, there are only two flowering seasons,
however, have reported three distinct flowering and fruiting periods in spring, rainy and winter
seasons in Delhi. The peak anthesis was found to be between 5.00 and 6.30 AM in most of the
varieties. However, in Chittidar and Lucknow Round, it was observed between 6.30 and 7.00
AM
The dehiscence of anthers starts 15 to 30 minutes after anthesis in all the varieties and
continues up to 2 hours. After dehiscence, the anthers assume a whitish colour caused by the
pollen. No fixed relation has been observed between the atmospheric temperature and
humidity and the time of anthesis and dehiscence.Pollen fertility has been found to be high in all
the cultivars of guava.
BANANA
Musa sp. (2n :22,33,44)
Family : Musaceae
Floral Biology
Flowers are placed in the axils of the bracts, arranged biseriately and number about 12
to 20 per node. Basal flowers behave as pistillate flowers while the terminal ones as staminate.
At the bottom end, they form a bulbous male bud. Pistillate flowers are large in size and have
well developed ovaries. Stamens (5) are reduced to staminodes, ovary inferior and trilocular.
Sytle stiff and long, stigma club shaped and sticky. Staminate flowers have long stamens 5,
filaments filiform, free, anthers two lobed. The female and male flowers opne by 6.30-8.00 a.m.
Hybridization Technique
Undehisced anthers of male flowers are collected and twisted gently to force them to
dehisce. Using a soft hairbrush, the pollen grains are taken out and smeared gently over the
stigmatic surface of the female flowers, which opened on the day of pollination. The pollinated
flowers are to be covered with soft cloth bag.
CITRUS
Citrus sp. (2n : 18)
Family :Rutaceae
Floral biology
Flowers are produced on current season growth in cymes, both axillary and terminal
position. Two types of flowers, perfect and imperfect are found. The flowers are white in colour
in most of the species except lemon and citron where they are purplish on the outside. Flower
opening, starts from morning and extends up to evening but maximum anthesis is between
11.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon. The viability of pollen grains varies from 45-80% depending upon the
season. The dehiscence of anthers takes place there 45 minutes before anthesis or within 45
minutes after anthesis. It varies up to 5 hours after anthesis. The receptivity of stigma starts
either 15 minutes to 2 hours before anthesis or within 35 minutes to 5 horus after anthesis
depending upon weather. The receptivity lasts for 4-8 days after anthesis.
Hybridization Technique
The mature flower buds on the female parent are emasculated early in the morning on
the day of opening and are bagged. The flowers to be used as male parent are bagged the
previous evening. The next morning as the day warms up; the anthers dehisce releasing the
pollen grains when these flowers can be plucked to pollinate the receptive stigmas of
emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are bagged, opened after about a week and allowed
to mature into ripe fruits. In some cases, especially when the trifoliate orange is used as male
parent, difficulties are encountered as its flowering is over before other citrus varieties flower.
Therefore, pollen has to be stored at low humidity and temperature.
Seeds from mature fruits are extracted and sown immediately in sterilized sand and soil
mixture. When seedlings are about 15 cm high, hybrid seedlings are identified. Particularly
those showing some morphological characters of male parent and others are rejected.
Electrophoresis methods can also be employed for identification of zygotic seedlings.
Identification of hybrid seedlings having P. trifoliate as male parent is easily done by looking for
trifoliate character. The hybrid seedlings parent is easily done by looking for trifoliate
character. The hybrid seedlings are grown to mature trees in the field and the seedlings raised
from the fruits are evaluated for resistance to various disease, insect pests, nematodes and for
suitability as scion or rootstock.
Ex.No. 15
Date :
PAPAYA
Carica papaya 2n: 18
Family :Caricaceae
Hybridization:
Using a dioecious lines It has been established that female plants are more productive
than hermaphrodite ones. Due to the crossing, most of the cultivars are highly variable. Hence it
is considered appropriate to sibmate the selected female and male plants so as to bring
homozygosity. Hence, suitable male plants are selected from the same progeny, which have
resemblance to female plants in vegetative characters, such as stem and leaf colour, stem
thickness and height at flowering etc. Progenies raised from SI inbreds are screened and
desired male and female plants are selected for further sibmating. This process is to be
continued for 7-8 generations to achieve uniformity of a group a characters.
Crossing between two or more parents and selecting the derived progenies with good
attributes in the advanced generations has been employed as a method to develop new cultivar.
CO.3. is a hybrid derivative between CO.2 x Sunrise Solo. Similarly, CO.7 is a gynodioecious
cultivar developed from the crosses of CP.75 (Pusa Delicious x CO.2) x Coorg Honey Dew. Fruits
are with red flesh and very sweet in taste.
MANGO
Mangefera indica (2n : 40)
Family : Anacardiaceae
Floral biology
Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open
between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11.a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m.
and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma
becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily;
nectar is present to attract the insects. The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3
weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers male and
perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the
variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in
Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.
Hybridization
Since a large number of male and perfect flowers are borne on a mango panicle, it
requires a special crossing technique. The panicle should be bagged with a muslin bag (60 cm x
30 cm) fully stretched and fixed with two rings and a rod made of spliced bamboo. A piece of
thick iron wire can also be made into a good frame for stretching the muslin bag over the
panicle. Staminate flowers of the selected panicle to be used as female parent should be
removed daily before dehiscence. Panicles of the variety selected as male parent should also be
bagged before their flowers begin to open. Freshly dehisced male flowers should be carried in a
small petridish lined with a filter paper and covered with another petridish to protect the
flower from contamination with foreign pollen carried by insects. Perfect flowers should be
emasculated early in the morning before dehisced. Freshly dehisced anther of the male parent
should gently be brushed against the stigma which should then be examined under lens to see if
pollen grains have adhered to it. As the pollination of flowers in any one panicle is carried over
a number of days, only the pollinated flowers should be allowed to remain on the panicle. It has
been found advantageous to keep the panicles enclosed in bags till the fruits set and develop
slightly.
The conventional method of pollination is time consuming, cost intensive and inefficient
because of tallness and difficult to handle trees and poor fruit set. Caging technique for
crossing, developed at IARI following the discovery of self incompatibility in Dashehari, Langra,
Chausa and Bombay Green, involves planting of grafted plants of the self incompatible varieties
along with those of male parents enclosed in an insect proof cage and allowing pollination by
freshly rared house flies and thus doing away with the tedious hand pollination.
Ex.No. 16
Date :
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Dendranthema grandiflorum 2n=2x=18
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the Greek words chrysos (gold)
and anthemon (flower).
Taxonomy
The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several
genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemum in the
genus Dendranthema. The naming of the genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in 1999 changed the defining species of the
genus to Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist's chrysanthemum to the
genus Chrysanthemum. The other species previously included in the narrow view of the
genus Chrysanthemum are now transferred to the genus Glebionis. The other genera separate
from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemumm, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum,
Rhodanthemum and Tanacetum.
Description
Wild Chrysanthemum taxa are herbaceous perennial plants or subshrubs. They have
alternately arranged leaves divided into leaflets with toothed or occasionally smooth edges. The
compound inflorescence is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The
head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries. The simple row of ray florets are white, yellow
or red; many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great
variety of colors. The disc florets of wild taxa are yellow. The fruit is a ribbed achene
History
Chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the
15th century BC. Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by the year 1630. The plant is
renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen in Chinese and East Asian art. The plant is particularly
significant during the Double Ninth Festival. The flower may have been brought to Japan in the
eighth century AD, and the Emperor adopted the flower as his official seal. The "Festival of
Happiness" in Japan celebrates the flower.
Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John
Stevens imported acultivated variety known as 'Dark Purple' from England. The introduction
was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.[5]
JASMINE
Jasminum sambac(L) Aiton
The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However,
natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac (2n=39), Jasminum flexile (2n=52),
Jasminum primulinum (2n=39), and Jasminum angustifolium(2n=52)
Other names : Moghra, Kundumalligai, Arabian Jasmine. Mallika are some of the other names
used for the Jasmine. In India Jasmine is called the 'Moonshine in the garden'.
Description : Jasmine is a evergreen semi vining shrub. It grows to the height of 8- 10 feet. The
flower is about one inch. It has oval green rich leaves, which have five to nine leaflets. Each
leaflet is 2-3 inches long. Jasmine flowers are white in colour. Its stems are slender, trailing,
green and glaborous.
Location : Jasmine plant is found in almost all the parts of India. They are widely grown in the
Nagarhole National Park in India.
Cultivation methods : It is propagated through the softwood cuttings, semi hard wood cuttings
and through simple layering. It needs water regularly. It is mostly propagated in the summer
season. It is planted 6 inches deep inside the soil. It requires moist and well drained soil.
Remove the weeds present inside the soil before planting the tree. The soil should consists of
cow dung before planting the Jasmine plant. It requires frequent pruning for its fast growth. It
needs warm temperature and proper watering from time to time. It grows in full Sun to partial
shade. It should be fertilized in a month period. Jasmine Plant should be kept at least eight feet
apart in order to save the later growth of the plant from jamming together. Tips of the plants
should be pinched to stimulate lateral growth and frequent prunning. Younger plants should be
tied with the stems to give a fairly heavy support.
Medicinal uses : The Jasmine flower is used for removing intestinal worms and is also used for
jaundice and venereal diseases. The flower buds are useful in treating ulcers, vesicles, boils, skin
diseases and eye disorders. The leaves extracts against breast tumours. Drinking Jasmine tea
regularly helps in curing cancer. Its oil is very effective in calming and relaxing.
Other uses : Jasmine oil is used used for making perfumes and incense. Its flowers are used to
flavour Jasmine tea and other herbal or black tea. Its oil is also used in creams, shampoos and
soaps. In India Jasmine flowers are stringed together to make garlands. Women in India wear
this flower in their hair. Some communities even use this flower to cover the face of the
bridegroom.
Cultural Importance : In India the Jasmine plant is related to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.
Jasmine flowes are used in the religious offerings.
ROSE
Polianthes tuberose - 2n=30
A rose is a woody perennial of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are
over 100 species. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, climbing or trailing with
stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually
large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are
native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa.
Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Rose
plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in
height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide
range of garden roses.
The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa, which was perhaps borrowed
from Oscan,
The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which
usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink,
though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of
some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and
appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries
that develop into achenes. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.
Rose pollen tends to be large and heavy and is likely to be carried by insects rather than
disperse by wind. Hybrid Tea and Floribunda roses are generally self-pollinated, a trait which
has been enhanced through several centuries of breeding. The close proximity of the anthers
and stigmata, coupled with the fact that modern hybrid roses have been selected both to
contain more petals (generally 25 to 35) and for slow opening of the petals, has resulted in
greatly reduced access by insects or wind. Pollen tends to be shed in the un-opened bloom,
resulting in a high occurrence of self-pollination (Bell 1988).
MARIGOLD
Tagetes erecta 2n = 24, 48
Marigolds are hardy, annual plants and are great plants for cheering up any garden.
Broadly, there are two genuses which are referred to by the common name, Marigolds viz.
Tagetes and Celandula. Tagetes includes African Marigolds and French Marigolds. Celandula
includes Pot Marigolds.
Marigolds come in different colors, yellow and orange being the most common. Most of
the marigolds have strong, pungent odor and have great value in cosmetic treatment. There are
many varieties of Marigolds available today.
African or American Marigolds (Tagetes erecta) : These marigolds are tall, erect-growing
plants up to three feet in height. The flowers are globe-shaped and large. Flowers may measure
up to 5 inches across. African Marigolds are very good bedding plants. These flowers are yellow
to orange and do not include red colored Marigolds. The Africans take longer to reach flowering
stage than the French type.
French Marigolds (Tagetes patula): Marigold cultivars in this group grow 5 inches to 18
inches high. Flower colors are red, orange and yellow. Red and orange bicolor patterns are also
found. Flowers are smaller (2 inches across). French Marigolds are ideal for edging flowerbeds
and in mass plantings. They also do well in containers and window boxes.
Signet Marigolds (T. signata 'pumila'): The signet Marigolds produce compact plants with
finely divided, lacy foliage and clusters of small, single flowers. They have yellow to orange
colored, edible flowers. The flowers of signet marigolds have a spicy tarragon flavor. The foliage
has a pleasant lemon fragrance. Signet Marigolds are excellent plants for edging beds and in
window boxes.
Mule Marigolds: These marigolds are the sterile hybrids of tall African and dwarf French
marigolds, hence known as mule Marigolds. Most triploid cultivars grow from 12 to 18 inches
high. Though they have the combined qualities of their parents, their rate of germination is low.
Facts About Marigolds
Marigold (Calendula) is an extremely effective herb for the treatment of skin problems and can
be used wherever there is inflammation of the skin, whether due to infection or physical
damage; for example, crural ulceration, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, anal fissures, mastitis,
sebaceous cysts, impetigo or other inflamed cutaneous lesions.
As an ointment, Marigold (Calendula) is an excellent cosmetic remedy for repairing minor
damage to the skin such as sub dermal broken capillaries or sunburn. The sap from the stem is
reputed to remove warts, corns and calluses.
In the 12th century Macer wrote that merely looking at the Marigold plant would improve
the eyesight and lighten the mood.
In South Asia, bright yellow and orange Marigold flowers are used in their thousands
and placed in garlands and to decorate religious statues and buildings. They are also used as
offerings and decoration at funerals, weddings and other ceremonies.
Pigments in Marigolds are sometimes extracted and used as a food coloring for humans
and livestock.
Marigolds can be propagated by seeds. The plants need about 45 days to flower after
seeding. Marigold seeds should be sown 2 cm apart. Cover seeds with 1/4 inch of potting soil.
Water sufficiently. Plants will appear within a few days. When true leaves have formed,
transplant into individual containers or outdoors.
Marigolds are robust, non-fussy plants that bring a lot of sunshine in your garden. Marigolds
can be grown easily.
1. Plant your seeds in half-sunny or sunny locations.
2. The soil must be well-drained, moist and fertile.
3. Add potash fertilizers to prolong the flowering period.
4. Pinch off the first flowers before they open. This will lead to a larger number of flowers.
Marigolds have a pungent odor which keeps insects at bay, but they can be bothered by
slugs. Also, tall American and Triploid Marigold varieties need staking to protect them from
strong winds and heavy rainfall. Learn more on growing and taking care of Marigolds. Also have
a look at some other Flowers