C3010 - Highway Engineering PDF

C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1
BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Name : Azman Bin Hasan

Address : Civil Engineering Department
Politeknik Kuching Sarawak
Km 22, Jalan Matang,
93050 Kuching, Sarawak.
Telephone No. : 082-428796 ext.223
e-mail : rynosorus@hotmail.com
Qualifications : BSc. Civil Eng. (UTM)
MEd ( Technical ) (UTM)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
Name : Norazila Binti Abdul Aziz

Address : Civil Engineering Department
Politeknik Kuching Sarawak
Km 22, Jalan Matang,
93050 Kuching, Sarawak.
Telephone No. : 082-428796 ext.223
e-mail : @hotmail.com
Qualifications : Diploma Civil Eng. And Education (UTM)
Position : Polytechnic Lecturer
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
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B. CONTENTS 1 2 3 4
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CURRICULUM GRID
The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by

Malaysian Polytechnics.
No. TOPIC UNIT Total

Hours
1 Introduction Of Highway 1 3 Hours

Engineering ( 3 H)
2 Planning Technique and 2 3 6 Hours

Pre-Construction Road ( 3 H) ( 3 H)
Work
4 5
3 Pavement Material (3H) (3H) 6 Hours
Construction Of Flexible 6
4 3 Hours
Pavement (3H)
Construction Of Rigid / 7
5 Concrete Pavement (3H) 3 Hours
8
6 Drainage (6H) 6 Hours
Traffic Control And 9 10

7
Road Furnitures (3H) (3H) 6 Hours
Basic Characteristic 11 12 13
8 7 Hours
Road Systems (2H) (2H) (3H)
Flexible Pavement 14
9 3 Hours
Design (3H)
15
10 Road Maintenance 4 Hours
(4H)
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1.0 Introduction
1.1 History of Highway Engineering
1.2 Characteristic of Some Important Early Roads
UNIT 2 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

ROAD WORK ( Part 1 )
2.0 Activities of Planning Technique and Pre-Construction Road Work
2.1 Site Investigation
2.2 Survey Work and Setting Out
UNIT 3 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Earth Work Operation
3.2 Side Slope Operation
UNIT 4 PAVEMENT MATERIAL ( Part 1 )

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Soil And Its Characteristic
4.2 Effect of Moisture on The Performance of Soils
4.3 Effect of Density on The Performance of Soils
4.4 Road Aggregate
UNIT 5 PAVEMENT MATERIAL ( Part 2 )

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Function of Bituminous Material
5.2 Definitions
5.3 Sources of Bituminous Binder
5.4 Paving Asphalt
UNIT 6 CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ( Part 1 )

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Structure of Flexible Pavement
6.2 Functions of Flexible Pavement
6.3 Flexible Pavement Construction Process
6.4 Material Preparation for Flexible Pavement Road Surface
UNIT 7 CONSTRUCTION OF RIGID/CONCRETE PAVEMENT

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete Roads
7.2 Classification of Cement Concrete Roads
7.3 Structure of Cement Concrete Roads
7.4 Construction Step of Cement Concrete Slab Pavement
7.5 Joint in Cement Concrete Roads
UNIT 8 DRAINAGE
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Effect of Improper Drainage
8.2 Highway Drainage Requirement
8.3 Surface Drainage.
8.4 Side Ditches for Surface Drainage
8.5 Drainage System
UNIT 9 TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURES ( Part 1 )

9.0 Introduction
9.1 Traffic Control Device
9.2 Purpose of Traffic Control Device
9.3 Characteristic of Traffic Control Device
9.4 Traffic Sign
9.5 Road Marking
UNIT 10 TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURES ( Part 2 )

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Reasons for Longitudinal Delineation
10.2 Types of Delineator
10.3 Road Stud
12.1 Delineators
12.2 Sign Board
UNIT 11 BASIC CHARACTERISTIC ROAD SYSTEMS ( Part 1 )

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Road System Characteristic
11.2 Important Characteristic of Drivers
11.1 Influential Factor
11.2 Vehicle Characteristic
11.3 Vehicle Operating Characteristic

11.4 Acceleration and Deceleration
11.5
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Term of Volume Flow
12.2 Traffic Volume Characteristic
11.1 Calculation for Traffic Volume

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Speed
13.2 Speed Measurement Method
13.3 Spot Speed Data Analysis
13.4 Definition of Density
13.5 Calculation of Density
UNIT 14 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Factors For Design
14.2 Flexible Pavement Design Method
Design Using The JKR Method
UNIT 15 ROAD MAINTAINANCE

15.0 Introduction
15.1 Maintenance Operation
15.2 Upgrading
15.3 Maintenance Organization
15.4 Road Maintenance Activities
MODULE GUIDELINES
To achieve maximum benefits in using this module, students must follow the instructions
carefully and complete all the activities.
1. This module is divided into 17 units.

2. Each page is numbered according to the subject code, unit and page number
C3010 / UNIT 1 / 8
Subject Unit 1 Page number 8
3. The general and specific objectives are given at the beginning of each unit.
4. The activities in each unit are arranged in a sequential order and the following
symbols are given :
OBJECTIVES
The general and specific objectives for each learning topic are
stated in this section.
INPUT
This section introduces the subject matter that you are going to learn.
ACTIVITIES
The activities in this section test your understanding of the subject
matter. You have to complete this section by following the
instructions carefully.
FEEDBACK
Answers to the questions in the activity section are given here
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Self-assessment evaluates your understanding of each unit.
FEEDBACK OF SELF-ASSESSMENT
This section contains answers to the activities in the self-
assessment.
1. You have to follow the units in sequence.

2. You may proceed to the next unit after successfully completing the unit
and you are confident of your achievement.
GENERAL AIMS
This module is prepared for students in the third semester ( Diploma ) and fourth
semester ( certificate ) who are following the Certificate/Diploma programmes in
Malaysian Polytechnics. It aims to expose students to the Highway Engineering concept
in each unit and to lead them towards self-directed learning or with guidance from their
lecturers.
PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE
The prerequisite for this module is at least a pass in module B1001, B2001, C1001 and
C2001
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students should be able to :

1. understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.
2. state methods, procedures and techniques about road planning and pre-
construction work.
3. define materials used in road construction.
4. understand fundamental concepts in road structures.
5. explain the drainage and ground water level
6. list and define the road furniture and traffic control equipments.
7. describe the differences between flexible pavement and rigid/concrete
pavement
8. recognize the characteristics of road systems
9. determine the traffic flow, speed, density and analysis
10. calculate the design of flexible pavement
11. understand general items about road maintenance
TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED
1. Calculator.
2. JKR Standard for JKR Road Pavement Design.
REFERENCE
1. Road Work Theory and Practical, Wignall and P.S Kendrick.

2. Highway Engineering ( Volume 1 & 2 ), OFlaherty.
3. Bitumen in Road Surfacing, Shell.
4. Asphalt Concrete, Shell.
5. British Standard.
6. Road Note 29 and 31, TRRL.
7. Pengenalan Pembinaan Jalan Raya, Berbitumen, Meor Othman Hamzah Dan
Lain-lain, DBP.
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/ 1
Introduction of Highway
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to :-

state the construction structure used in transportation system.
identify the related profession in the road construction development.
describe the history of road development.
describe the road category.
identify the related agencies involved in road construction.
INPUT
CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURE FOR

TRANSPORTATION
1.0 Introduction
For rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good
system of transportation is very essential. Transportation system comprises of
good network of roads, railways, well developed water ways and airways.
Airways and water ways although help to some extent in transportation within the
country, but they are the modes of transport mainly with foreign country.
Railways and highways also to some extent help in transport with foreign
countries but their main concern is within the country itself.
1.0.1 Different modes of transportation
Man has always been curious for new inventions. In the early days
of civilization it was thought that the movement of any human being can
be on the earth only. No one thought of flying in air or cruising in large-
oceans.
Seeing birds flying, man must have
thought of flying and that may probably be
the starting point of modern aeronautics.
Similarly, seeing fishes cruising in the sea
or river, man must have thought of rowing
in water, and that may probably be a
starting point in the development of water
ways and designing of ships and boats.
Modes of transportation can be classified as follows :

a. roadways or highways
b. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of

the roads, for convenience of the road traffic, is called highway
engineering. The science dealing with planning, designing, operation and
maintenance of railway track, wagons, coaches, locomotives, is called
railway engineering.
Similarly planning, designing, operation, control and maintenance

of water ways, airways and their connected machinery are respectively
called harbour engineering and airport engineering.
Besides the above stated four major modes of transportation, fluids

are mainly transported through pipes. Belt conveyors, cable cars,
monorails are some other minor systems of transportation, but they are
used for specific purposes. Looking to the transport characteristic of each
type of transportation system, it can easily be appreciated that roads and
railways are economical and easy for internal transportation, while airways
and waterways are main economical for transportation with foreign
countries. Airways are gaining importance even in internal movement
these days, because they cause saving in time of travel.
1.0.2 Road transport characteristics

While going to railway station, harbour or airport, roads is the first
mode which is going to lead you to these places. Hence it can be said that
out of all types of transport systems, road is the nearest to the man.
Characteristics of road transport are given as follows :
a. Roads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock

carts, carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and
lorries, etc. They are equally useful for pedestrians also.
b. Roads can lead to any remote place.
c. Investment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also
cheaper than rail-track, docks, harbours and airports.
d. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the requirements.
e. Local communication among villages, villages and towns
is only possible through roads.
f. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of
railways or airways.
g. Road transport is the only mode of transport that offers
itself for the service of whole community alike.
1.1 HISTORY OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of the
man kind. The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path. Before
invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating foot paths. Men
and material must have been transported either on backs of men or animals.
The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :

Early/ Basic roads
Roman roads
Modern roads
1.1.1 Early roads
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be

the popular mode of transport for quite a long time. This necessitated in
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about 3500 B.C. Archeological findings
street were paved in Mohanjodaro at about 3500 B.C.
There are signs of pucca roads were used during the construction
of Illahun pyramids in Egypt between 3000 - 2500 B.C. This would be due
to the transportation of huge limestone blocks.
1.1.2 Roman roads
In the ancient Rome era, more intensive system of roads was

developed. The road radiating in many directions from Rome. Some of
those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction. Many of the

Roman roads are still in existence even after 2000 years. Romans were
considered to be the pioneers in road construction. With the fall of Roman
Empire, the road building technique became a lost art.
1.1.3 Modern roads
In eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads

again began to develop. Mr. Pierre Tresaquet developed an improved
method of construction in 1764 in France. At the time when Mr. Pierre
Tresaquet was busy in developing his road construction method, Mr. John
Metcalf was engaged in his development in England. Metcalf constructed
about 290 Km road in northern region of England. Since Metcalf was blind,
his work was not recorded and thus got lost.
Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in

England. Telford believed in using heavy foundation stones over the soil
sub-grade, while Macadam advocated the use of compacted crushed
aggregate layer at the bottom. Macadams method of road construction is
still in used and is named after his name.
1.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF SOME IMPORTANT EARLY ROADS
Important early roads include:
a. Roman roads construction

b. Tresequet roads construction
c. Metcalfs roads construction
d. Telfords roads construction
e. Macadam roads construction
1.2.1 Roman roads
Romans developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the

purpose of military movement. They constructed in all about one lakh
kilometers of road, extending in whole of their empire. An Important road
constructed by Romans in 312 B.C called Appian way is still in existence
in Rome.
The main characteristics of Roman roads were as follows:
1. They weary very thick. Total thickness of the road varied

from about 0.7 m to as much as 1.2 m.
2. They were straight, without any regard for gradient. Probable
reason for straightness may be their main use for army.
3. Roads were not built on soft soil formations but on hard
stratum reached after excavation.
Method of construction for Roman roads
First of all loose soil was used to be removed from the site of the
road and a trench, equal to width of carriage way excavated to depth so
that hard stratum is reached. At the bottom of the trench one or two layers
of large stones were laid in lime mortar. The thickness of this foundation
layer ranged from 10 20 cm. Over this, 25 40 cm thick layer of lime
concrete with large size broken stone aggregate was laid. Another layer
again 25 to 40 cm of lime concrete but using comparatively small size
broken stone aggregate was laid over the previously laid layer. Lastly 10
to 15 cm thick dressed large stone blocks, set in lime mortar were used as
wearing course. Seeing thickness of the road, it is obvious that these
roads must be very strong, but they cannot prove economical, when
compared with modern design methods.
1.2.2 Tresaquets roads
Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was inspector general of roads in France from

1775 to 1785. He developed an improved method of road construction.
The main feature of his work was that the thickness of the road was about
30 cm. He also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and drainage
from the surface. He also emphasized the need for continuous
maintenance of road to keep it in good shape. At the time of Napoleon,
quite elaborate road system was developed in France mainly for use of
military adventures.
Method of construction for Tresaquets roads
On the prepared sub-grade a layer of large foundation stones was

laid, keeping all the stones on edge. At the edges of the road, a large size
stone was laid length wise to give lateral support to the foundation layer.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with stone
aggregate of smaller size. Compacted thickness of this layer was about 8
cm. Lastly the top wearing course was laid of walnut sized stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm. A cross slope of about 1 in 45
was used to be developed in the road surfaced by adjusting thickness
mainly in top and intermediate layers. Lastly, shoulders were also given
suitable cross slope, away from the edges of carriage way.
1.2.4 John Metcalf roads (1717-1810)
He was working in England at the time when Tresaquet was busy in

France. He experimented road construction with a graded mixture of earth
and gravel. Since Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not be recorded.
But it is believed that he was following the procedure outlined by Robert
Philips in 1737. Robert Philips method consisted of laying gravel layer
upon a well drained and dried sub-grade. Gravel layer was used to be
compacted in due course of time, by the action of the traffic using road.
Metcalf constructed about 290 Km of road in northern parts of England.
Telford roads (1757-1834)
Thomas Telford was Scottish road engineer and founder of the

institution of civil engineers. He used big size stones in foundation wearing
from 17 22 cm to develop a firm base. He also provided cross drains
under foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in dry condition. He
proposed provision of cross drains at intervals of about 90 m. Total
thickness of road advocated by him was about 38 cm.
Construction Method for Telford roads
A level sub-grade which may be on embankment or cutting was

prepared in the required width. Telford adopted 9 mm width of the road.
On the prepared sub-grade a layer of large size stone boulders, varying in
size from 17 cm near the edges to a maximum size of about 22 cm at the
centre of the width of the road was laid. Laying of the stones was done by
packing. By using smaller size stone near the edges and larger size near
centre, a cross slope, of 1 in 45 in road surface was developed. The
interstices in this boulder foundation layer were filled with smaller stones
and chippings and properly compacted.
Now central width of about 5.5 m ( 18 ) of road was covered with

intermediate coating consisting of two layers. The compacted thickness of
first layer was about 10 cm and consisted of 6.5 cm size stone aggregate.
The compacted thickness of second layer was about 5 cm and consisted
of about 4 cm size stone. These layers were used to be rammed initially,
but allowed to be compacted under traffic. No water was sprinkled during
compaction. Only rain water was used to help compaction and
consolidation of these layers.
Over the intermediate coat, 4 cm thick gravel layer was used to act
as blinding and wearing layer. The finished surface used to have a cross
slope of 1 in 45. The remaining width of the foundation left untreated by
intermediate coats (two layers), on either side, was treated by lime
concrete. Lime was mixed with broken stone aggregate about 10-15 cm
size to prepare lime concrete, to be laid on either side of the road. This
treatment provided lateral stability to the road structure.
1.2.5 Macadam Roads ( 1756-1838 )
He, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road
construction in 1827. He was a Scottish engineer and was surveyor
general of roads in England. Important characteristic of his concept are as
follows:
It was he who for the first time recognized the importance of sub-
grade compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage
he recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
It was he who realized for the first time that heavy foundation
stones are not at all necessary. If sub-grade is prepared properly
and kept well drained it can be very well bear the traffic load
transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller
compacted thickness of small size broken stones. He was of the

opinion that a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain mush heavier load than a thick layer of big size stones.
Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided
according to requirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.
Method of Construction for Macadam roads
Sub-grade was prepared and compacted to the required

width of the road. Prepared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. Construction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 10 cm thick (compacted) and was made from
5 cm size aggregate. Intermediate layer was also 10 cm thick
(compacted) but made from aggregate passing 40 mm sieve.
Lastly, wearing surface was made 5 cm thick (compacted) using
aggregate passing 20 mm sieve. Cross slope of finished surface
was kept as 1 in 36.
In those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough

compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that next layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the
world, though with certain modifications.
1.3 Comparison Between Macadam and Telford Roads
a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.

b. In the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept horizontal due
to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. In the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 1 in 36 cross slope. This
aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. Large size stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. Size of
stone varied from 17 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the road.
In the case of Macadam roads 5 cm was the maximum size of the
aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. Cross slope in Telford using smaller size stones at the edges and large
size stones at the centre of the width-developed roads. Thicknesses of
subsequent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept constant for the
full width of the road. In Macadam roads, required camber was given to
the sub-grade itself and all the subsequent layers of aggregate
including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the whole of the
width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation
layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 4 cm thick wearing top layer.
Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers each of 13
cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 5 cm thick surfacing
layer.
f. In Telford roads, camber given was 1 in 45 while in Macadam it was 1
in 36.
g. Telfords foundation layer, being of larger sized stones, behaved like
semi flexible road but Macadams base was yielding type and hence
Macadam roads behaved like fully flexible roads.
h. Total thickness of road structure was about 40 cm in case of Telford
but only about 25 cm in case of Macadam.
ACTIVITY 1
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT

INPUT.!
1. Describe briefly the contribution of Tresaquet , Metcalf, Telford and
Macadam to road improvement of a scientific nature.
2. Write short notes on the history of:
a. Early basic roads
b. Romans roads
c. Moderns roads
3. Discuss the comparative specifications of Telford and Macadam road
crust construction.
GOOD LUCK.
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 1
1. Pioneers contributions are :

a. Tresaquet
Developed an improvement method of road construction
which feature of his work was that the thickness of the road
was about 30 cm.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with
stone aggregate of smaller size and compacted thickness
of this layer was about 8 cm.
Top wearing course was laid of walnut sized stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm.
A cross slope of about 1 in 45 was used to be developed in
the road surfaced by adjusting thickness mainly in top and
intermediate layers.
b. Metcalf
Experimented road construction with a graded mixture of
earth and gravel.
Method consisted of laying gravel upon a well drained and
dried sub-grade. It used to be compacted in due course of
time, by the action of the traffic using road.
c. Telford
Used big sized stones in foundation wearing from 17-22 cm
to develop a firm base
Provided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the
sub-grade in dry condition
Level sub-grade on embankment or cutting was prepared in
the required width.
d. Macadam
Using entirely new concept of road construction.
Recognized the importance of sub-grade compaction and
drainage
Using a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain much heavier load than a thick layer of big size
stones
Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was
decided according to requirements of stability under the
effect of vehicles.
2.
a. Early roads.
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be
popular mode of transport for quite a long time. This necessitated
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about 3500 B.C. Archeological
findings in Mohanjodaro indicate that about 3500 B.C Street was
paved.
b. Romans roads.
In the ancient Rome era, more intensive system of roads was
developed. The roads radiating in many directions from Rome.
Some of those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction.
Many of the Roman roads are still in existence even after 2000
years. Romans were considered to be the pioneers in road
construction. With the fall of Roman Empire, the road building
technique became a lost art.
c. Modern roads.
In eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads
again began to develop. Mr. Pierre Tresaquet developed an
improved method of construction in 1764 in France. At the time
when Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was busy in developing his road
construction method, Mr. John Metcalf was engaged in his
development in England. Metcalf constructed about 290 Km road in
northern region of England. Telford and Macadam were the
pioneers in road development in England. Telford believed in using
heavy foundation stones over the soil sub-grade, while Macadam
advocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the
bottom. Macadams method of road construction is still in use and
is named after his name.
3. Comparison between Telford roads and Macadams roads are :

a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
b. In the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept horizontal
due to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. In the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 1 in 36 cross slope.
This aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. Large size stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. Size of
stone varied from 17 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the
road. In the case of Macadam roads 5 cm was the maximum size of

the aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. Cross slope in Telford roads was developed by using smaller size
stones at the edges and large size stones at the centre of the width.
Thicknesses of subsequent intermediate and surfacing layers, is
kept constant for the full width of the road. In Macadam roads,
required camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the
subsequent layers of aggregate including foundation layer of
uniform thickness for the whole of the width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation
layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 4 cm thick wearing top
layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers
each of 13 cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 5 cm
thick surfacing layer.
f. In Telford roads, camber given was 1 in 45 while in Macadam it
was 1 in 36.
g. Telfords foundation layer, being of larger sized stones, behaved
like semi flexible road but Macadams base was yielding type and
hence Macadam roads behaved like fully flexible roads.
h. Total thickness of road structure was about 40 cm in case of
Telford but only about 25 cm in case of Macadam.
Question
1. Describe brie the characteristic of road transport..
2. Describe the method of construction for Macadam roads.
3. Classify the modes of transportation used in Malaysia.
Answer
1. The characteristics of road transport are as follows :
i. Roads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock carts,

carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and lorries, etc.
They are equally useful for pedestrians also.
ii. Roads can lead to any remote place.
iii. Investment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also cheaper
than rail-track, docks, harbors and airports.
iv. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the requirements.
v. Local communication among villages, villages and towns is
only possible through roads.
vi. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of
railways or airways.
vii. Road transport is the only mode of transport that offers itself
for the service of whole community alike.
2. Method of Construction for Macadam roads
Sub-grade was prepared and compacted to the required

width of the road. Prepared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. Construction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 10 cm thick (compacted) and was made from
5 cm size aggregate. Intermediate layer was also 10 cm thick
(compacted) but made from aggregate passing 40 mm sieve.
Lastly, wearing surface was made 5 cm thick (compacted) using
aggregate passing 20 mm sieve. Cross slope of finished surface
was kept as 1 in 36.
In those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough

compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that next layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the
world, though with certain modifications.
3. Modes of transportation can be classified as follows:

a. roadways or highways
b. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
TECHNIQE IN PLANNING AND PRE-
Highway Engineering CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD WORK C3010 / UNIT2
i
UNIT 2
TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

OF ROADWORK
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the planning activities and all pre-construction works
Specific Objectives
describe the planning objective.

state the procedures to identify a new road.
state the procedures for site investigation
describe the method of site exploration.
describe the survey works.
TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND

PRE-CONSTRUCTION
ROADWORKS
2.0 TECHNIQUES IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

ROADWORK.
A construction of a new road must under go an extensive planning,

accurate land surveying and economic planning.
2.0.1 Planning Requirements
A modern highway construction would include:-

1. A collection of a tabulated information on the existing transportation
facilities in the area.
2. The determination of the general inter-relation of all branches of the
transportation system and their effect on each other.
3. The determination of the adequacy or otherwise of the existing
facilities as per present needs and the improvement and extension
of these facilities for anticipated future needs for a certain period.
4. Methods of financing the projects and the duration of the
construction.
5. An estimation of construction and maintenance.
Any highway planning study can be sub-divided into :-

1. Road inventory study.
2. Traffic studies.
3. Economic planning studies.
4. Financial planning studies.
2.0.2 Preparation and Planning Scheme of a New Road.
Planning expertise, evaluation on survey work, knowledge

on geology and experience on civil engineering area are essentially
needed in constructing of a new road. The traffic needs, the
purpose on planning at certain route and approximate cost thus
become very vital information to be considered before constructing
a new road.
The synopsis of procedures that is used for identifying,

planning and constructing a new road are listed in the following
page. However, not all new roads follow these procedures. Some of
the procedures are valid for certain terms and conditions only.
Below is set of procedure that is used for identifying,

planning and constructing a new road. The procedures are;
1. Identify the problem in traffic congestion, accident and

environment by making a research on transportation and
problematic areas.
2. Identify the maintenance and new construction work needed.
3. Identify the organization and Ministries that are responsible with
the construction work such as JKR, TNB etc.
4. Collect the information for briefing.

5. Prepare the following plans: -
a. Topography plan.
b. Usage land plan.
c. Geology plan.
d. Agriculture area plan.
e. Domestic plan.
f. Traffic flow plan.
g. Town Consult planning document.
6. Draw a temporary layout sketch and include related

suggestion.
7. Get information on;
a. Junctions.
b. River and drainage.
c. Survey information.
d. The latest traffic data.
e. Ground Level.
8. Prepare a detailed layout with consideration to environmental
impact.
9. Make a valuation.
10. Choose the best road to be constructed. However, the
alternative road should be equally prepared in the planning.
11. Negotiate with other related group such as :-
a. Ministry of Science and Environment.
b. Ministry of Transportation.
c. Water Board, Forestry Department, Telecom Company
d. National Museum.
e. Railway Station.
f. Geology and Mineral Department.
12. Present a report on the entire technical problems.
13. Analyze the problems faced by the public.

14. Prepare the preliminary report based on the above information
and submit it to the planning division.
15. Wait for the outcome or result.
a. If it is acceptable, draw a road design at 1 : 2500 scale
and proceed to the particular ministry.
b. If it is unacceptable, it needs to be revised thoroughly or
it will be cancelled.
16. Proceed with the following: -
a. Start planning the main task (the identified road).
b. Start planning the alternative roads.
c. Start purchasing the important materials.
17. Get the information from the public on the suggested road and
the other roads involved. Set a panel that consists of external
lawyers and other professionals to conduct a survey.
18. Submit the report to the respective Ministry and wait for the
approval.
19. Prepare the financial report based on the cost benefit analysis
to determine the advantages will bring to the public.
20. Advertise a tender notice and the selected contractor will then
need to prepare and submit the quotation of the contract plan
and document.
21. Accept the tender and start the construction work.
There are 3 stages in planning the construction of a new road :-
1. Stage 1 - Prepare a preliminary report.

2. Stage 2 - Submit the preliminary report.
3. Stage 3 - Finalize the report.
2.0.3 Stage 1- Preparing a preliminary report.
In this stage, it includes all the preliminary reports and

information that are received during the ensuing stage (refer to
2.0.2, Procedure 14). They are: -
a. Traffic surveying work.
b. Evaluation on the information and planning. Consider
suggestion if there is another useful choice.
c. Design using 6 : 1 mile scale.
d. Budget of the construction and its advantages.
e. Identify the certain road.
f. Report on the alternative road, which includes the
topography, geology and traffic flow, soil consuming and
historical places.
g. Obtain cooperation from the related group such as town
council and state government.
h. If the project is over budgeted the ministry must be inform
and no further work shall be proceed.
2.0.4 Stage 2 - Submitting the preliminary report.
In the preliminary report, it explains about the proposal and its

alternatives of the identified project. It then is submitted to the
person in-charged to obtain permission. However, the following
questions need to be considered.
a. Are the suggestions fulfilled the planning needs at the

national level.
b. Are the advantages accepted?
c. Are the suggested solution accepted in term of

political or environmental aspect.
While the preliminary report is being studied further, other

experiments should be done such as:-
a. Further soil investigation.

b. The plan preparation on the new road and other related
roads. Report and work are to be prepared. It will only be
submitted if the preliminary report is accepted.
2.0.5 Stage 3 - Finalizing the Report
a. When the preliminary report is accepted, prepare the

road plan with 1:2500 scale.
b. When the final report is completed, submit it to the Head
Quarter for approval. Here, a right budget and
advantages of the project shall be included for approval
purposes.
c. After the costing and advantages valuation are done, this
final report will be submitted to the responsible person to
start off the construction work.
d. If there is no protest from the public or other parties in
fact, the tender will be offered and the selected
contractor. Then, all the construction works will start.
e. If there is a protest, a committee member will be set up
for further investigation.
2.0.6 The content of the Preliminary Report
The preliminary report which includes the plan must contain the
following aspects:-
a. The existence situation which is on physical shape and
scheme objective of the existence road.
b. The traffic situation based on the latest data (not more
than 3 years). A report should include content the total of
traffic user.
c. The alternative roads, which include the costing,
advantages and the environmental impact.
d. Road classification identify the road classification that is
to be built; highway or ordinary road.
e. Negotiation on the report and the result.
f. Budget the total of roadwork cost, bridges work and
earthwork approximately 20% from the previous budget.
The cost report should comprise the following:
Roadwork:-
- Site clearing cost.
- Earthwork cost.
- Pavement construction and road shoulder work
cost.
- Road furniture work.
- Facilities service work.
- Contingency stretch cost.
g. Valuation is to see the economical aspect of the project.
h. Enclosed plans plan with 6:1 mile scale is used for

new scheme. For the city or village area a bigger scale is
used. Plan must show the following:-
a. The plan of the approved alternative roads.
b. The type of junction and its location.
Avoid using the existence plan. Beside the, the activities

which would be included in the planning and pre-
construction road work are as follow:
1. Site investigation.
2. Survey works and setting out.
3. Site clearing and top soil deletions.
4. Earth works.
ACTIVITY 2 A

INPUT
Question
1. State the planning objective of planning in executing a new road

development.
2. State four other activities in planning and pre-construction roadworks.
a.
b.
c.
d.
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 2 A
Answer
1. The objective of planning is to provide a highway system which

would give maximum transportation facilities at a minimum cost.
2. The other activities in planning and pre-construction roadworks be

as follows :
1. Site investigation.
2. Survey works and setting out.
3. Site clearing and top soil deletions.
4. Earth works.
2.1 SITE INVESTIGATION
Road structures are the structure which is supported by the ground.

The interaction between the structure and the soil beneath it is complex,
and therefore knowledge of the site and soil condition is important.
2.1.1 Procedures of the investigation
2.1.1.1 Compact sites
In the case of compact sites for road structure, the

investigation requires deep and closely speed borings. The
actual number and position of borings depend on the types
of structure and nature of sites. However, the number of
bore hole should be such as to given a clear picture of all
significant variations in the soil over the site, and the depth
of such bore hole should be such as to reach all strata
likely to influence the stability of the works.
2.1.1.2 Method of site exploration
When discussing the procedure of the investigation,

reference is made to borings as a means of the
investigation. This is perhaps it is the most common
method of site exploration, but certainly not the only one.
Considering new works, from the very small to the very
large contract, a general guide to exploration would be as
follows:
1. Small works- trial pits up to 3m deep.
2. Medium to large scale works borings up to 30m

deep
3. Very large scale works a combination of deep
boring, pits and insitu examination from heading and
shafts.
It must be noted that the above is only guide: the

detailed methods of exploration would depend on the types
of the construction and the site involved.
a. Trial pits
This is the cheapest form of exploration in shallow

depth; above 3 m deep the cost increases rapidly compared
with boring. The main advantage is that soils and rocks can
be exposed and examined insitu. This method shows
changes in strata much more clearly than by boring. The pits
are dug out either by local labour or by a small tractor
mounted excavator. The plan size of a pits depends on
method of excavation, but approximately 1.2 x 1.2 m and
should be dug at distances 20m apart in either direction.
Problem occurs in water bearing soils, particularly

sands, and therefore the economies of shoring and pumping
pits may outweigh the savings gained against specialist
borings. In dry condition these pits are particularly valuable
since they allow hand cut sample to be taken, thereby
minimizing the disturbance of the sample and maximizing
the condition for accurate testing. Deeper trial pits maybe
used for investigation of rock fissures or to explore layer of
weak rock which cannot be removed intact in normal boring

operations. Such deep pits are costly to construct and would
be used only a large scale exploration. Trial pits are the best
method of exploring back filled areas and side overlain by
variable natural deposit.
b. Borings
All boring should be should be spaced sufficiently

closed together to prevent false deduction concerning the
uniformity of horizontal strata. The deeps of boring will be
determined by the type of loading involved but account must
be taken of any slope in the strata and variation in their
thickness. In particular, when boring through glacial
deposits, care must be exercised to insure that borders are
not mistaken for bedrock.
There are three main factors which govern the depth

of exploration:
1. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly stressed.
2. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect the soil.
3. The depth at which impermeable strata occur.
c. Wash Borings.
The soil is loosened and removes from the bore hole

by mean of a strong jet of water or drilling mud. The liquid is
jetted through a steel tube which is work up and down the
hole. The liquid disintegrates the soil and carries it up the
annular space between the tube and casing. Wash boring as
the advantage that the soil is not disturbed by blows of a tool

or shell, but it is limited to soil which do not contain boulders
or large gravels. Mud such as bentonite, allows boring to be
carried out without linings is non-cohesive soils. The soil in it
settled-out state can be dried and use for identification
purposes.
2.2 SURVEY WORK AND SETTING OUT
2.2.1 Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate

traverse line, usually called the Base Line along the route already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to
obtain sufficient data for final location. Similar traverses may also
be run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey
shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the
final location of the highway. The traverse being an Open one,
adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse so
that in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain
precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,
etc., are necessary.
After establishing the Base Line, important topographical

features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,
lakes and any other features which affect the final location and
design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary
survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan
or Preliminary Survey Plan.
The next step after recording all the available details on the
basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.
A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable
property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged
areas, etc. Having thus selected the center-line on the plan, the
next step consist in transferring on to the field.
2.2.2 Setting Out
The first task is to establish a Base Line from which the

whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be
clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.
Setting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after
being referred from the previous survey on Preliminary Survey Plan
and Base Line. Wooden pact shall be placed at each reference
point and can be easily seen.
ACTIVITY 2 B

INPUT
Question 1
1. State the two methods that are used in soil exploration.

a. ________________________________
b. ________________________________
2. State the three main factors which govern the depth of exploration.
a. _________________________________
b. _________________________________
c. _________________________________
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 2 B
Answer
1. a. Trial pits
b. Borings
2. There are three main factors which govern the depth of

exploration:
1. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly
stressed.
2. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect
the soil.
3. The depth at which impermeable strata occur.
Question
1. What are the procedures in identifying the construction of a new road.
2. Describe the following aspects: -
a. Preliminary Survey.
b. Setting Out
3. Describe the Trial Pits of soil exploration.
Answer
The procedures to identify a new road include:-
2a. Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate

traverse line, usually called the Base Line along the route already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to
obtain sufficient data for final location. Similar traverses may also
be run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey
shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the
final location of the highway. The traverse being an Open one,
adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse so
that in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain
precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,
etc., are necessary.
After establishing the Base Line, important topographical

features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,
lakes and any other features which affect the final location and
design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary
survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan
or Preliminary Survey Plan.
The next step after recording all the available details on the
basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.
A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable
property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged
areas, etc. Having thus selected the center-line on the plan, the
next step consist in transferring on to the field.
2b. Setting Out
The first task is to establish a Base Line from which the

whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be
clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.
Setting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after
being referred from the previous survey on Preliminary Survey Plan
and Base Line. Wooden pact shall be placed at each reference
point and can be easily seen.
.
3. Trial pits
This is the cheapest form of exploration in shallow depth;

above 3 m deep the cost increases rapidly compared with boring.
The main advantage is that soils and rocks can be exposed and
examined insitu. This method shows changes in strata much more
clearly than by boring. The pits are dug out either by local labour or
by a small tractor mounted excavator. The plan size of a pits
depends on method of excavation, but approximately 1.2 x 1.2 m
and should be dug at distances 20m apart in either direction. Trial
pits are the best method of exploring back filled areas and side
overlain by variable natural deposit.
THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT3
PRE-CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORK
UNIT 3
THE TECHNIQUE OF PLANNING AND PRE-

CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORK
( Part 2 )
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the earth work operation and its problems occurred.
Specific Objectives
describe the earth work operation.

state the highway machinery
state the types of slope.
state the problem and its solutions.
describe the method of slope protection.
INPUT
PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-

CONSTRUCTION
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The sub-grade soil is prepared by bringing it to the desired grade and

camber and by compacting adequately. The sub-grade may be either in
embankment or in excavation, depending on the topography and the finalized
vertical alignment of the road to be constructed.
3.1 EARTH WORH OPERATION
The earth work quantities are estimated based on longitudinal and transverse
section along the alignment of the road. In order to reduce the cost of
construction, it is necessary to plan the movement of materials from cuts to the
nearest fills. It is necessary to decide the limits of economical haul and lift. It is
advantageous to plot a mass haul diagram to compute the haulage details. The
swelling and shrinkage factor may also be considered in the excavation and
compaction of earth.
3.1.1 Excavation
Excavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth

including rock from its original position, transporting and dumping it as a fill or
spoil bank. The excavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in
hard rock, before preparing the sub-grade. The selection of excavation
equipment and the cost analysis is made based on the stiffness of the materials
to be excavated.
Earth excavation work may be divided as excavation or cutting, grading

and compaction. The depth of the excavation is decided, among other factors, on
requirement of vertical profile of the road. The slope to be provided is governed
by the type of soil including stratification, if any, and the depth of the cutting. The
stability computations may help in arriving at maximum permissible slope for the
complex problems. However highway cuts much flatter slopes are preferred from
other considerations including aesthetics construction of side drains also require
excavations along road side.
a. Excavation equipment
The excavation equipment commonly used in highway projects includes

bull dozers, scrapers, power shovels, draglines, clamshells and hoes. However,
in small projects excavation is carried out manually using hand tools.
The machines that used are:-
i. Bull dozer and scraper
Bull dozer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work
and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. Bull dozer is
considered to be versatile machine for many construction projects as it
may be used for clearing site. It can used for opening up pilot roads,
moving earth for short haul distances of about 100m and also in several
other jobs. Scraper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving
equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. However scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
Figure 3.1: Bull dozer
ii. Power shovel
Power shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except

rock and to load it into wagons. Power shovels may be mounted on
crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. Figure 3.2 shows the
operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,
cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can
effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands
and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.
Figure 3.2: Power Shovel
iii. Dragline
Dragline is used to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearly

banks or to load into wagons. Dragline may also be mounted on crawler. It
can operate on natural ground while excavating from a pit with the bucket,
thus it is not necessary for the dragline to go into the pit in order to
excavate. The basic parts and operation of a dragline are shown in figure
3.3. The bucket is thrown out from the dragline on the top of the earth to
be excavated and then pulled back towards the base of the machine.
Figure 3.3: Dragline
iv. Clamshell
Clamshell consists of a bucket of two halves or shell which is

hinged together at top. The shells may be attached to the shovel-crane
units or at the boom of a drag line. The open clam-shell bucket is thrown
on the top of the loose material to be dug and as the bucket is lift, the two
halves close en trapping the material into the bucket. Figure 3.4 shows the
clamshell bucket. This equipment is useful for excavation of soft to
medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground surface.
Figure 3.4: Clamshell
v. Hoe
Hoe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. Hoe is

meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is
stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation
at close range work (see figure 3.5). Hoe can exert high tooth pressures
and hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be
excavated by dragline.
Figure 3.5 Hoe
The excavation equipment is selected depending on the natural of the

material, the distance, to be hauled and the method of disposal. At times the
selection may be made based on the availability also.
3.1.2 Embankment
When it is required to raise line of a highway above the existing ground

level it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may
raised due to any of the following reasons:
i. to keep the sub grade above the high ground water table.
ii. to prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary
water.
iii. to maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the
vertical alignment.
The design elements in highway embankments are:

i. height
ii. fill material
iii. settlements.
iv. stability of foundation, and

v. stability of slopes
a. Height
The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the
highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some
times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is
week.
b. Fill material
Granular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. Silts

and clays are considered less desirable. Organic soils, particularly peat are
unsuitable. The best of the soils available locally is often selected with a view to
keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like
cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.
c. Settlement
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either

due to consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the
fill or due to both. If the embankments foundation consists of compressible soil
with high moisture content, the consolidation can occur due to increase in the
load. The settlement of the fill is generally due to inadequate compaction during
construction, and hence by proper compaction this type of settlement may be
almost eliminated. Whatever be the type of settlement, it is desired that the
settlement is almost complete before the construction of saturated. Foundation
clay, vertical sand drains are sometimes constructed. These are vertical columns
of sand installed in the compressible foundation like marshy soils in order to
decrease drainage path and thus accelerate the rate of consolidation. The
vertical sand columns may be of 30 to 60 cm diameter and 2.5 to 6 meter

spacing, arranged in hexagonal pattern. A horizontal sand blanket, 40 to 60 cm
thick is placed at the top of the drains extending across the entire width of
embankment at its bottom. This helps the water to flow out with ease.
d. Stability Of Foundation
When the embankment foundation consists of weak soil just beneath are
at a certain depth below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider
the stability of the foundation against a failure. This is more essential in the case
of high embankment. The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of
safety is estimated by any of the following approaches.
i. Assuming a certain failure surface such as a circular arc or

any other composite shape and analyzing it with Swedish circular
arc analysis or method of wedges. As the case may be.
ii. Estimating the average shear stress and strength at the
foundation layers by approximate methods and estimating the
factor of safety.
iii. Using theoretical analysis base on elastic theory.
The factor of safety in the case of compressible soil foundation is likely to be

minimum just after the completion of the embankment. Later due to
consolidation of foundation and consequent gain in strength there will be an
increase in the foundation factor of safety. Thus it is evident that in such
compressible foundation soils, the vertical sand drains would be useful also to
increase the rate of gain in strength. By proper design of vertical sand drains, it
is possible to limit the decrease in foundation factor of safety due to the
construction, within the allowable value.
e. Stability Of Slopes
The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the

possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions. Hence the
stability of the slope should be checked or the slope should be designed
providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5. Often much flatter slopes are
preferred in highway embankment due to aesthetic and other reasons.
3.1.3 Construction of embankment
The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin

layers or by hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled-earth method and is
preferred in highway embankments. Each layer is compacted by rolling to a
satisfactory degree or to a desired density before the next layer is placed.
Compaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take advantages
of maximum dry density using a specified compacting effort and equipment. The
thickness of the layers may vary between 10 and 30 cm depending on various
factors such as soils type, equipment, specifications etc.
The practice of dumping the earth without compacting properly and

allowing the fill to get consolidated under weather during few subsequent
seasons should be avoided as the settlement will continue for a very long period.
If pavement is constructed before the settlement of the fill is almost complete, the
pavement is likely to become uneven and also fail later-on. Compaction of soil is
discussed separately in topic Soil Compaction.
ACTIVITY 3A
Lets test your understanding before we continue to

the next input. GOOD LUCK.
3.1 Earth work operation can be divided into two categories. Name the
work by filling in the chart below.
EARTH WORK OPERATION
3.2 Match the excavation equipment listed below with its description.
Then unite the words in the boxes provided.
HOE CLAMSHELL DRAGLINE
POWER SHOVEL BULLDOZER/SCRAPPER
Im used for shallow excavation work Im used primarily to excavate earth of

and for hauling the earth for relatively all classes except rock and to load it
short distances. into wagons.
Im used to excavate soft earth and to

deposit it nearby banks or into
wagons.
Im useful for excavation of soft to Im useful to excavate below natural

medium materials and loose materials surface.
at or below existing ground surface.
3.3 Complete the chart of design elements in highway embankments

below
HEIGHT
DESIGN ELEMENTS
IN HIGHWAY
EMBANKMENTS STABILITY
OF SLOPE
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 3A
3.1
EARTH WORK OPERATION
EXCAVATION EMBANKMENTS
3.2
BULLDOZER/SCRAPPER POWER SHOVEL
Im used for shallow excavation work Im used primarily to excavate earth of

and for hauling the earth for relatively all classes except rock and to load it
short distances. into wagons.
DRAGLINE
Im used to excavate soft earth and to

deposit it nearby banks or into
wagons.
CLAM SHELL HOE
Im useful for excavation of soft to Im useful to excavate below natural

medium materials and loose materials surface.
at or below existing ground surface.
3.3
FILL
HEIGHT MATERIAL
DESIGN ELEMENTS
IN HIGHWAY
EMBANKMENTS STABILITY
OF SLOPE
SETTLEMENTS
STABILITY OF
FOUNDATION
HOW DO YOU FIND THE ACTIVITIES? FUN ARENT

THEY? LETS PROCEED TO THE NEXT INPUT..
3.2 SIDE SLOPE OPERATION
There are two types of side slope in Highway Engineering. Alignments of

highways through hilly and rolling topography result in many cut and fill slopes of
exposed soil. Highway construction until recently has been simply a matter of
location and design. Very little consideration has been given to the possibility of
erosion or sloughing on cut and fill.
3.2.1 CUT SLOPES
There have several types of strata in the soil and rock. When the soil and
the rock are being cut and excavated, the stability of the content will
decrease, meanwhile, the renovating have to be done to get the slope
cutting ready and safe. The safety works are important to prevent
erosion and sloughing. Slope excavation takes place when the original
soil level higher then the level of new road formation to be built.
i. Shallow cutting ii. Deep cutting ( by storey )
Figure 3.1 : Cut slope for equivalent soil strata.
Sand Granular Rock
Figure 3.2: Cut slope for variable soil strata.
Type of soil Cutting depth sloping

Solid rock 1:0.3 1:0.0
Rock 1:0.5 1:1.2
Sand 1:0.5 1:1.0
Sandy soil 05 1:0.8 - 1:1.2
Compact earth 5-10 1:1.0 1:1.2
Sand, loose 5-10 1:1.2 1:1.5
Clay soil 0-10 1:0.8 1:1.2
Clay-stone 5-10 1:1.2 - 1:1.5
Table 3.1: Table for safety slope cutting
3.2.1.1 Problems in cut slope
There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.
a. Landslide
Land slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. It
is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways
to overcome the problem.
i. Prepare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability
iii. Hydro seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.
iv. By using Geofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground
water.
Rock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable
binding ability. If the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and
dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country
to overcome the problems.
i. Build the fencing along the slope areas.

ii. Use a net.
iii. Gabion block.
b. Water Infiltration
Water infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. Storey and soil
drainage system are important. Sub-soil drains are always used to control the
flow of infiltration.
3.2.2 EMBANKMENT SLOPE
Slope embankment takes place when the original soil is under the level of
new road formation to be built. Embankment slope is built by equivalent
or different types of materials depend on soil strata.
1:1.5
1.5 2.0m
1:1.8
1:2.0
ii. Step Slope i. Normally Cut Slope
Figure 3.3: Embankment by equivalent materials
1:0.5
Rock
1:1.0
Sand
1:2.0
Compact earth
Figure 3.4: Embankment by different materials
Tables 3.2: of safety sloping degree in soil banking

Types of material Height ( m ) Slope: Hor. To Ver.
( well graded sand ) 06 1:1.5 1:1.8
6 15 1:1.8 1:2.0
( poorly graded sand ) 0 10 1:1.8 1:2.0
0 10 1:1.5 1:2.0
Rock
10 20 1:1.8 1:2.0
Clay 0-6 1:1.8 1:2.0
3.2.2.1 Problems in slope banking

There are several problems that are related to the embankment slope.
Landslide
There are some ways to overcome the problem.
i. Turfing - Planting the plants for slope protection

ii. Prepare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
iii. Use Geofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of
ground water.
Erosion
Soil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water
run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:
i. Prepare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.

ii. Grow plants to cover the slope surface.
ACTIVITY 3B
Lets test your understanding before we continue to

the next input. GOOD LUCK.
3.4 There are two types of side slope in Highway Engineering. Name the
types by filling in place below.
Two types of slopes?
3.5 Match the two type slope as the answer from question 3.4 with its
description. Write the words in the boxes provided.
Its take place when the Its takes place when the
original soil is under the original soil level
level of new road formation higher then the
to be built. level of new road
formation to be
built.
3.6 Name the problems of the fffembankment slope by filling the chart
below.
Embankment Slope
FEEDBACK TO
ACTIVITY 3B
3.4
The answers are..
Cut Slope
Embankment Slope
3.5
Its take place when the Its takes place when the
original soil is under the original soil level
level of new road formation higher then the
to be built. level of new road
formation to be
Embankment Slope Cut
built.Slope
3.6
Embankment Slope
Landslide Erosion
HOW DO YOU FIND THE ACTIVITIES? FUN ARENT

THEY? LETS PROCEED TO THE NEXT INPUT..
Question 3 - 1
The excavation equipment commonly used in highway projects. Describe
about the machine as listed below.
a. Bulldozer and scraper.
b. Power shovel.
c. Hoe.
Question
Question 3
3 -- 2
2
Describe all the problems in slopes and the solution to overcome the
problem.
Question 3 - 3
There are several factors that contribute to the increase of design. Explain
briefly two factors that contribute to the increment.
Answer 3.1
a. Bull dozer and scraper
Bull dozer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work
and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. Bull dozer is
considered to be versatile machine for many construction projects as it
may be used for clearing site. It can used for opening up pilot roads,
moving earth for short haul distances of about 100m and also in several
other jobs. Scraper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving
equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. However scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
b. Power shovel
Power shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except

rock and to load it into wagons. Power shovels may be mounted on
crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. Figure 1 shows the
operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,
cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can
effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands
and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.
Figure 1: Power Shovel
c. Hoe
Hoe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. Hoe is

meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is
stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation
at close range work (see figure 2). Hoe can exert high tooth pressures and
hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be excavated by
dragline.
Figure 2: Hoe
Answer 3.2
1. Problems in cut slope
There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.

a. Landslide
Land slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. It
is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways
to overcome the problem.
i. Prepare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.

ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability
iii. Hydro seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.
iv. By using Geofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground
water.
Rock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable
binding ability. If the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and
dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country
to overcome the problems.
i. Build the fencing along the slope areas.

ii. Use a net.
iii. Gabion block.
v. Water Infiltration
Water infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. Storey and soil
drainage system are important. Sub-soil drains are always used to control the
flow of infiltration.
2 Problems in slope banking

There are several problems that will be stated in embankment slope.
Landslide
There are some ways to overcome the problem.
iv. Turfing - Planting the plants for slope protection

v. Prepare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
vi. Use Geofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of
ground water.
Erosion
Soil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water
run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:
iii. Prepare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.
iv. Grow plants to cover the slope surface.
Answer 3.3
a. Height
The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the
highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some
times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is
week.
b. Fill material
Granular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. Silts

and clays are considered less desirable. Organic soils, particularly peat are
unsuitable. The best the soils available locally is often selected with a view to
keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like
cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 4
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
UNIT 4
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand basic elements of road construction materials and testing
Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to:-

identify the material used in the road construction.
describe the function of the road materials and testing.
explain the purpose of road materials and testing.
perform the testing material testing.
analyze result of the test.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
INPUT
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Construction materials for roads may be broadly classified into four

categories:
a. Soil
b. Aggregates
c. Bituminous materials
d. Cement
ROAD = SOIL + AGGREGATES + PAVEMENT

MATERIALS
(BITUMENS/CEMENTS)
Aggregate which has been defined as inert mineral fragments and

particles forming the main structure of a mixture such as asphalt, tar-macadam or
concrete is the basic material for road construction. This material which forms the
greater part of the body of the road, bears the main stresses occurring in the
road and resists wear from surface abrasion.
The particles are bound together using bituminous materials and cement
which act as binders and develop a strong structure forming the crust of the road.
As such properties of all these materials are of great importance to the highway
engineers. A knowledge of their characteristics is useful in the design of road
structure.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
4.1 SOILS AND ITS CHARACTERISTIC
The term soil has different meanings and connotations to different

professional groups. From an engineering stand-point the term soil refers to all
the unconsolidated mineral material lying above the bed rock with which and
upon which highways and other structures are constructed. It may contain air,
water, organic matter and other substances which may be dispersed throughout
the minerals particles. The mineral matter is formed by the disintegration or
decomposition of the rocks. The engineering properties and behavior are
generally influenced by changes in moisture content and density or compactness
of the soil. Wide variation in soil types is generally found in nature and hence a
study of their properties becomes essential.
4.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL PARTICLES
Certain characteristics of the soil particles are useful in predicting

the performance and behavior of soils ; namely the grain size, shape,
surface texture, and chemical position. These are briefly discussed here.
4.1.1.1 Grain size.
The size of the soil particles and the distribution of various

sizes throughout a soil mass are important factors that influence
soil properties and performance. A number of grain size
classifications have been proposed by different highway agencies
for convenience in expressing the size characteristics of various
fractions.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
The general characteristics of the various particle size groupings

are as follows:
1. Gravel.
It consists of rock fragments more or less rounded by water

action or abrasion. Quartz which is the hardest rock forming mineral
is usually the principal constituent. Well rounded pebbles and
boulders that have undergone long wear are almost entirely quartz.
Gravels which are angular and rough due to their high resistance to
wear, usually contain rocks such as granite, schist, basalt or
limestone.
2. Course Sand.
It is frequently rounded like gravel with which it may exist in

combination. It generally contains the same minerals.
3. Fine Sand.
Particles are more angular than coarse sand particles

because the film of water that usually surrounds the finer particles
serves as cushion to protect them from abrasion. Silt grains are
usually similar to fine sand and have the same mineral composition.
However, they may be produced by chemical decay rather than by
grinding. Occasionally, silts contain pumice, loess or other
materials foreign to the associated sand. The presence of silt in fine
soil may be detected in the field by the feeling of roughness that it
gives when rubbed between fingers.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
4. Clay.
Clay results almost entirely from chemical weathering and

are often plate like in shape. The structure of moist clays is
considered to be very complicated and has not been fully
understood yet, although attempts have been made by many
Chemists, Physicists, Geologists and Engineers to interpret it in the
various fields of the Lambe has given a very good account of the
structure of clays in his paper entitled The Structure of Inorganic
Soil, presented to the ASCE.
5. Colloids.
These are finer clay particles that remain suspended in

water and do not settle under the force of gravity. When observed
under microscope they are found to be in a state of disorderly
motion. For most of the highway engineering works, coarse grained
materials are preferable. Clayey soils are extremely troublesome
and require specialized treatments and methods of handlings.
Brownian Movement specially silty soils present problems in the
areas susceptible to frost action.
4.1.2 SHAPE OF PARTICLES.
Strength and toughness of the material is indicated to a large extent

by the shape of the particles. For example, gravels found in the river beds
have undergone a large process of wear and are stronger than the flat and
flaky particles.
In the construction of base courses where usually granular material

is recommended, there is little percentage of the clay particles. Here the
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
shape of the bigger stone particles recommended is angular as they are
better resist the tendercy to deformation. Hence many specifications for
base-course require that the mixture of different materials used must
contain a specified percentage of crushed rock particles.
The effect of the shape of particles on the performance of mass

composed mainly of clay-size fraction is not conclusively known. Here the
presence of the free and absorbed moisture, particle ionization presence
of chemicals and density are some of the more important factors.
4.1.3 SURFACE TEXTURE
The surface texture of the large size soil particles greatly influences
their performance in granular soil mixtures. For example, the friction
developed on the grains of wind-blown and beach sands and of crushed
quartz is relatively low since the particles have slicked surfaces and as a
result thereof the mixture that contains large percentage of such materials
offer small resistance to deformation.
Some authorities assert that a rough surface of a freshly crushed

rock is more important than its angularity in developing greater strength in
soil mixture. With small size particles this effect of surface texture
becomes negligible.
4.1.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical composition indirectly affects the behavior of soils since

the presence of certain chemicals influences the water-film that usually
surrounds the particle and hence the bond holding any two particles
mutually together.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
Some complex reactions might develop in the soil mass as a result
of the addition of an additive as a stabilizer in the presence of an
appropriate chemical, resulting in the improvement of structural behavior
of the compacted soil mass.
4.2 EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SOILS
All soil engineers agree that the properties of soils composed largely of
coarse grained materials are primarily controlled by the characteristics of the
particles but for soils composed largely of clays and colloids, the properties are
primarily controlled by the characteristics of the moisture film surrounding the
particles.
The effect of the change in moisture content is reflected in
three ways :
a. The effective diameter of the soil particle
changes with change in the moisture content.
The effect is more prominent in the clay
particles than in the sand particles. INFO
b. The soil particles have the property of
clinging to each other due to the existence of The effect of
increase in moisture
thin tensile forces in water films. These forces
content is to
are due to the surface tension. The force decrease the
strength of soil
exerted by surface tension decreases as the
moisture content increases.
c. The volume of the soil-mass as a whole
changes with the change in the moisture
content at the particle surface. The changes
in volume are more prominent in clays than in
sands and silts.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
4.3 EFFECT OF DENSITY ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS
Dry density of soil is the dry weight per unit volume of the material. The
soil mass consists of dry soil particles and air when in the dry state, and soil
particles, air and water when in the wet state. If the density of soil changes, say
increase, the quantity of soil solids in unit volume increases so that lesser voids
would be left for air and water.
This increase in density and decrease in moisture content would add to

the strength of the soil. The maximum density is achieved at optimum moisture
content which can be determined by any standard test. In addition to the increase
in strength, the rate of water movement through the soil and volume change due
to variation in moisture, subsequent to compaction, register a measurable
decrease. In order to secure these advantages, it has been accepted as a normal
practice to compact the sub grade soils so as to obtain maximum dry density.
4.4 ROAD AGGREGATE

The raw material which is used as road aggregate can be further classified
as :
a. Naturally occurring aggregate :
- Crush Rock Aggregate
- Gravels
- Sand.
b. Artificial Aggregate
- Blast Furnace Slag
Each of the three types mentioned under (a) above is one or the other
form of natural rock. The crushed road aggregate is prepared by quarrying
natural rock from the quarries having suitable road construction material and
crushing it to the required size. The coarse material which results from the
disintegration of natural rocks due to weathering, is carried away by water into
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
the rivers and is deposited as gravel. During transit, the particles are worn out by
attrition and become more or less rounded in shape with smooth surfaces. Sand,
on the other hand, is the final residue of resistant mineral grains resulting from
rock-weathering and has often been through many cycles of deposition and
weathering.
Blast furnace slag is, perhaps, the only artificially prepared aggregate
used in road construction. It is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of
steel.
4.4.1 Crushed Rock
Crushed rock aggregate is produced from different types of rocks.

All rocks are composed of grains or crystals of minerals held together in a
variety of ways. The properties of rocks, therefore are dependent upon the
properties of minerals forming the rocks and the nature of the bond.
Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic are the three major classifications
of these rocks.
The Igneous rocks are further classified into Plutonic Hypabyssal

and Volcanic, according to their mode of formation, the properties of acid
and basic radicals and the chemical constituents of the mineral present. In
the Plutonic variety, the main types are the Granite and Syenite, though
Diorite and Gabbro are also frequently available. They are mainly coarse-
grained varieties being Porphyry, Porphyrite, Dolorite and Diabase. These
rocks very frequently posses intergrown texture and as such are among
the best of the road stones. Basalts and Andersite fall in the Volcanic
category and are fine grained varieties of ignoeus rocks. They are usually
not considered good as road stones.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
All igneous rocks are subject to decomposition and weathering on
exposed surface or along fissures and also internally due to the chemical
instability of their minerals. In fact, these factors require time on geological
scale and so long as the quarried rock is fresh and reasonably sound, it is
unlikely to suffer from decomposition during the life of the road. A rock
which is badly decomposed, discoloured and is friable, should never be
used as road-stone.
The sedimentary rocks are classified as Calcareous, Siliceous and

Agrillaceous. Limestones, Dolomies and Chalk fall under the Calcareous
variety. Only the best varieties of limestones serve as good road-stones,
since they have adequate strength and have excellent adhension to
bituminous binders. Dolomites have the same properties as the lime
stones. Chalk is poor road-stone. Sandstones and quartzite are the main
varieties of the Silsceous sedimentary rocks. Sandstones are used as
road-aggregate though adhension to bitumen is not very good. Quartzite is
quite hard but is liable to be brittle and the adhension to bitumen is rather
poor. The Argillaceous sedimentary rocks have clay-shales and mud-
stones as the main varieties. They are poor roadstones.
Among the third general class of rocks, Hornfels which are formed
by the thermal metamorphism are the best from road-making point of
view. Gneiss and Granulite have the same road-making qualities as the
granites of coarse variety. Slate and Schist are quite unsuitable as road
stones.
4.4.2 Gravels
Gravel may consist entirely of one type of hard rock such as Flint or
Quartzite (silicious sedimentary variety) or may have a wider variety of
rocks of different types and hardnesses. Gravels of softer variety of rocks
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
are generally not available, though at places, limestone gravels also occur
and are used for the construction of roads, where other suitable material is
not available.
In general, the properties of the gravels depend upon the properties

of the rocks from which they are formed. Mixed gravels usually contain, in
addition to the hard varieties, soft particles of chalk, clay lumps, shale or
soft sandstone and, therefore, whenever gravels have to be used in road
construction, they must be tested lest any such materials should form a
high proportion and thus act as a source of weakness.
Sands
Natural sands consist largely of the final residue of resistant mineral

grains resulting from rock weathering and have often been through many
cycles of deposition and weathering. Quartz is the most important mineral
in sands, since this substance is hardly affected by ordinary weathering
agents. Sand occurs sometimes in combination are the larger particles of
sand in such a combination are the chips from gravel itself.
4.4.4 Slag
Slag obtained as a by-product from blast furnaces is extensively

used as road aggregate. It is composed of a number of alumino-silicates
of calcium and magnesium, minerals that are found in some basic igneous
rocks. Owing to the rapid cooling of material, slag becomes a much more
variable material than natural rock. There is tremendous difference in the
grain-size and porosity of exterior and interior of the cooling masses, the
exterior cooling rapidly so as to form an amorphous glass. Slag can
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
become a very good aggregate, if it is manufactured under carefully-
controlled conditions.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
ACTIVITY 4A
WANT TO IMPROVE YOUR UNDERSTANDING? TRY THESE
ACTIVITIES AND GOOD LUCK!!!
4.1 Name four categories of road construction materials.

a.____________________________________
b.____________________________________
c.____________________________________
d.____________________________________
4.2 Write down the short information of soil characteristics in the

chart below.
Grain Size - _____________________

_______________________________
_______________________________
Shape Of Particles - _______________

_______________________________
Soil _______________________________
Characteristics
Surface Texture -_________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Chemical Composition - ___________

_______________________________
_______________________________
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
4.3 There are 10 types of crushed rock aggregate given below and
hidden within the puzzle. You are required to identify the
aggregate and then write down into their categories given in the
table.
GRANITE CALCAREOUS
HORNFELS SCHIST SILICEOUS
GRANULITE SYENITE AGRILLACEOUS
DOLORITE PORPHYRITE
G R A N I T E O U S A Z N X A
R A H M E N S Y E N I T E S G
A H B I L A B G U S A I U V R
N O R S A K M P S D G O J H I
U R E U I O U S F R E W A R L
L N Z I L L P E W R S A Y M L
I F M O H D I K A F A R I B A
T E B I N Y J C M J L D F H C
E L W E H N L M E K L D E G E
H S K O P A D O L O R I T E O
S H Y K C I P J R J U I D H U
P U C H J K T I K L R S D F S
B S C H I S T H M K H V C B E
W H J O P G O L B E G J K B Q
J Q P O R P H Y R I T E L G B
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 4A
Lets Check The Answers!
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
4.1 a. Soil
b. Aggregates
c. Bituminous materials
d. Cement
4.2
Grain Size The size of the soil particles and the distribution of
varies sizes throughout a soil mass are important factors that
influence soil properties and performances.
Shape of Particle Strength and toughness of the material is

indicated to a large extend by shape of the particles.
Surface Texture The surface texture of the large size soil

particles greatly influences their performance in granular soil
mixtures.
Chemical Composition Chemical composition indirectly affects

the behavior of soil since the presence of certain chemicals
influences the water-film that usually surrounds the particles and
hence the bond holding any two particles mutually together
4.3
G R A N I T E O U S A Z N X A
R A H M E N S Y E N I T E S G
A H B I L A B G U S A I U V R
N O R S A K M P S D G O J H I
U R E U I O U S F R E W A R L
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
L N Z I L L P E W R S A Y M L
I F M O H D I K A F A R I B A
T E B I N Y J C M J L D F H C
E L W E H N L M E K L D E G E
H S K O P A D O L O R I T E O
S H Y K C I P J R J U I D H U
P U C H J K T I K L R S D F S
B S C H I S T H M K H V C B E
W H J O P G O L B E G J K B Q
J Q P O R P H Y R I T E L G B
The categories are as follows :
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

Granite Calcareous Hornfels
Syenite Siliceous Granulite
Dolorite Agrillaceous Schist
Porphyrite
Well, hows your performance so far?
Lets continue the adventures of unit 4.
Question
1. The effect of the change in moisture content is reflected in three ways.
Describe two from the three ways that listed.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
a. Gravel.
b. Slag.
Answer
1. The effect of the change in moisture content is reflected in three ways :
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
a. The effective diameter of the soil particle changes with change
in the moisture content. The effect is more prominent in the clay
particles than in the sand particles.
b. The soil particles have the property of clinging to each other due
to the existence of thin tensile forces in water films. These
forces are due to the surface tension. The force exerted by
surface tension decreases as the moisture content increases.
c. The volume of the soil-mass as a whole changes with the
change in the moisture content at the particle surface. The
changes in volume are more prominent in clays than in sands
and silts.
2.
i. Gravels
Gravel may consist entirely of one type of hard rock such as

Flint or Quartzite (silicious sedimentary variety) or may have a
wider variety of rocks of different types and hardnesses. Gravels of
softer variety of rocks are generally not available, though at places,
limestone gravels also occur and are used for the construction of
roads, where other suitable material is not available.
In general, the properties of the gravels depend upon the

properties of the rocks from which they are formed. Mixed gravels
usually contain, in addition to the hard varieties, soft particles of
chalk, clay lumps, shale or soft sandstone and, therefore, whenever
gravels have to be used in road construction, they must be tested
lest any such materials should form a high proportion and thus act
as a source of weakness.
ii. Slag
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
Slag obtained as a by-product from blast furnaces is

extensively used as road aggregate. It is composed of a number of
alumino-silicates of calcium and magnesium, minerals that are
found in some basic igneous rocks. Owing to the rapid cooling of
material, slag becomes a much more variable material than natural
rock. There is tremendous difference in the grain-size and porosity
of exterior and interior of the cooling masses, the exterior cooling
rapidly so as to form an amorphous glass. Slag can become a very
good aggregate, if it is manufactured under carefully controlled
conditions.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
UNIT 5
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand general elements in road construction materials and testing
Specific Objectives

identify the material used in road construction.
describe the function of road materials and testing.
explain the purpose of road materials usage and testing.
perform the material testing.
analyze result of the road materials test.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
INPUT
BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Bituminous materials as described hereafter refer to hydrocarbons of

variable colour, hardness and volatility, sometimes associated with the mineral
matter. Their consistencies at normal temperatures range from something slightly
thicker than water to hard and brittle materials that will shatter under a blow from
a hammer, but even the hardest of them will flow if subjected to long continuous
loading. The non-materials and non-carbonaceous matter is largely soluble in
carbon disulphide (CS2).
5.1 FUNCTIONS OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bituminous materials, usually called binders, when used in combination

with the mineral aggregate have a number of functions to perform. The various
objectives achieved by using a bitumen binder in road construction may be
summed up as follows:
a. It acts as a cushion for the surface material and absorbs the kneading
action of traffic. The abrasive action of the wheels of a vehicle is also
resisted. This enhances the life of the pavement.
b. It seals the surface of the road against ingress of water, provided the
granular material used is dense-graded.
c. It binds the surface particles together and loss of material from the
surface by suction under the body of the moving vehicle, is thus
checked.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
d. If a properly selected bituminous material is used, it resists the action
of weathering agencies, like the wind and the sun and ensures a long
life for the pavement.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
The terms bitumen and asphalt are often confused. They actually refer to
the same material and different agencies use either of the two names. Some
standard definitions, almost universally accepted are given below :
5.2.1 Bituminous or Asphalt.
Mixtures of hydrocarbons of natural or pyrogenous origin, or

combinations of both, frequently accompanied by their non-metallic
derivatives, which may be gasesous, liquid, semi-solid or solid and which
are completely soluble in carbon disulphide.
5.2.2 Liquid Bituminous Materials.
Materials having a penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 50

grams applied for one second, of more than 350.
5.2.3 Semi-solid Bituminous Materials.
Materials having penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 100

grams applied for five seconds, of more than 10 and a penetration at 25oC
(77oF), under a load of 50 grams applied for one second, of not more than
350.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
5.2.4 Solid Bituminous Materials.

grams applied for five seconds of not more than 10.
Emulsions, cut-backs and road oils are liquids, asphalt cements are semi-
solids and powdered asphalts are solids. Tars are both liquids and semi-solids,
depending upon the particular grade.
5.3 SOURCES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS
Bituminous binders (including tars) represent combinations of hydrogen

and carbon. Some of the hydrocarbons used in road construction occur naturally
but most of them are obtained as by products from the manufacture of gas, liquid
fuels, lubricants, coal-gas and coke. Principal sources of bituminous materials for
pavements are given below :
5.3.1 Natural Asphalt.
Crude petroleum sometimes works its way up through cracks in the

earths crust to the surface, where the rays of sun and the wind drive away
the lighter oils, leaving behind a black and plastics material called asphalt.
These materials, which occur naturally, are usually found in combination
with a fairly high percentage of clay or fine sand which they pick up as
they travel up through the cracks. Natural asphalts are sometimes called
native asphalts also.
5.3.2 Rock Asphalt.
Deposits of lime-stone or sand-stone are sometimes found

impregnated with bituminous materials. Such deposits generally form
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
good road construction materials. Experience in United States of America,
France and other foreign countries has shown that road surfaces
constructed with these materials are extremely durable and stable. The
percentage of bituminous material in these stones varies from 4.5 to 18 %.
5.3.3 Petroleum Asphalt.
Most widely used asphaltic or bituminous materials are those which

are derived by the distillation process from crude petroleum. Steam or Air
Distillation is employed for the purpose. Steam distillation produces
excellent asphaltic materials, whereas products obtained by air distillation
usually called blown or oxidized asphalts, find very little use as paving
materials. They are however put to other diversified uses.
5.4 PAVING ASPHALT : CLASSIFICATIONS
The various Paving Asphalt Classifications are:

a. Road oils or Slow-Curing Liquid Asphalts (SC).
b. Cut-Back Asphalt :
Medium Curing Liquid Asphalts (MC)
Rapid-Curing Liquid Asphalts (RC)
c. Asphalt Cements (AC)
d. Emulsified Asphalts.
e. Powdered Asphalts.
5.4.1 Road Oils
Road oils or slow-curing liquid asphalts may be described as the

petroleum distillates from which volatile and light fractions are largely
removed. They may range from liquid road oil having poor binding
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
characteristics to a very viscous material having excellent binding
characteristics and requiring heat to become workable. These oils set very
slowly and are employed where the same consistency of binder is desired
both at the time of processing and after the curing period has elapsed.
They are designated by the letters SC, and range from light liquid SC-0 to
semisolid SC-5 consistencies. It may be noted here that higher the
number following the letters SC, the higher is the asphalt content with a
corresponding decrease in the quantity of fluxing oil. The application
temperatures may range from 500C to 3750F.
5.4.2 Cut-Back Asphalts Medium Curing Type
Medium curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back

asphalt cement with heavier oils like kerosene or light diesel oil. The
addition of these oils increases the fluidity of the asphalt cement. These
oils evaporated slowly when exposed to heat or air. The presence of these
oils makes the asphalt workable at relatively low temperatures, gives it
good wetting properties and ensures a satisfactory coating of the fine-
graded and dusty aggregates. They are designated by the letters MC and
range from light MC-0 to almost semi-solid MC-5. The higher the number,
the higher is the quantity of asphalt in the cut-back. The application
temperature ranges from 500C to 2750F.
5.4.3 Cut-back Asphalt Rapid Curing Type
Rapid curing cut-back asphalts are produced by cutting back

asphalt cement with light oils like naphtha or gasoline. These products are
more volatile than kerosene and diesel oil, and since the distillates
evaporate more rapidly than kerosene. The cutbacks are known as rapid
curing. Lower penetration asphalt-cements are usually mixed with these
oils to prepare rapid-curing cut back asphalt. They are designated by the
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
letters RC and range from RC-0 to RC-5 consistencies. Here also, the
higher the number, the higher is the quantity of asphaltic cement. Rapid
curing products are employed when a quick change from liquid state of
application back to original asphaltic cement is desired.
5.4.5 Asphalt Cements
Asphalt cement is a heavy binder usually used in the hot-process of

preparing asphaltic mixtures. They are the residues left after the
lubricating oils as well as fuel oils have been removed from petroleum.
They are designated by the penetration range or degree of hardness
suitable for the type of construction, climatic conditions volume and nature
of traffic to which the pavement is to be subjected. The actual degree of
penetration is controlled by the amount of fluxing oils permitted to remain
at the end of the process. Steam is used to refine the materials so that the
heavier volatiles can de driven off without much increasing the
temperature. Excessively high temperatures reduce ductility, lower
penetration and cause cracking which results in a less homogeneous
product.
The softest grade commonly employed for paving is of 200-300

penetration and the hardest grade commonly employed for the purpose is
of 30-40 penetration. All asphaltic cements are so viscous that both the
aggregate and the binder must be heated before mixing. Working
temperatures range from 22250F to 3500F.
5.4.6 Emulsified Asphalts
An emulsion is a mixture of two normally immiscible liquids, in this

case, the asphaltic cement and water. They are mixed in the presence of
an emulsifying agent such as resin or soap. The emulsifying agents helps
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
in the mixing of the two materials, resulting in a liquid end-product. The
process of mixing consists in dispersing minute globules of asphalt in
water in the presence of the emulsifier.
An emulsion makes available the asphalt in the liquid form for

application at normal temperatures. Water separates out after coming in
contact with the aggregates. This process is called the breaking of
emulsion. Asphalt cement is, thus, left behind as a binder. These products
are superior with wet aggregates as the water medium carries the asphalt
into intimate contact with the particle surface.
The asphaltic Institute (U.S.A) classified the emulsions as Rapid

Setting (RS), Medium Setting (MS) and Slow Setting (SS), these products
having fast, medium and slow breaking times respectively. They are
suitable for a variety of purposes. They carry an asphalt content of about
55 to 65 percent by weight. Asphaltic cement of 150-200 penetration is
normally employed for preparing these emulsions. Care is needed to
handle these emulsions since due to excessive pressure, heat or cold,
they are liable to break down.
5.4.7 Powdered Asphalt.
Hard solid asphalts with penetration of 10 or less are designated as

powdered asphalts. For use, they are pulverized to a very fine state of
sub-division with 100 % passing No. 10 A.S.T.M. (2mm) sieve and at least
50 % passing No. 100 A.S.T.M (0.15mm) sieve.
Powdered asphalts are usually employed for low cost road

construction in conjunction with a fluxing medium such as SC-2, SC-3 or
SC-4 liquid asphalts. They are also , sometimes, used in the preparation
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
of patented mixes. The principal advantage in using powdered asphalts is
that it is in effect, using asphalt cement in a cold mix.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
ACTIVITY 5
Lets test your understanding with these fun activities
to improve your knowledge

5.1 State down the four (4) functions of bituminous materials in chart below.
It acts___________ It seals__________
________________ ________________
________________ ________________
________________ ________________
Functions Of
Bituminous
Materials
It resists_________ It binds__________
________________ ________________
________________ ________________
________________ ________________
5.2 Give a definitions of the following :

a. Bituminous / Asphalt
b. Liquid Bituminous Materials
c. Semi-solid Bituminous Materials
d. Solid Bituminous Materials
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
5.3 Match these paving asphalt with its their categories.
EMULSION
LIQUID
ASPHALT CEMENT BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
POWDERED ASPHALT
SEMI-SOLID
BITUMINOUS
TARS MATERIALS
SOLID
CUT-BACKS BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
ROAD OILS
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 5
Well, how did you find the activities? Lets
check out the answers!!!

5.1
It acts as a cushion for the surface material and absorbs the kneading
action of traffic.
It seals the surface of the road against ingress of water.
It binds the surface particles together and loss of material from the
surface by suction under the body of moving vehicle.
It resists the action of weathering agencies and ensures a long life for
pavement.
5.2 The definitions are:

a. Bituminous / Asphalt - Mixtures of hydrocarbons of natural or
pyrogenous origin, or combinations of both.
b. Liquid Bituminous Materials - Materials having a penetration at
25oC (77oF) under a load of 50 grams applied for one second, of
more than 350.
c. Semi-solid Bituminous Materials - Materials having penetration
at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 100 grams applied for five seconds,
of more than 10 and a penetration at 25oC (77oF), under a load of
50 grams applied for one second, of not more than 350.
d. Solid Bituminous Materials - Materials having penetration at 25oC
(77oF) under a load of 100 grams applied for five seconds of not
more than 10.
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
5.3
EMULSION
LIQUID
ASPHALT CEMENT BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
POWDERED ASPHALT
SEMI-SOLID
BITUMINOUS
TARS MATERIALS
SOLID
CUT-BACKS BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
ROAD OILS
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
Did you have everything
right? Well, we have
finished unit 4 and to
improve your understanding
proceed to self assessment
on the next page.
BYE - BYE
Question
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
1. Describe the purpose of using a bitumen binder in road
construction.
2. Describe the definition of following aspects: -
i. Liquid Bituminous Materials.
ii. Solid Bituminous Materials
3. State the classification of paving asphalt.
Answer
1. By using a bitumen binder in road construction may be summed up as

follows:
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
a. It acts as a cushion for the surface material and absorbs the
kneading action of traffic. The abrasive action of the wheels of a
vehicle is also resisted. This enhances the life of the pavement
b. It seals the surface of the road against ingress of water,
provided the granular material used is dense-graded.
c. It binds the surface particles together and loss of material from
the surface by suction under the body of the moving vehicle, is
thus checked.
d. If a properly selected bituminous material is used, it resists the
action of weathering agencies, like the wind and the sun and
ensures a long life for the pavement.
2.
1. Liquid Bituminous Materials.
Materials having a penetration at 25oC (77oF) under a load of 50

grams applied for one second, of more than 350.
2. Solid Bituminous Materials.

grams applied for five seconds of not more than 10.
3. The Paving Asphalt classifications are:

a. Road oils or Slow-Curing Liquid Asphalts (SC).
b. Cut-Back Asphalt :
Medium Curing Liquid Asphalts (MC)
Rapid-Curing Liquid Asphalts (RC)
ROADS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS & TESTING
c. Asphalt Cements (AC)
d. Emulsified Asphalts.
e. Powdered Asphalts.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
UNIT 6
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand general items of flexible pavement constructions.
Specific Objectives
identify the structural element of flexible pavement.
describe the functions of each layer in flexible pavement.
explain the process of constructing the flexible pavement.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
INPUT
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT
6.0 INTRODUCTION
The pavement is the hardest layer of the road structure. It does not
include the side walk of the road. Its location is on the ground formation on sub-
grade. It is away of traffic. The nature of the soil is usually not strong enough to
stand the weight of the heavy vehicles and does not have a balanced surface.
That is why the pavement layer should be constructed on original ground surface
so that the force can be divided equally. This is to ensure that road user will have
a save and comfortable journey. There are two types of pavement, namely
Flexible Pavement and Rigid Pavement.
STRUCTURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible pavement is any kind of pavement that is not constructed using

concrete. In Malaysia the pavement is commonly, constructed by using flexible
pavement. Pavements with very low flexural strength and are flexible in their
structural behaviour when under a load are called flexible pavements. The layers
of this type of pavement reflect the deformation of the lower layers that are
beneath the top surface. Thus, if the lower layer is deformed, the surface of the
pavement will also be deformed.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
The structure of the road mainly consists of the following layers.
i. Sub-grade soil or simply sub-grade.
ii. Sub-base.
iii. Road Base.
iv. Surface layer.
Surface layer
Construction Depth
Road Base
Sub-base
Sub-grade is the natural

soil beneath road
figure 6.1
construction
Figure 6.1
6.2 FUNCTIONS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6.2.1 SUB-GRADE
Sub-grade is a layer of natural soil or filled soil, ready to receive the

pavement material over it. Traffic load moving on the surface of the road is
ultimately transferred to the sub-grade through intermediate layer of sub-
base, base and surface layer. For the success full construction of the
road, it is necessary that the soil sub-grade should never be over
stressed. Stress intensity on the sub-grade should not be of the magnitude
that may cause excessive deformation in the sub-grade. It is this reason
that the strength properties of the soil sub-grade should be evaluated. The
pavement design assumes sub-grade strength as the basis for designing
the pavement. If strength properties of the sub-grade are inferior to the
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
expected ones, it is given suitable treatment to impart improvement in its
performance.
There are a number of tests which can be used to measure

strength properties of the soil sub-grade. All these tests are empirical and
are useful in their correlation in the design. Following are some of the
standard tests, used to evaluate the strength properties of the soil.
1. C.B.R test
2. Plate bearing test
3. Triaxial compression test
SUB-BASE
Sub-base is one course that is constructed with quality materials.

This is the lowest layer of pavement that is constructed onto the sub-
grade. The functions of sub-grade:
Support the road base and spreads the force to the sub-grade.
Prepares the drainage using rough materials.
Prepares a cover at any layer that is constructed.
Bears the pressure from heavy vehicles so the sub-grade will not
crack.
Prevent the sub-grade from traffic flow.
BASE
Base or road base is the main course to absorb force from surface
directly and spread the force to the thickest layer. This layer is normally
made from broken stones which may be bounded or unbounded. It is used
to help spread traffic load on large area of sub-grade so that the stress
intensity remains within the capabilities of the sub-grade. Thus undue
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
deformation caused by the consolidation of the sub-grade is prevented.
This layer is evaluated by plate bearing test or stabilometer test.
SURFACE
The surface is the top layer in a pavement. The pavement is

divided into two layers that is Base course and wearing course on the top.
a. Base Course
In resurfacing, this layer is usually known as a binder course. It is
the second layer before the wearing course. The function is to
spread the force from the surface.
b. Wearing Course
The wearing course is the top most layers in a pavement. The
functions of this layer are as follows:
Provides smooth and dense ridding surface.

Takes up wear and tear due to traffic.
Provides water tight surface against filtration of surface
water.
Provides hard surface which can withstand the pressure
exerted by tyres of vehicles.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
ACTIVITY 6A
6.1 Label the layers of the flexible pavement roads given below.
Construction
Depth
6.2 Write down the short notes about the functions of each layer
of the flexible pavement.
SURFACE_________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
ROAD BASE_______________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
SUB BASE_________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
SUB GRADE_______________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
6.3 What are the differences between base course and wearing
course in the surface layer?
SURFACE
LAYER
Base Course Wearing Course

___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 6A
Lets Check The Answer!

6.1
Surface
Road Base Construction

Depth
Sub Base
Sub-grade
6.2
SURFACE is the top layer of the road pavement. It provides a
smooth and dense surface. It provides water tight surfaces
against filtration of surface water.
ROAD BASE is the main course of the road pavement. It

absorbs force from surface directly and spreads the force to
the sub base.
SUB BASE is one course that is constructed to prepare the
drainage from rough materials, and it absorbs forces from road
base directly and spreads the forces to the sub grade.
SUB GRADE is a layer of natural soil. It is ready to receive all

the forces from the surface to the sub base. This is the
important part of the road structure.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6.3 SURFACE
LAYER
Base Course Wearing Course

It is the second layer It provides smooth and
before wearing course. dense riding surface. As
Its function is to a top course, it receives
spreads the force from the traffic forces
the surface to the road directly.
base.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
6.3.1 PREPARATION SUB-GRADE LAYER
Prepare the sub-grade layer, it is done after placing the drainage

system, piping and electric cable. The sub-grade surface will be
compacted levelled and be cut to make camber as in plan. If the material
of the soil did not have a good quality, it will be changed with suitable
material.
Base formation covers with 50-75mm sand layer or quarry dust and
will be compacted with 8-10 tone compactors. This job must be done to
prevent the clay from absorbing into the stone layer of sub-base and
reduce the shear strength of the pavement.
6.3.2 CONSTRUCTION AND COMPACTING THE SUB-BASE
After the sub-base has been prepared with list materials, it will be
placed and constructed into two layers if the thickness is more then
150mm. Every layer will be compacted according to the plan. Sub-base
layer must be compacted carefully with compactor machine. Compactors
with rubber roller can compact 120mm layer in 12 times. Compacting
should start from the side of the road hen slowly towards the middle of the
road in horizontal way. In super-elevated bends compaction machine will
start at the lowest part and slowly towards the higher level. The finished
part not be more than 20mm from the plan.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6.3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD BASE
Before road base is constructed, sub-grade surface and sub-base

must be formed perfectly and compacted enough. The lowest layer and
sub-base must be prepared at least distance of 200m from the base
construction.
The road base in Malaysia is commonly constructed with a material

known as crusher run. This material is place and compacted to on the
surface of the road. The road base must be constructed in two layers of
same thickness. Each layer should not exceed 150mm.
6.3.4 CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD SURFACE
The road surface is constructed with bitumen materials, such as

concrete asphalt, macadam bitumen and so on. The constructed should
be free from dust and waterproof. To construct the surface layer, the base
course must be prepared first. Prime coat is poured onto the road base
surface to be a binder between the road bases and the base course. To
pour the prime coat, the temperature must be according to the
specifications stipulated.
Base course is built on one layer only with a pavers machine. After
this layer is constructed, it is placed before it is compacted. The surface is
checked and corrected if there are any differences.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
The compacting must be done immediately. It should be compacted
from the side towards the middle of the road. It there is a super elevated
bend, then it should be compacted from lower part to higher part. The type
of compactors must be according to the specifications.
Finally wearing course is prepared. Like always, base course

should be cleaned before tack coat is poured. The compacting job is done
the same way as the base course.
BITUMEN HAD BEEN

HOPPER PAVEMENT
LEVELLING
ELEVATION WIRE
CONVERYER
PUT AND FIT
PAVEMENT
BITUMEN
HOPPER
CONVERYER
PLAN
Figure 6.2 : Construct Bitumen Highway Machine
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
ACTIVITY 6

6.4 Complete the chart by filling in the missing stages.
1.________________ 2. Constructing and

_________________ compacting the sub
_________________ base
_________________
4.________________ 3.________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
6.5 Describe briefly the construction of road surface.
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 6
6.4
1. Preparing the sub- 2. Constructing and
grade layer. compacting the sub
base.
4. Constructing the 3. Constructing the

road surface. road base.
6.5
Road surface is constructed with bitumen
materials such as concrete asphalt and
bitumen.
The base course must be prepared first.
Prime coat is poured onto the road base
surface to be a binder between the layers.
The base course is built on one layer only
using the pavers machine.
It is compacted and checked for any problems
that may occur after the process.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Question
1. Describe briefly the functions of flexible pavement by each layer.

2. The road surface is constructed with bitumen material. Describe the road
surface construction include the compaction work.
3. State the functions of wearing course are as follows:
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Answer
1.
SUB-GRADE
Sub-grade is a layer of natural soil or filled soil, ready to receive the

pavement material over it. Traffic load moving on the surface of the road is
ultimately transferred to the sub-grade through intermediate layer of sub-
base, base and surface layer. For the success full construction of the
road, it is necessary that the soil sub-grade should never be over
stressed. Stress intensity on the sub-grade should not be of the magnitude
that may cause excessive deformation in the sub-grade. It is this reason
that the strength properties of the soil sub-grade should be evaluated. The
pavement design assumes sub-grade strength as the basis for designing
the pavement. If strength properties of the sub-grade are inferior to the
expected ones, it is given suitable treatment to impart improvement in its
performance.
There are a number of tests which can be used to measure

strength properties of the soil sub-grade. All these tests are empirical and
are useful in their correlation in the design. Following are some of the
standard tests, used to evaluate the strength properties of the soil.
1. C.B.R test
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
2. Plate bearing test
3. Triaxial compression test
SUB-BASE
Sub-base is one course that is constructed with quality materials.

This is the lowest layer of pavement that is constructed onto the sub-
grade. The functions of sub-grade:
Support the road base and spreads the force to the sub-grade.
Prepares the drainage using rough materials.
Prepares a cover at any layer that is constructed.
Bears the pressure from heavy vehicles so the sub-grade will not
crack.
Prevent the sub-grade from traffic flow.
BASE
Base or road base is the main course to absorb force from surface
directly and spread the force to the thickest layer. This layer is normally
made from broken stones which may be bounded or unbounded. It is used
to help spread traffic load on large area of sub-grade so that the stress
intensity remains within the capabilities of the sub-grade. Thus undue
deformation caused by the consolidation of the sub-grade is prevented.
This layer is evaluated by plate bearing test or stabilometer test.
SURFACE
The surface is the top layer in a pavement. The pavement is

divided into two layers that is Base course and wearing course on the top.
In resurfacing, this layer is usually known as a binder course. It is

the second layer before the wearing course. The function is to spread the
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
force from the surface. The wearing course is the top most layers in a
pavement. The functions of this layer are as follows:

water.
2. The road surface is constructed with bitumen materials, such as

concrete asphalt, macadam bitumen and so on. The constructed
should be free from dust and waterproof. To construct the surface
layer, the base course must be prepared first. Prime coat is poured
onto the road base surface to be a binder between the road bases
and the base course. To pour the prime coat, the temperature must
be according to the specifications stipulated.
Base course is built on one layer only with a pavers machine. After
this layer is constructed, it is placed before it is compacted. The
surface is checked and corrected if there are any differences.
The compacting must be done immediately. It should be compacted

from the side towards the middle of the road. It there is a super
elevated bend, then it should be compacted from lower part to
higher part. The type of compactors must be according to the
specifications.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Finally wearing course is prepared. Like always, base course
should be cleaned before tack coat is poured. The compacting job
is done the same way as the base course.
3. The wearing course is the top most layers in a pavement. The

functions of this layer are as follows:

water.
CONSTRUCTION OF
RIGID/CONCRETE PAVEMENT
UNIT 7
CONSTRUCTION OF RIGID/CONCRETE PAVEMENT
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the general element in constructing rigid/concrete pavement
Specific Objectives
identify the structural element of rigid pavement.
describe the functions of each layer in the rigid pavement.
explain the construction process of the rigid pavement.
CONSTRUCTION OF
INPUT
7.0 INTRODUCTION
Cement concrete roads are very high standard. They are costliest than all
other types of roads. These roads provide excellent riding surface and pleasing
appearance. They are called rigid pavements because they do not allow any
flexibility.
These roads although require initial heavy expenditure but because of

their long span of life, excellent riding surface and negligible maintenance cost,
they prove cheaper than bitumen roads. Moreover engineers have more
confidence in cement concrete material and they also like to construct these
roads.
7.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE ROADS
The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of cement

concrete roads:
Advantages
a. They provide excellent smooth surface for driving.

b. They can deal with very heavy traffic.
CONSTRUCTION OF
c. Considering their life span, maintenance cost etc, cement concrete
roads prove cheaper than bituminous roads.
d. Maintenance cost is negligible.
e. Their life span is very large.
f. Even after their span of life, they can be used as base course and
surfacing can be provided of bituminous materials.
g. Heating of aggregates and cement is not to be done.
h. They provide better visibility.
i. Working with cement concrete is much easier and safer than with
bituminous materials.
j. Cement concrete roads offer comparatively less attractive
resistance.
k. In high class cement concrete roads heavy rollers are not required
for compaction.
l. Handling of cement is easier than bitumen.
m. They perform quite satisfactorily when laid on poor types of sub
grades.
Disadvantages
a. They involve heavy initial investment.

b. Lots of joints are to provide which prove additional places of
weakness.
c. 28 days curing is required after completion before they can be
opened to traffic.
d. It is not possible to adopt stage construction programmed in these
roads.
e. Cement concrete road surface after some time of use becomes
very smooth and slippery.
f. It is a noisy road, as bullock carts or steel tyred vehicles cause lot
of noise while moving on them.
CONSTRUCTION OF
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS
Cement concrete roads can be of following types. Out of all these types,
cement concrete slab roads, are most commonly used, and hence construction
details of this type of road are discussed in this topic.
a. Cement concrete slab pavements

b. Cement grouted macadam pavements
c. Roller concrete layer pavements.
d. Cement-bound macadam sandwich type.
e. Crete-ways.
a. Cement Concrete Slab Pavements.
In this type of cement concrete roads, cement, sand, coarse

aggregate water are premixed in batch mixtures to form cement concrete.
Cement concrete so prepared is spread on the prepared sub grade or sub
base and consolidated with the help of vibrators or tamper and surface
finished smooth.
In this construction, joints at frequent intervals both longitudinally

and transversely are provided to nullify the harmful effects of contraction
and expansion due to variation in temperature and also during setting.
b. Cement Grouted Macadam Pavements.
In this type of construction, Water Bound Macadam layer or

stabilized soil is used as foundation. Existing foundation layer is
reconditioned to correct grade and profile and a loose layer of road metal
CONSTRUCTION OF
or coarse aggregate of 36 to 50 mm size is laid in 125 cm thickness. This
coarse aggregate layer is rolled lightly dry to a compacted thickness of
about 10 cm. Minimum size of coarse aggregate should not be less than
20 mm as sufficient void spaces are to be deliberately left in this rolled
layer.
Cement and sand are taken in ration of about 1:2 and grout is
prepared by adding sufficient quantity of water in it. Cement-sand mix,
having one bag cement, requires about 35 liters water to form a fluid
mortar to be used as grout. The grout so prepared is poured over the
lightly rolled macadam layer and allowed to seep into the voids
deliberately left in the macadam layer.
After grouting, stone chippings of size 5 mm and above, are spread

to smoothen the top finished surface and also to help rolling so that grout
is further helped in the process of penetration. Finished surface is checked
for trueness, camber and profile. The surface is lastly cured as usual.
Longitudinal and transverse joints should be provided at suitable interval.
c. Rolled Concrete Pavement
This construction consists of a lean premix of cement concrete

which is laid on the prepared sub grade of sub base and rolled with light
roller just like Water Bound Macadam Road construction. Rolling
operation should be finished before the final setting time of the cement.
Curing has to be done for 28 days as usual.
d. Cement Bound Macadam Sandwich Type
In this type of construction, Water Bound Macadam existing layer or

stabilized soil base are used as foundation or base. The base layer is
reconditioned by carrying out all sorts of repairs. Now take coarse
CONSTRUCTION OF
aggregate varying in size between 36 mm and 50 mm and spread it on the
prepared base. This layer is rolled dry to get a compacted thickness of
about 5 cm. Cement and sand are taken ratio of 1:2 and a stiff mortar is
made, using appropriate quantity of water (30 liters / cement bags).
This mortar is spread on the rolled surface in about 4 cm thick

layer. Now lay an other layer of coarse aggregate of the same size and
grading as is used below mortar layer, in a loose thickness of about 6 cm.
After spreading the second layer of coarse aggregate over stiff mortar
layer, rolling is done using heavy roller about 12 ton. By rolling, the mortar
layer is squeezed in to the voids of both the layers of coarse aggregate
(one layer above and another below mortar layer) and about 10 cm thick
combined layer developed.
Rolling should be stopped as soon as the mortar works up just to

the surface. After rolling, the surfacing is finished and checked for camber
and profile. Joints are provided at suitable intervals. This type of
construction is superior to the grouted macadam roads. These roads
exhibit rough texture on the surface and hence are useful in hilly areas,
where gradients are steep and other types of roads become slippery and
dangerous for use.
e. Crete-ways
Crete ways are track ways made with the help of cement concrete.
In village roads there is generally bullock cart traffic. It was originally
thought that if only that portion of the road is treated with concrete where
wheels of cart are to move lot of savings can be affected because width of
treatment to be provided shall be very small. In Crete ways, only 60 70
cm wide two parallel concrete strips, at centre to centre spacing of about
1.5 meters are constructed. The space between strips is left untreated or
CONSTRUCTION OF
may be treated with very inferior type of material. Thickness of strip may
vary from 10 15 cm.
Crete ways strips may be pre cast and then laid on the prepared
sub grade or they may be constructed by laying concrete directly at the
site, just in the same way as ordinary cement concrete roads. Crete ways
did not become popular due to following reasons:
a. While crossing, vehicles coming from opposing directions have

so get down crete way strips. Getting down and coming up, the
crete way is very difficult, since space between strips and out
side the strips is soft and bullock carts get entrenched in it.
b. During rainy season, water may be held up in the kutcha portion
between strips. This may affect the foundation of the crete-ways
strips and may result is their subsequent settlement.
c. In dry weather, loose soil from kutcha space is blown off and a
trench type hollow space may be formed in between the strips.
In place of track ways of cement concrete, stone slabs covered with

bitumen surfacing can also be used. Sometimes, in case of city roads,
central part of the road is made from asphalt or bitumen surfacing, for use
of motor traffic, and on both of its sides there may be crete ways for
carrying bullock carts traffic. Such road in which some width is made from
bitumen and remaining from cement concrete, is known as conphalt road.
CONSTRUCTION OF
INPUT
STRUCTURAL PARTS OF CEMENT CONCRETE

ROADS AND CONSTRUCTION
7.3 STRUCTURE OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS
Concrete roads consist of following layers:
Cement concrete
pavement
Sub base course
Sub grade
Figure 8.1
Sub grade is concerned its most important property is not the actual
strength but uniformity of support. Sub base course of concrete road may be
made of Water Bound Macadam, granular material, or stabilized soil. In the case
of Water Bound Macadam base, thickness should be at least 15 cm and any new
layer of sub base should have been under traffic for some days to get properly
compacted.
Construction of cement concrete slab can be done in following two ways:

a. Alternate bay system
b. Continuous construction.
a. Alternate Bay System
CONSTRUCTION OF
In this method of laying concrete, width of the road is divided into

longitudinal strips. The longitudinal strips are further sub-divided into
panels by providing transverse formwork. If the width of the road is just
one lane, full width is adopted as one longitudinal strip, but in the case of
more than one lane width, each lane is adopted as one longitudinal strip.
In short, the road surface is divided into panels. After this cement
concrete is filled in alternative panels or bays both longitudinally and
transversely. Size of the bay may be anything like 4 X 4 m, 3.6 X 4.6 m or
so. After a lapse of about one weak, remaining left out bays are also filled
with cement concrete. The object of adopting alternate bay system of
construction is to allow sufficient time to settle and shrink before adjoining
bays are filled. The method reduces the possibilities of developing
shrinkage base cracks. This system of construction suffers from following
draw backs:
i. A large number of joints are developed which

increase the labour cost and also reduce the smooth
riding qualities of the resulting surface.
ii. During rain, water gets collected in the unfilled bays.
iii. Works are not finished at a stretch but a large length
of the road remains occupied at any moment. If full
width is involved, diversions for traffic will have to be
provided, thus causing difficulties to traffic and
increase in the cost over of all construction.
iv. Fully mechanized construction is not possible.
v. Progress of the work is very slow.
CONSTRUCTION OF
The only advantage of this method of construction is that joints can be
easily constructed. Figure 8.2 shows formation of bays on the surface of the
road. A, B, C bays are filled first and A, B, C bays subsequently after a laps of
about one week.
Longitudinal Joint Transverse Joint
C
A B
C
A B C
Figure 8.2
b. Continuous Construction
In this system of construction, continuous longitudinal strips are

constructed without any break. Width of the strip is generally kept one
lane. This method also helps in marking the traffic lanes after completion,
since longitudinal joints will demarcate the limit of each lane. The
construction joints are provided at the end of the days work. This method
of construction is preferred because of the following reasons:
i. Very few joints will be formed
ii. In case of roads having more than one lane width, no

diversion is required to be constructed. One lane may
CONSTRUCTION OF
be adopted for construction at a time and remaining
lanes may continue to be used by the traffic. Although
traffic will face difficulties but there is no need
diversion.
Slab to be laid
Laid cement concrete

slab
Figure 8.3 plan of continuous system.
7.4 CONSTRUCTION STEPS OF CEMENT CONCRETE SLAB

PAVEMENTS.
Construction of cement concrete pavement involves following stages:
a. Preparation of sub grade.

b. Preparation of sub base.
c. Fixing of farm.
d. Batching of materials and mixing.
e. Carrying and placing concrete.
f. Compaction and finishing.
g. Floating and edging.
h. Belting and edging.
i. Curing.
All these operations have been discussed one by one.
a. Preparation Of Sub Grade
CONSTRUCTION OF
Where formation soil is of very good quality, cement slab may

directly be laid over the prepared sub grade. The top 15 cm layer of the
sub grade should be compacted and checked for trueness by mean of
scratch template. Unevenness of the surface should not exceed 12 mm in
3 m length. Sub grade should be prepared and checked at least two days
in advance of concreting. It is desirable to lay a layer of water proofing
paper then even concrete can be laid directly over the soil sub grade.
Prepared sub grade should complete the following requirements:
i. There should not be any soft patches on the prepared

sub grade.
ii. Sub grade should present the uniform support to the
concrete slab.
iii. Should be properly drained.
iv. Minimum modulus of sub grade reaction obtained with
plate bearing test should be 5.5 kg / cm 2.
v. If water proof paper is to be laid directly over the sub
grade, moistening of sub grade prior to placing of the
concrete over it, is not required. Moistening is
essential in case water proof papers is not used.
b. Preparation Of Sub Grade
When formation soil is very poor quality, or traffic load expected on

the pavement is very heavy, a 15 cm thick sub base layer may be used
over the prepared sub grade before lying of cement concrete slab. The
sub base slab may consist of:
i. One layer of flat brick soling below one layer of Water
Bound Macadam.
CONSTRUCTION OF
ii. Two layers of Water Bound Macadam may consists of
stone, hard rock, dense blast furnace slag, brick
aggregate or any other granular material which is not
likely to soften under action of water.
iii. Well graded soil gravel mixture.
iv. Soil stabilized with 3 4 % lime or cement.
v. Lime concrete or lean concrete giving 28 days
compressive strength in the field as 40 60 kg / cm 2.
vi. Existing macadam sub base.
vii. Existing black top surface sub base.
From i to v, all the points are for new constructions and can be
adopted as per design requirements. But vi and vii points are for existing
sub base and thus have been given in details:
Existing Macadam Sub Base .In case concrete slabs are to be

laid on existing Water Bound Macadam roads, it should be seen that
Water Bound Macadam should extend at least 30 cm beyond the
proposed concrete slab edges. Water Bound Macadam should be at least
15 cm thick. If Water Bound Macadam surface is smaller in width than the
proposed width of the concrete slab up to 30 cm on either side, the extra
width may be developed by placing 10 cm of 1: 4: 8 lean cement concrete.
Black Topped Surface. Where concrete slab is to be laid over

existing black topped surface no special treatment is necessary.
Concrete should not be laid on black topped surfaces having soft spots
caused by excessive bitumen or where thick premixed carpets have been
rutted badly under traffic. In such cases entire surfacing material should
be removed up to the top of compacted macadam and the surface should
be prepared as explained in existing Water Bound Macadam surfaces.
CONSTRUCTION OF
c. Fixing Of Forms.
Forms may be made from mild steel channel sections or wooden

planks. Depth of the forms should be equal to the thickness of the slab to
be provided. Length of the section for side forms is kept at least 3 m
except on curves of less than 45 m radius where shorter lengths Wooden
forms should be dress on one side and should have a minimum base
width of 10 mm for slab thickness of 20 cm and have a minimum base
width of 15 mm for slabs over 20 cm thickness. Deviation of more than 3
mm in a length of 3 m should not occur when forms are filled with
concrete. Sufficient number of stakes or pins should be put at the back of
the form to impart sufficient support to it.
d. Batching Of Materials And Mixing.
Cement is measured in number of bags. If cement stored in silos is

used, its weight is taken as 1440 kg / m 3. Course aggregate and fine
aggregates are batched in weigh batching plant and put into the hopper of
the mixer along with required quantity of cement. Water is measured by
volume. The mixing of each batch should be at least for 1 minutes
counted after all the materials have been put into the mixer.
Channel
Spike of
Needles
A A
PLAN
Prepared Sub-
grade
Section at A-A
CONSTRUCTION OF
e. Carrying And Placing Of Concrete
Prepared premix is carried immediately to the place of actual use

by filling into wheel barrows, hand carts or baskets. While concreting, it
should be ensured that there is on segregation in the concrete. Concrete
put at site is spread uniformly as per requirements of the thickness of the
slab. While being placed, the concrete should be rodded so that the
formations of voids or honey comb pockets are prevented. The concrete
should be particularly well placed and tapped against the forms and along
all the joints.
f. Compaction And Finishing
After having uniformly spread, the concrete is compacted either

with the help of power-driven finishing machine or by vibrating screed. For
constrained areas like corners and junctions, hand compaction can be
done using tampers. Hand tamper is also known as hand tamping beam. It
consists of a wooden beam 10 cm wide and 25 cm depth. Length of the
tamping beam should be equal to the width of the slab plus 30 cm. A steel
plate is fixed at the under side of this beam. Tamper is used by placing it
on the side forms. Tampers are lifted and dropped to affect compaction.
Tamper beam is provided with handles to lift and drop.
g. Floating And Edging
After compaction, with vibrating screed or tamper, the concrete is

further compacted and smoothened by means of longitudinal floats. The
float is worked longitudinally with sawing motion from one edge of the
pavement to the other edge. After this operation, excess water gets
CONSTRUCTION OF
disappeared but while concrete is still plastic; the surface of the slab
should be tested for trueness with the help of 3 m straight edge.
h. Belting and Edging
Just before the concrete becomes non-plastic, the surface should

be belted with the help of a two-ply canvas belt which is usually 20 cm
wide and at least 1 m longer than the width of the slab. The belt is worked
on the surface in transverse direction in short forward and back ward
strokes.
After belting and as soon as surplus water disappears from the

surface, the pavement is given a broomed finish with an approved steel or
fiber broom not less than 45 cm wide. The broom should be pulled gently
over the surface of the pavement from edge with each stroke slightly over
lapping the adjacent one.
After belting and brooming and before the concrete has taken initial
set, the edges of the slab should be carefully finished with an edger of 6
mm radius.
25 CM
ELEVATION
10 CM
PLAN
CONSTRUCTION OF
i. Curing
Immediately after finishing, the entire surface of the newly laid

concrete should be covered against rapid drying with wetted burlap, cotton
or jute mat. Covering operation with wet burlap is known as initial curing.
Burlap curing is carried out for at least two days. After this, wet burlaps are
removed and surface is covered either with damp saturated sand or with
free water. Final curing can also be done by applying an impervious
membrane which does not impart slipperiness to the pavement.
Impervious membrane which is in form of liquid, is applied under pressure,
covering the entire surface uniformly. The liquid may be applied
immediately after finishing of the surface and before the set of the cement
has taken place. If the pavement is first covered with burlap it may be
applied upon removal of the burlap. This method of curing can be adopted
at places where there is scarcity of water.
k. Final Surface Check
This check is done after curing period when curing sand has been
removed from the surface. Undulations in the surface should not exceed 6
mm in length of 3 m.
l. Removing The Forms.
Forms should be removed after a lapse of about 12 hours from

placing of concrete. Forms should be removed carefully avoiding any
damage to the pavement edges.
CONSTRUCTION OF
m. Sealing Of The Joints.
After curing period, and before the pavement is opened to traffic, all
the joints should be cleared of intruded materials and suitable sealing
material put into them.
CONSTRUCTION OF
INPUT
7.5 JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS
Effective system of joints is essential feature in the successful functioning

of the cement concrete roads. Tie bars and dowel bars are provided to maintain
the strength of the pavement at the joints and also to act as load transfer
devices. Joints in cement concrete pavements can be classified under three
headings:
a. Expansion joints
b. Contraction joints
c. Warping or hinged joints
Expansion joints provide space into which pavement can expand. These
joints release compressive stresses developed in the concrete slab. Expansion
joints also relieve stresses caused by construction and warping.
Contraction joints relieve tension developed in the concrete due to

contraction. They prevent formation of irregular cracks contraction joints also
relieve stresses due to warping.
Warping joints relieve stresses due to warping effect develops in the slab.
These joints are commonly used for longitudinal joints dividing the pavement into
lanes. Warping tendencies are set up in the concrete slab due to temperature
difference between top and bottom of the slab. At 12 noon the temperature at the
top surface of the slab will be higher than that at the bottom. This causes top
fibres of the slab to expand by larger amount than the bottom fibres and slab
CONSTRUCTION OF
warps down wards at the edges. Similarly at 12 night, the temperature of the
bottom of the slab is higher than the temperature at the top of the slab and slab
warps upwards at the edges. Weight of the slab tries to prevent this warping of
the slab and thus warping stresses are set up. Intensity of warping stress is
maximum at the interior and minimum at the edges.
Joints in concrete slab pavement can also be classified according to their

direction in relation to the road alignment. Joints constructed in the direction,
perpendicular to the alignment of the road are termed as transverse joints. Joints
constructed in the direction of alignment known as longitudinal joints.
a. Tranverse Joints
Arrangements of tranverse joints may be staggered, square or

skew. All these arrangements are shown in figure below. Out of these
arrangements, square arrangement is the best.
Dowel Bars Expansion Joints
Tie Bars
Contraction Joints
Figure : Square System Of Joints
CONSTRUCTION OF
Dowel Bars Staggered Transverse Joints
Longitudinal Joints
Cracks
Figure : Staggered System Of Joints
Skew Joints
Cracks
Tie Bars
Figure : Skew System Of Joints
In case of staggered arrangement, it is seen that cracks known as

sympathetic cracks are developed in the adjoining longitudinal strip just in front of
transverse joints already provided skew arrangement should not be adopted
because in this case acute corners generally get crushed away. Transverse
joints can be further classified as follows:
i. expansion joints
ii. contraction joints
iii. warping joints
iv. construction joints
CONSTRUCTION OF
b. Longitudinal Joints.
Spacing of longtudinal joints are determined by the lane widths. If

during consruction of the slab, hand tamping or vibrating hand screeds
have been used, the spacing should be limited to 4 m. Where machines
have been used for all the process involved in concreting and at the time,
more than 6 m width is being laid, an intermediate longitudinal joints
should be provided either by sawing a dummy joint or inserting a mild
steel T-iron to the depth varying from 1/3 to 1/6 of the depth of the slab.
These joints may be plain butt type or butt with tie bars in them. Tie bars
should be bonded in the slabs across longitudinal joints and whilst casting
the first slabs thay may be bent so that one end of them lies along the
forms. After removal of the forms, bars should be straightened so that they
may extend into the concrete placed on the other side of the joint.
Tongued and grooved joints are also sometimes used as the longotidinal
joints.
7.6 JOINT FILLERS AND SEALERS
Joints are place where continuity of the concrete slabs is broken. These
joints if not filled with proper material and allowed to remain open, grit may be
filled in them and subsequently during hot day, the slab may be pushed apart
due to expansion in the slab. Expansion not being allow at the joint due to muck
filled in it. During rains, water will infiltrate through joints into the soil sub grade
thus damaging it. This also results in mud pumping, specially where sub-grade is
made of expensive soils.
Due to above mentioned difficulties; the joints must be filled with such a
material which is compressible, elastic and durable. A material, which is used for
filling the joints, is known as fillers. Some depth at the top of the joints is filled
CONSTRUCTION OF
with a material which could seal the joints completely against the entrance of
water. The material which is used for sealing the joint is known as sealer.
Essential properties for fillers are elasticity, compressibility and durability,

where as for sealers adhesion with cement concrete, ductility, resistance to
ingress of dust and durability are the desirable properties.
Material most commonly used as fillers are:
a. cork or cork bound with bitumen

b. soft wood
c. impregnated fibre boards
The recommendations has been made that filler is considered satisfactory

which can be compressed to 50 % of its original thickness by applying a pressure
varying between 7 to 53 kg/cm2 and material should recover at least 70 % of
original thickness after three cycles of applying and removing the load. Also
when compressed to 50 % thickness, the free edge of the filler should not
extrude by more than 6.5 mm, when all other three edges are restrained.
Bitumen either alone or with mineral filler is mostly used as a sealing

compound. Rubber bitumen compound, air blown bitumens etc. can also be
used.
CONSTRUCTION OF
7.7 FUNCTIONING OF FILLERS AND SEALERS
Sealer
1. Figure shows the positions of
the filler and sealer at normal
temperature.
Joint Filler Sealer
Oughing Out
2. During hot day, pavement

expands due to rise in
temperature and the open gap
gets reduced. In this condition,
filler gets compressed and
sealer compound may spill out
of joint.
Sealer
Broken
3. During cold night, the edges of
the pavements move back due
to contraction and open gap will
formed.
Similarly, due to increase gap, sealing film will become thin. If sealer
material is extensible, it will maintain continuity and if its elongation capacity is
poor, it may crack as shown above. So, if defective materials have been used as
fillers and sealers, the difficulty shown above may arise and render the joint
permeable, through which water or other foreign matter may enter the gap and
may affect sub-grade or displace the slabs.
CONSTRUCTION OF
ACTIVITY 7

INPUT
Question
1. State three types of cement concrete roads.

a. _____________________________
b. _____________________________
c. _____________________________
2. State the stages of cement concrete pavement construction.
CONSTRUCTION OF
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 7
Answer
1.
i. Cement concrete slab pavements
ii. Cement grouted macadam pavements
iii. Roller concrete layer pavements.
2. Construction of cement concrete pavement involves following

stages:
a. Preparation of sub grade.

b. Preparation of sub base.
c. Fixing of farm.
d. Batching of materials and mixing.
e. Carrying and placing concrete.
f. Compaction and finishing.
g. Floating and edging.
h. Belting and edging.
i. Curing.
CONSTRUCTION OF
Question
1. Joints in cement concrete pavements can be classified into three

categories. Describes them.
2. Describe the preparation of sub-on a good soil formation
CONSTRUCTION OF
Answer
1. Expansion joints provide space into which pavement can expand.

These joints release compressive stresses developed in the
concrete slab. Expansion joints also relieve stresses caused by
construction and warping.
Contraction joints relieve tension developed in the concrete due to

contraction. They prevent formation of irregular cracks contraction
joints also relieve stresses due to warping.
Warping joints relieve stresses due to warping effect develops in

the slab. These joints are commonly used for longitudinal joints
dividing the pavement into lanes. Warping tendencies are set up in
the concrete slab due to temperature difference between top and
bottom of the slab. At 12 noon the temperature at the top surface of
the slab will be higher than that at the bottom. This causes top
fibres of the slab to expand by larger amount than the bottom fibres
and slab warps down wards at the edges. Similarly at 12 night, the
temperature of the bottom of the slab is higher than the
temperature at the top of the slab and slab warps upwards at the
edges. Weight of the slab tries to prevent this warping of the slab
and thus warping stresses are set up. Intensity of warping stress is
maximum at the interior and minimum at the edges.
2. Preparation Of Sub Grade
CONSTRUCTION OF
Where formation soil is of very good quality, cement slab may

directly be laid over the prepared sub grade. The top 15 cm layer of
the sub grade should be compacted and checked for trueness by
mean of scratch template. Unevenness of the surface should not
exceed 12 mm in 3 m length. Sub grade should be prepared and
checked at least two days in advance of concreting. It is desirable
to lay a layer of water proofing paper then even concrete can be
laid directly over the soil sub grade. Prepared sub grade should
complete the following requirements:
i. There should not be any soft patches on the prepared

sub grade.
ii. Sub grade should present the uniform support to the
concrete slab.
vi. Should be properly drained.
vii. Minimum modulus of sub grade reaction obtained with
plate bearing test should be 5.5 kg / cm 2.
viii. If waterproof paper is to be laid directly over the sub
grade, moistening of sub grade prior to placing of the
concrete over it, is not required. Moistening is
essential in case waterproof papers are not used.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
UNIT 8
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the basic highway drainage system.
Specific Objectives
state the types of drainage.

identify the drainages location and its functions.
describe the differences between surface drainage and sub-soil drain
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INPUT
8.0 INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and

removal of water from over, under and the vicinity of the road surface. Road
drainage is very important for safe and efficient design of the road way and
hence is an essential part of highway design and construction.
A part of rainwater falling on road surface and adjoining area is lost by

evaporation and percolation. The remaining water known as surface water, either
remains on the surface of the road and adjoining area, or flows away from it,
depending upon the topography and general slope of the area. Removal and
diversion of this surface water from highway and adjoining land is known as
surface drainage.
Due to percolation, if water table does not rise near of the road sub-grade,
it does not create any problem as it does not affect the road sub-grade. If water
table rises to the vicinity of road sub-grade, it requires to be lowered as it will
definitely affect road sub-grade. Measures adopted to lower the subsoil water
table are called sub surface drainage.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Some of the retained water which cannot be drained off by normal

methods of drainage is called held water and special measures have to be taken
either to drain it off or keep it low so that it may not affect the road sub-grade.
8.1 EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DRAINAGE
One of the major causes of road failure is its improper drainage. Improper
drainage of the road causes destruction in the following ways:
a. Road surface if made of soil, gravel or water bound

macadam, it will becomes soft and losses strength.
b. The road sub-grade may be softened and its bearing
capacity reduced.
c. Variation in moisture content in expensive soils, causes
variation in the volume of sub-grade and thus causes failure
of roads.
d. Failure of formation slopes is also attributed to poor
drainage.
e. If rain water is not properly drained and allowed to flow along
the road side for long distances, slip and land slides may
occur causing road failures.
f. Erosion of side slopes, side drains, formation of gullies may
result if proper drainage conditions are not maintained.
g. Flexible pavements failure by formation of waves and
corrugations is due to poor drainage.
h. Continuous contact of water, with bituminous pavements
causes failures due to stripping of bitumen from aggregates
like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminuos
pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
i. Rigid pavements prime cause of failure in by mud pumping
which occures due to water in fine sub-grade soil.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
j. Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus

increase in stress and simultaneous reduction in strength of
the soil mass. This main reason of failure of earth slopes and
embankment foundation.
k. Erosion of soil from the top of un-surfaced roads and
embankment slopes in also due to surface water.
8.2 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
a. Surface water should not be allowed to remain standing on

the road pavement and shoulders. Measures should be
taken to drains off this water, immediately.
b. The surface rain water from the adjoining area, should not be
allowed to come towards the road surface. For this, general
slope of the ground adjoining road, should be made slopping
away from the road. This objective can be achieved by
aligning road on ridge.
c. Side drains should be of sufficient capacity and having sufficient
longitudinal slope so that it may drain of all the collected
surface water, efficiently.
d. Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not
develop cross ruts or erosions on road surface and
shoulders. For this, high embankment slopes should be
protected either by turfing or pitching.
e. Seepage water and other capillary waters should be drained off
by suitable underground drainage system.
f. Maximum level of under ground water table should be
maintained well below the sub-grade level of the road. Under
ground water table should remain at least 1 m to 2 m below
the road sub-grade.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
g. In water logged areas, special measures should be taken to

keep down the harmful salts.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INPUT
SURFACE DRAINAGE
8.3 INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE DRAINAGE
The problem of surface drainage is first tackled at the location survey

stage. An ideal location for a highway from drainage point of view is along the
divides between large drainage areas. All the streams would then flow away from
the highway and the drainage problem would be reduced to tackling the water
that falls within the roadway boundary only.
Except in hilly areas, where easy gradients are available along the main
streams, location of a highway along the streams involves construction of a large
number of drainage structures at immense cost, which, if possible should be
carefully avoided. Construction of high embankments involves erosion problems
which require careful handling. This fact may also be taken into account while
locating a highway. Drainage is, thus one of the essential considerations for the
location of a highway.
8.4 SIDE DITCHES FOR SURFACE DRAINAGE
Side ditches are used along the roadway in cuts and on ground that is
fairly level and sometimes adjacent to embankments to prevent road water from
flowing over cultivated or otherwise improved land. These ditches are usually V-
shaped or trapezoidal, the former being generally preferred. However, the
trapezoidal ditches have a higher capacity.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
The quantity of water to be carried by a side ditch along a highway is the

run-off from the area contributing there to. Primarily this water comes from the
portion of the road between the ditches and from shoulders flanking the roadway
surface. As a broad principle, it may be accepted that for storms of short duration
say of less than 15 minutes, about 75% of the water and that for storms
exceeding 15 minutes duration, all the water that falls on this area would run to
the ditches. Some more water might also reach the ditches from the adjoining
lands sloping towards the roadway. Rate of run-off of water from these lands
would depend upon the type of soil, type of vegetation and the slope of the land.
All these items should be carefully studied before arriving at the Design
Discharge. For practical purposes, it may be assumed that for storms lasting 40
minutes or more a portion of water that falls on the adjoining lands also comes to
the ditches. The design of cross section whether V-shaped or trapezoidal should
be based upon these considerations.
Side-ditches should preferably be lined if financially feasible. The paving

may consist of rubble masonry work, which is either laid dry or the joints filled
with grout. The stones should be 15 to 20 cm deep and at least 5 cm wide for the
purpose. This may be under-laid with a 10 cm layer of crushed rock or gravel, the
particles of which may range in size from 10 to 20 mm. A typical section of such
a ditch is shown in figure below.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
0.3
to 0.6
to Shoulder
0.45m Slope
1.0m
45 to 60 cm
15 to 20 cm Stones laid dry or joint

grouted over 10 cm thick layer of
crushed rock gravel
Figure 6.1 : Section of a typical V-shaped side ditch
8.5 INTERCEPTING DRAINS
Intercepting drains are used on natural slopes to prevent erosion of the

cut-slopes in the hilly areas. They are sometimes also used to relieve the side
ditches of greater discharge than the one for which they are designed. The water
from the intercepting drain is carried down to the side ditch at specified points
along spillways. Typical intercepting drain are shown as figure below.
Intercepting Ditch
Figure 6.2 : Cross section of intercepting ditch
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
8.6 DITCH CHECKS
The primary function of a road side drainage ditch is to remove the surface
water efficiently. The ditch, therefore, should have adequate capacity to carry the
peak rate of run-off throughout the life of the roadway. This means that ditch
should maintain its originally designed cross-section and should neither erode
nor silt up. For this purpose, the slopes of the ditches are kept mild to protect the
ditch against erosion grass may be grown in it.
In hilly or rolling areas, the longitudinal slopes along the ditches

sometimes are large which induce high velocities causing erosion of the bed and
the sides of the ditches. In order, therefore, are used to restrict the slopes. A
ditch check is a solid barrier across the ditch with a fall of 25 to 30 cm. Water
runs in the section between two consecutive ditch checks along a mild slope and
then drops through this fall. The spacing of the ditch checks depends upon the
general gradient of the ditch, the intervening gradient and the vertical drop
available at the structure.
4.7 KERBS AND GUTTERS
Kerbs and gutters are essential for the city streets to drain off the water
quickly and to maintain the cleanliness required. Usually, a kerb and gutter
combination is employed for the purpose. It is cast in concrete as one piece
though kerb and gutter combinations cut from stones are also employed for the
purpose.
Concrete should have a compressive strength of about 80 kg/cm2 at 7

days and about 200 kg/cm2 at 28 days. The essential requirement of the stones
from which the kerb and gutter combinations are cut is that they should be free
from any laminations. Granite or any other hard stone may be used.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
The kerb and gutter combination are fixed at the edge of the roadway and
gullies are placed at suitable intervals. The gutters slope towards gully from both
sides and a longitudinal gradient of 1 in 100 to 1 in 120 is given to these. The
water from the gutter flows through the grating into the gully and is drained off
through an outlet pipe to a water sewer, which takes the water away to a natural
water channel.
The arrangement is of the type shown in figure 6.3. Sometimes V-shaped

shallow concrete gutters are used for concrete or other high type of pavements.
The shape is shown in figure 6.4. Such gutters do not create any traffic hazard.
Sometimes, separate kerb and gutters are employed for draining off water from
the city streets. Such as arrangement is shown in figure 6.5 below.
8 cm Road 8 cm Road
Surface Surface
10
3 cm cm
22.5
cm
53 cm 53 cm
SECTION AT MID POINT BETWEEN SECTION OF CHANNEL AT SUMMIT
SUMMIT AND GULYY
8 cm Road
Surface
45 cm
Outlet
Pipe
14 cm
27 cm
SECTION AT GULLY
Figure 6.3 : The arrangement of side surface drainage
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
SLOPE: 1 IN 12
4 cm
20 cm
16 cm
15 cm
60 cm
Figure 6.4 : Section of a shallow concrete gutter
Pavement Surface
10 cm
30 cm
30 cm
8 cm
Figure 6.5 : Section of a kerb and gutter as separate

units.
4.8 PIPE DRAINS
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Pipe drains as water sewers are widely used for removing surface water
and are sometimes desirable for carrying the water along roadways when
sufficient widths of right-of-way are not available for suitable ditch construction.
Vitrified clay sewer pipes and concrete sewer pipes are the most suitable.
Sewers properly designed and constructed in brick masonry are also used for the
purpose. In soils where settlement may occur, corrugated metal pipe is used. All
sections of corrugated metal pipe are connected with metallic bands.
4.9 INLETS, CATCH BASINS AND MANHOLES
Inlets are the openings from gutters or ditches into pipe drains or culverts
and are of various types. Along a rural highway, it may simply be a V-shaped or
straight concrete headwall with or without a paved approach. Drop inlets are
used where water has to be discharged into a drain or a culvert at a lower level.
Catch basins and manholes are usually of circular shape and are
generally connected to the drop inlets of pipe drains. They are spaced 150 to 300
meters apart depending upon the individual design requirement and are meant
for inspection.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INPUT
SUB - SURFACE DRAINAGE
4.10 INTRODUCTION TO SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
Stability and strength of the road surface depends upon the strength of the
sub grade. Sub-grade is the foundation layer of the road whose strength largely
depends upon its moisture content. With increase in moisture content, the
strength of the sub-grade decreases.
Variations in moisture content of sub-grade are caused by following:
a. See page of water from higher adjoining ground.

b. Penetration of moisture through the pavement.
c. Percolation of water from shoulders, pavement edges and soil
formation slopes.
d. Rise or fall of underground water table.
e. Capillary rise of moisture in case of retentive type of soils.
f. Transfer of moisture vapour through soil.
The first three methods of entrance of moisture are concerned with free
water, and last three methods are connected with ground water. In the case of
sub-surface drainage of the roads, every effort should be made to reduce the
change or variation in moisture content to minimum. It is better if sub-grade is
always kept dry, but in rainy season, some change in moisture content if sub-
grade is inevitable. It should be remembered that by provision of sub-soil
drainage, only gravitational water can be drained off, vapour water and cappillary
water cannot de drained by this system.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
4.11 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
If underground water table is more than 1.5 m below the sub-grade of the
road, it does not require any sub soil drainage. But if it is closer than this, the
best remedy is to raise the road formation to such a height that sub grade
remains at least 1.2 m above the highest water table. But if due to other
consideration, it is not possible to increase the height of formation, and sub-
grade soil being drainable, deep side trenches should be constructed on both
sides of the road to lower the water table. These trenches are provided with drain
pipes and filled at the top by filter sand. The depth of trenches depends upon
amount of lowering of water table, lateral distance between trenches and type of
sub-grade soil.
If the sub-grade soil is of retentive type, only side trench drains may not
prove adequate, as at the centre of the pavement lowering of water table may not
take place up to the desired level. In that case, transverse drains may have to be
provided at suitable intervals along with the side longitudinal drains. Transverse
drains may be pipe drains or trapezoidal trench drains filled with stone or rubble.
Stone or rubble filled transverse drains are also called french or blind drains.
Transverse drains collect percolating water from the width of the pavement and
discharge it into the side drains. Transverse pipe drains are given a little slope
towards the side drains. The filter material surrounds the transverse trenches and
the top of these trenches is filled with graded rubble, the bigger size rubble being
nearer the pipe.
The diameter of the lateral pipe drain may be 10 cm and that of

longitudinal pipe drain 20 cm or even more according to the requirements. The
cross drains are placed staggered in plan, in the herringbone fashion.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
4.12 CONTROL ON SEE PAGE FLOW
Where surface of the ground and impervious embedded below it are

sloping towards the road, the seepage flow is likely to reach road sub-grade and
affect its strength characteristics. If the see page level reaches a depth less than
60 cm to 90 cm from the road sub-grade, it should be intercepted to keep
seepage line at a safe depth below road sub-grade. See figure 6.6 below.
Sloping Ground
Pavement
Clay seal
Zone of Original
Filter Material
seepage flow Seepage
Flow
Lowered Seepage
Line Perforated Drain Pipe

Impervious Sloping Straum
Figure 6.6 : Lowering of water table in case of sloping ground
4.13 CONTROL ON CAPILLARY RISE
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
If capillary rising water in very near to sub-grade of the road and is likely to
affect its strength, steps should be taken to arrest the capillary rise of water. In
the case of seepage, arresting of capillary rise is more useful than lowering the
water table. In fact lowering of under ground water table is only economical
method when sub-grade soil is of permeable type. In case of sub-grade having
retentive type of soil, drainage is very difficult and costly and checking its rise by
capillary cut-offs proves more economical.
Capillary cut-offs can be of three types as follows:

a. Provision of a granular layer of suitable thickness or of sand
blanket.
b. Provision of impermeable layer of bituminous material.
c. Heavy duty tar felt, polythene envelop, are the other
measures which can be adopted.
During the construction of embankment, a granular layer of suitable

thickness is inserted between the sub-grade and highest level of water table.
Thickness of granular layer should be such that capillary rise of water remains
within this layer. If this layer is too thin, it is likely that capillary rising water may
rise above this layer and affect the road sub-grade. Refer to figure 6.7 and 6.8.
Granular
Material
Capillary Rise
Highest Waterhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
Table
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Figure 6.7 : Prevention of a capillary rise

( Using Granular Material )
Impermeable
Layer
Capillary Rise
Highest Water Table
Figure 6.8 : Prevention of a capillary rise

( Using Impermeable Method )
In second method, in place of granular layer, an impermeable layer

generally of bituminous material is inserted to arrest the capillary rise. 50%
straight rum bitumen 80/100 grade with 50% diesel oil at the rate 1kg/m2 is used
for this layer.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INPUT
CROSS DRAINAGE
4.14 CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
When a stream or river happens to cross the road alignment, facilities for
cross drainage has to be provided. When road alignment gets away from the
ridge line, the rain water on the area incircled by ridge and road alignment has to
be passed from one side of the road to the other lower side. At the point of
crossing, mansory structure known as cross drainage work or drainage structure
has to be constructed.
The commonly used cross drainage structure are the culverts and small
bridges. When linear water way between the inside faces of abutments of a
drainage structure is less than 6m, it is called a culvert. When linear water way
exceeds 3m, the cross drainage work is called a bridge. Thus culvert is just a
small bridge. Across small streams, culverts are constructed but in case of large
streams or rivers, bridges are constructed.
Slab culvert, Boc culvert, Arch culvert and Pipe culvert are the usual types
of culverts most commonly used for cross drainage works.
a. Pipe Culverts
When the stream carries low discharge and is having high

embankment, pipe culverts are considered more suitable. Pipe is laid
slightly inclined. For ease in inspection minimum diameter of pipe
should be 75 cm. There should be at least 90 cm cover of soil so that
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
traffic load transmitted on pipe is of small intensity and also without

vibrations.
Pipes may be made of stone ware, concrete, etc. Pipes should be laid
on 15 cm cement concrete bedding. A protective rubble apron should
be provided in sandy or clay beds.
Road Surface
Figure 6.9 : Pipe Culverts
b. Slab Culvert
These culverts have masonry abutments with stone slab over them. In
localities where stone is easily available, these culvert are mostly used.
These culverts are mostly used up to about 2 m span. Where stone
patties are not available, Rein-concrete slabs are used. Rein-concrete
slabs are designed as simply supported slabs. Span of rein-concrete
slab may be about 3 m.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Bed Pitching
Figure 6.10 : Slab Culvert

c. Box Culvert
These culverts are constructed where the nature of the soil below the
foundation is not suitable for individual footing under piers and
abutments. It is a monolithic rectangular drainage structure. The size of
the rectangular passage should not be less than 60cm X 60 cm for
easy cleaning of debris. Short span box cilverts can be precast.
Figure 6.11 : Box Culvert
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
d. Arch Culvert
This culvert is preferred under the conditions where high fillings are
envolved and there are heavier loadings on the culvert. Arches may be
built from brick, or stone masonry, or plain cement concrete. Span of
each arch should be kept less than 3 m.
Road Surface
Arch
Abutment
Bed Pitching
Figure 6.12 : Arch Culvert
Selection of culvert to be used is done on the basis of availability of

construction materials and economic considerations.
ACTIVITY 8
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

INPUT
Question
1. State the type of culvert that are used for cross

drainage system.
i. ___________________________
ii. ___________________________
iii. ___________________________
2. Describe about kerb and gutter that are used for
surface drainage.
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 8
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Answer
1. Slab culvert, Box culvert, Arch culvert and Pipe culvert are the
usual types of culverts most commonly used for cross drainage
works.
2. Kerbs and gutters are essential for the city streets to drain off the
water quickly and to maintain the cleanliness required. Usually, a
kerb and gutter combination is employed for the purpose. It is cast
in concrete as one piece though kerb and gutter combinations cut
from stones are also employed for the purpose.
Concrete should have a compressive strength of about 80 kg/cm2

at 7 days and about 200 kg/cm2 at 28 days. The essential
requirement of the stones from which the kerb and gutter
combinations are cut is that they should be free from any
laminations. Granite or any other hard stone may be used.
The kerb and gutter combination are fixed at the edge of the
roadway and gullies are placed at suitable intervals. The gutters
slope towards gully from both sides and a longitudinal gradient of 1
in 100 to 1 in 120 is given to these. The water from the gutter flows
through the grating into the gully and is drained off through an
outlet pipe to a water sewer, which takes the water away to a
natural water channel.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Question
1. What are the requirements for highway drainage? Describe the
entire requirement.
2. Draw and describe the following aspects: -
a. Box culvert.
b. Arch culvert
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Answer
1. Highway Drainage Requirements
a. Surface water should not be allowed to remain standing on

the road pavement and shoulders. Measures should be
taken to drains off this water, immediately.
b. The surface rain water from the adjoining area, should not
be allowed to come towards the road surface. For this,
general slope of the ground adjoining road, should be made
slopping away from the road. This objective can be achieved
by aligning road on ridge.
c. Side drains should be of sufficient capacity and having
sufficient longitudinal slope so that it may drain of all the
collected surface water, efficiently.
c. Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not
develop cross ruts or erosions on road surface and
shoulders. For this, high embankment slopes should be
protected either by turfing or pitching.
d. Seepage water and other capillary waters should be drained
off by suitable underground drainage system.
e. Maximum level of under ground water table should be
maintained well below the sub-grade level of the road. Under
ground water table should remain at least 1 m to 2 m below
the road sub-grade.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
f. In water logged areas, special measures should be taken to

keep down the harmful salts.
2. Box Culvert
These culverts are constructed where the nature of the soil below the
foundation is not suitable for individual footing under piers and
abutments. It is a monolithic rectangular drainage structure. The size of
the rectangular passage should not be less than 60cm X 60 cm for
easy cleaning of debris. Short span box cilverts can be precast.
Figure 6.11 : Box Culvert
Arch Culvert
This culvert is preferred under the conditions where high fillings are
envolved and there are heavier loadings on the culvert. Arches may be
built from brick, or stone masonry, or plain cement concrete. Span of
each arch should be kept less than 3 m.
Road Surface
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Arch
Abutment
Bed Pitching
Figure 6.12 : Arch Culvert
Selection of culvert to be used is done on the basis of availability of

construction materials and economic considerations.
Traffic Control Devices and Road
Furniture
UNIT 9
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AND

ROAD FURNITURE
( Part 1 )
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the general information of traffic control device and road furniture.
Specific Objectives

state the type of traffic control devices..
identify the meaning of the symbol and color is used.
describe the characteristic of traffic devices.
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INPUT
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

TRAFFIC SIGN & ROAD MARK
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Before highway is opened to traffic, careful thought must be given to

conveying to drivers information concerning its proper use. Such information is
given traffic control devices.
Engineer must also recognize that despite their best efforts to promote
well-designed traffic control systems, vehicles will occasionally go out of
control and possibly crash. Every effort must be made to prevent traffic
accident from occurring and, failing that, to minimize the injuries and
economic losses from those crashes that do occur.
Street and highway traffic constitutes a variety of road users desirous of

moving at different speeds. This demand for moving according to individual
desire leads to resistance to movement by others thereby creating accident
hazards particularly in areas where there is no provision for segregation of traffic
of different types or where directions of movement conflict with one another. To
avoid this situation become worst, traffic control devices are needed to decrease
the accident happen.
In this unit, we will examine ways in which traffic engineers promote

operation efficiency and safety through the use of traffic control devices and
systems.
Furniture
9.1 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Traffic control devices should be reasonable and appropriate for

the traffic requirements at the location used. The use of a traffic control
device at a location where it is not warranted tends to invite motor-
vehicle operators to disregard the device and to have less respect for
traffic control devices in general.
Traffic control devices should be properly designed. The size of

the device, its shape, colors, contrast with the background, and lighting
or re-flectorization should draw attention. The sign, marking, or signal
should simply and forthrightly convey a clear and simple message. The
use of uniform devices following the MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices For street and Highway) simplifies the driver's task of
recognizing and understanding the traffic control messages and tends to
increase the level of observance.
The Government has adopted the following color code for traffic
control devices.
Color Meaning
Red Stop or prohibition

Green Indicated movements permitted, direction guidance
Blue Motorist services guidance
Yellow General warning
Black Regulation
White Regulation
Orange Construction and maintenance warning
Brown Public recreation and scenic guidance
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Traffic control devices should be placed and operated in a uniform,

consistent manner. In this way, motorists can be expected to properly
respond to the devices on the basis of previous exposure to similar traffic
situation. A control device should be placed within the user's cone of vision
and in reasonable proximity to the point, object, or situation to which it
applies. Its location and legibility should be such that a driver traveling at
normal speed has enough time to respond appropriately.
It is important that devices be maintained to high standards to

ensure that legibility and visibility are retained. When no longer needed,
traffic control devices should be removed.
Traffic control devices are needed to control the traffic flow to effective
system. The traffic control devices, which are usually employed for the controls
of traffic is briefly discussed blow.
1. Traffic Sign.
2. Road Mark.
3. Delineator.
4. Road Stud.
9.2 PURPOSE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Traffic control devices serve one or more of the following purposes;

1. Convenient for the user to reach the destination.
2. Safety of the traffic user.
3. To avoid traffic conflict in a very complex area.
4. Smoothness the process of traffic flow.
Furniture
9.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
In order to provide safe and efficient traffic flows, uniform standards

have been developed for the use of all public street and highway facilities.
Traffic control devices include all signs, markings, and signals placed on or
adjacent to street or highway by public agencies in order to regulate, warn,
or guide traffic. If traffic control devices are to be effective, they should
1. Fulfill a need.
2. Command attention.
3. Convey a clear, simple meaning.
4. Command respect of drivers and pedestrians.
5. Be place so as to give users time for proper response.
9.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS
There are three functional classes of traffic signs:

1. Mandatory signs
2. Prohibitory signs
3. Warning signs.
4. Informatory signs.
9.4.1 CLASSIFICATION TRAFFIC SIGNS
1. Mandatory signs
Mandatory signs give users notice of traffic laws or

regulations. Such signs, designate right-of-way (e.g.,
STOP), indicate speed control ( e.g., SPEED LIMIT 60
km/j, SPEED ZONE AHEAD), control movements (e.g.,
NO RIGHT TURN, KEEP RIGHT, ONE WAY), regulate
Furniture
parking (e.g., NO PARKING), control pedestrian

movements (e.g., CROSS ONLY AT CROSS WALKS),
and regulate traffic in various other ways. All mandatory
signs are appearance circle and white symbol as
background blue or another comfortable color.
2. Prohibitory signs
Prohibitory signs showing to all drivers about matter which

cannot they do. For example, no u-turn, no waiting and no
unload, no parking and prohibitory weight especially for car,
size car and height. This signs ordinary appearance circle
shape.
3. Warning signs
Warning signs direct attention to conditions on or

adjacent to a street or highway those are potentially
hazardous to traffic operations. Such signs require
motorists to exercise caution, reduce speed, or make
some maneuver in the interest of their own safety or that
of other motorists or pedestrians. Typical locations or
situations that may warrant the use of warning sign
include;
1. Intersections, entrances, and crossings.
2. Changes in horizontal alignment.
3. Grades.
4. Railroad crossings.
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5. Narrow roadways.
6. Roadway surface Conditions.
7. Advance warning of control devices.
Examples of warning signs are curve signs

(showing curved arrow), STOP AHEAD signs,
PAVEMENT ENDS signs, and advisory speed plates.
The latter signs supplement other types of warning
signs. Warning signs have a black legend and border
placed on a yellow background. With but few
exceptions, warning signs have a diamond shape.
4. Informatory signs
Guide signs indicate route designations, directions,

distances, point of interest, and other geographic or
cultural information. Two types of guide signs (route
markers and a destination sign) are illustrated by Figure
below,
Other examples of guide signs include JUNCTION

signs, DETOUR signs, REST AREA signs, and service
signs (FOOD, GAS, LODGING, etc ). Sign board like this
normally provided with color blue as background and symbol
or white which write by hand.
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9.5 ROAD MARKING
Road marking are definitely as lines, symbols, words, numbers or others

material that painted or paste on the surface of the road. Different from the sign
boards, road sign material giving the interminable to the vehicles guide.
Markings consist of paint or some other material placed on the

pavement, curb, or object to convey traffic regulations and warnings to
drivers. Making may be used alone or in combination with traffic signs or
signals. Although markings are an effective and essential means of traffic
control, they tend to see in rainy weather and fair day.
There are five general classes of markings:

1. Pavement marking.
2. Curb markings.
3. Object markings.
4. Delineators.
5. Colored pavement.
The most common type of markings, pavement marking, include

longitudinal and transverse line and words and symbols. By choice of
color, width, and type of longitudinal marking, the traffic engineer is
able to convey a variety of massages to drivers. Briefly stated,
1. Broken lines are permissive in character; solid lines are

restrictive; double line indicate maximum restrictiveness.
2. White lines delineate separation of traffic flows in the same and
opposing direction; yellow lines delineate no parking area at the both
side of road.
3. The width of the line indicates degree of emphasis.
Furniture
Transverse markings include pedestrian crosswalks, stop lines,

and crosshatched to discourage use of shoulders or to identify object
hazards. Curb markings are used for roadway delineation and for
parking regulation. Color-coded markings may be used as a
supplement to standard signs to indicate the type of parking
regulation.
9.5.1 The Type Of Road Mark
The types of the road mark are commonly used :

1. Middle line
2. Passage line
3. Double line
4. Arrow
5. Desist line
6. Pedestrian crossing line
7. Yellow line at side road
9.5.2 The Materials Of Road Mark
The materials of road sign must be durable and light reflective

properties. So normally used as road materials are :
1. Thermoplastic
2. Paint
3. Road studs/ cats eye
Thermoplastic and paint are normally used in small town,

thermoplastic and paint is used as middle line and passage line in a big
city, it use as pedestrian crossing line and desist line.
Furniture
ACTIVITY 9

INPUT
Question
1. Choose the correct meaning of the color code for traffic control
devices as listed below.
Color code Meaning
Red Indicated movements permitted, direction guidance
Yellow Stop or prohibition
White Motorist services guidance
Blue Public recreation and scenic guidance
Black Construction and maintenance warning
Orange Motorist services guidance
Brown Regulation
Green Regulation
2. State five general classes of road markings:
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 9
Furniture
Answer
1.
Color code Meaning
Red Indicated movements permitted, direction guidance
Yellow Stop or prohibition
White Motorist services guidance
Blue Public recreation and scenic guidance
Black Construction and maintenance warning
Orange General warning
Brown Regulation
Green Regulation
2. There are five general classes of markings:

6. Pavement marking.
7. Curb markings.
8. Object markings.
9. Delineators.
10. Colored pavement.
Furniture
Question
1. Describe briefly about the traffic control devices which are usually
employed for the controlling the traffic.
2. State 4 purposes of the traffic control device.
a. Prohibitory sign.
b. Warning sign.
c. Mandatory sign
Furniture
Answer
1. Traffic control devices should be reasonable and appropriate for

the traffic requirements at the location used. The use of a traffic
control device at a location where it is not warranted tends to invite
motor-vehicle operators to disregard the device and to have less
respect for traffic control devices in general.
Traffic control devices should be properly designed. The size of the

device, its shape, colors, contrast with the background, and lighting or re-
flectorization should draw attention. The sign, marking, or signal should
simply and forthrightly convey a clear and simple message. The use of
uniform devices following the MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices For street and Highway) simplifies the driver's task of recognizing
and understanding the traffic control messages and tends to increase the
level of observance.
Traffic control devices should be placed and operated in a uniform,

consistent manner. In this way, motorists can be expected to properly
respond to the devices on the basis of previous exposure to similar traffic
situation. A control device should be placed within the user's cone of vision
and in reasonable proximity to the point, object, or situation to which it
applies. Its location and legibility should be such that a driver traveling at
normal speed has enough time to respond appropriately.
It is important that devices be maintained to high standards to

ensure that legibility and visibility are retained. When no longer
needed, traffic control devices should be removed.
Furniture
Traffic control devices are needed to control the traffic flow to effective
system. The traffic control devices, which are usually employed for the
controls of traffic is briefly discussed blow.
a. Traffic Sign.
b. Road Mark.
c. Delineator.
d. Road Stud.
2. Traffic control devices serve one or more of the following purposes;
a. Convenient for the user to reach the destination.

b. Safety of the traffic user.
c. To avoid traffic conflict in a very complex area.
d. Smoothness the process of traffic flow.
3.
Mandatory signs
Mandatory signs give users notice of traffic laws or

regulations. Such signs, designate right-of-way (e.g., STOP),
indicate speed control ( e.g., SPEED LIMIT 60 km/j, SPEED
ZONE AHEAD), control movements (e.g., NO RIGHT TURN,
KEEP RIGHT, ONE WAY), regulate parking (e.g., NO
PARKING), control pedestrian movements (e.g., CROSS
ONLY AT CROSS WALKS), and regulate traffic in various
other ways. All mandatory signs are appearance circle and white
symbol as background blue or another comfortable color.
Prohibitory signs
Furniture
Prohibitory signs showing to all drivers about matter which

cannot they do. For example, no u-turn, no waiting and no unload,
no parking and prohibitory weight especially for car, size car and
height. This signs ordinary appearance circle shape.
Warning signs
Warning signs direct attention to conditions on or

adjacent to a street or highway those are potentially hazardous
to traffic operations. Such signs require motorists to exercise
caution, reduce speed, or make some maneuver in the interest
of their own safety or that of other motorists or pedestrians.
Typical locations or situations that may warrant the use of
warning sign include;
1. Intersections, entrances, and crossings.
2. Changes in horizontal alignment.
3. Grades.
4. Railroad crossings.
5. Narrow roadways.
6. Roadway surface Conditions.
7. Advance warning of control devices.
Examples of warning signs are curve signs (showing

curved arrow), STOP AHEAD signs, PAVEMENT ENDS
signs, and advisory speed plates. The latter signs
supplement other types of warning signs. Warning signs
have a black legend and border placed on a yellow
Furniture
background. With but few exceptions, warning signs have a

diamond shape.
Traffic Control Devices and
Road Furniture
UNIT 10
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AND

ROAD FURNITURE
( Part 2 )
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the general information of road delineator and road stud
Specific Objectives

state the types of delineator.
identify the materials is used for marking.
describe the purpose of road stud.
Road Furniture
INPUT
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
DELINEATOR & ROAD STUD
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Carriageway delineators (including markings) have definite and important

functions to perform in a proper scheme of traffic management. In many instances
they are used to supplement the regulations or warnings of traffic , signs or signals.
In other situations, they are used to obtain results, entirely on their own merits, that
cannot be obtained with other devices.
Carriageway delineators have, however, several definite limitations to their

effectiveness. They may be obliterated by snow or dirt, obscured when the volume
of traffic is heavy, and some are not readily visible when the carriageway is wet.
Markings are not very durable when subject to heavy traffic wear and must be
replaced at frequent intervals; in addition, they cannot be utilized at all on un-
surfaced carriageways.
The following discussion will concentrate on the longitudinal delineators

which feed information continuously to the driver. Details of the regulatory nature
of delineators (e.g. as used at stop signs, to indicate parking/non
parking at kerbs, etc.) or of the sizes and spacing of particular markings, lettering,
etc., as used in any given country will not be discussed. For these the reader is
referred to the appropriate manuals
Road Furniture
10.1 REASONS FOR LONGITUDINAL DELINEATION
Generally it can be said that the various forms of longitudinal delineation have
three main functions:
1. To characterize the road.
2. To provide route guidance.
3. To act as a tracking reference.
By characterization is meant the situation where particular forms of

delineation are used to provide the driver with information about the nature of the
road which leads him to expectations regarding the ease of the driving task. For
example, if the centre-line on a carriageway is marked in yellow, then it could
indicate to the driver that he is on a two-way carriageway, whereas a white centre-
line (or lane-line) would indicate a one-way carriageway.
The term route guidance is used to define the situation where carriageway
delineation might be used to direct the motorist into one of, say, two alternative
routes. Consider, for example, a simple Y-junction at which all three legs appear
to be of the same route hierarchy so that the motorist entering 11u, junction along
its stem is unable to discern which of the two remaining legs is the major route,
and which is the minor. If, however, a particular form ( o r color) of marking is
used on the stem and continued through the appropriate (left or right) leg, them it
would be clear to the driver which mar should be followed.
In relation to the tracking reference function it should be remembered that a

motorist has two basic types of motion continually under his control to ensure that
his path remains with the road at night or day; these are speed and direction.
While at first one might think that a driver judges his speed by looking at his
Road Furniture
vehicle's speedometer, the fact is that in practice his prefers to use subjective
judgement by noting the rate at which he passes objects by the side of the road-
and at night, particularly on rural roads, these reference objects are not visible. Of
greater real importance is directional control since in driving the task is not
exactly that following a line, but rather of remaining at a constant lateral
displacement from it, the line being either the kerb or white guide line.' It has been
shown by experiment that the centre and edge of the carriageway are two of the
principal locations used by drivers in directional guidance, and hence strong
emphasis at these locations, especially at night, can greatly simplify the driving
task. Furthermore, the higher the vehicle speed, the more useful is this
longitudinal contrast I delineation.
Also at night, the uncertainty caused by the glare of oncoming vehicles can
be heightened by a lack of delineation. For example, a driver meeting an
oncoming vehicle is inclined to look at the carriageway edge so as to avoid
looking directly at the headlights. If, however, the road edge is indistinct, the driver
must glance back periodically at the centre-line to check his lateral position but in
so doing, his eyes become more 'light-adapted' so that when he looks back again,
the carriageway edge appears even more indistinct so he must look again at the
centre-line to regain his lateral bearings. The situation can, in fact, develop to the
stage (in heavy traffic flow) where the driver cannot discern the centre-line
because of the glare, and has to orient himself by looking directly at the oncoming
vehicles' headlights which explains why the deliberate delineation of the edge of
the carriageway which help this situation.
10.2 TYPES OF DELINEATOR
Basically there are two types of delineators used on the carriage way:
marking and road studs.
Road Furniture
10.2.1 Marking materials.
The two most widely used materials are conventional paints

and hot-applied thermoplastics (including spray-plastics). Between
80-90 per cent of the road-lines laid in Malaysia are thermoplastic,
whereas on Continent the reverse is generally true.
Although more expensive than paint, thermoplastic has the

advantages that;
1. It has a longer life.

2. The ability to fill the interstices of rough textured roads,
whereas paint soon wears from the surface-dressing peaks and the interstice fill
with dirt.
3. A high temperature of application which enable it to fuse
with a bituminous road surface, sometimes even when the road is cold or slightly
damp.
4. It is proud of the road surface, and this assists visibility on
a wet night by facilitating drainage of the water film.
5. It contains 60 per cent sand and a binder which ensures
good skid resistance as it erodes.
6. The material has a rough surface when laid which aids
immediate diffusion.
7. It sets almost immediately after being laid.
The disadvantages of thermoplastic are;
1. It has a greater initial cost as compared with paint.

2. Rapid application on a large scale is more difficult because of the large bulk
of material which has to be melted down.
Road Furniture
3. Care is needed to avoid an undue build-up of thickness by successive

application, as this can be hazardous to motorcyclists.
4. Adhesion is usually poor on concrete road surfaces.
5. On dirty roads carrying light traffic, thermoplastic discolors more readily
than paint which is relatively smooth and glossy.
10.2.1.1 Reflectorization.
The reflectorization of a paint or thermoplastic road

marking is achieved by the addition of tiny glass spheres
(`ballotini') which are premixed and dispensed (`dusted') on
to the surface of the line material as it is being laid.
Premixing, very often followed by dusting, is the usual
practice with thermoplastic; dusting is the more common
practice with pain although reflectivity only exists as long as
the beads remain in place on the surface. An advantage of
premixing is that as the binding material becomes worn by
traffic, further beads are exposed to reflect the light from the
vehicles headlights back to the driver.
While the excellent reflectivity properties of lines

containing ballotini are well recognized in dry weather, there
is some doubt about their absolute effectiveness in
geographical areas subject to regular rain and fog.
Experiment have shown that the reflectivity of the lines
decreases as rain falls, the water film tending to reflect the
light from the headlights away from driver. When the rain is
heavy enough to completely submerge the beads, as easily
happens with paint, the line can become practically invisible.
Road Furniture
10.3 ROAD STUDS.
The `ideal' answer to the wet reflection problem is without doubt to

supplement the reflectorized road lines with reflectorized road studs. Road
studs used on their own are of relatively little value to the driver under normal
daytime conditions, unless they have coloured shell and are spaced very
close together.
The reflective road stud most commonly used in Britain is the cats eye.
Each cat's-eye consists of two parts: a metal base embedded in the road, and
a separate rubber pad insert into each side of which (for two-way roads), or in
one side (for one-way carriageways), two longitudinal biconvex reflectors are
fixed. As vehicle tyres pass over the rubber pad, its centre part is depressed
so that the faces of the reflectors arc automatically wiped by the front part of
the pad, thus giving the stud its well-known sell-cleaning property. The length
of time before the insert rubber pad must be replaced depends very much on
the speed and density of tile traffic, as well as on the lateral location of the
road stud on the carriageway; however, measurements have shown that the
reflectivity of a cat's-eye on a centre-line of a high-speed road can fall to 50
per cent of its original value after twelve month.
Another type of road stud which is now rapidly coming into favour is
the corner-cube type of reflector. The reason for this name is that the
individual reflectors in each face of the stud consist of three sides of a cube,
and the headlight ray is reflected from all three sides before returning the
eye of the motorist.
When both are new, objective measurement have shown that a

corner-cube road stud can return as much as 20 times more light than a
cats eye at a distance of a 100mn or more; however viewed more
obliquely, e.g. at distance of 30m or less, its superiority is not as great.
Road Furniture
Even though abrasion from tyres soon causes the face of a corner-cube
reflector to become etched with a network of fine scratches which cause
diffusion of some of the light, yet at long distances it can be still
considerably brighter than a cat's-eye after the same period of time.
Figure 10.1 shows the delineation used on general motorways,

including at junction. Note the different types of lines and studs used at the
different location, each intended to convey a message to the motorist
regarding that position.
Road Furniture
Fig. 10.1 Delineation practices on general motorways
Road Furniture
ACTIVITY 10
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT
Question
1. State three main functions of longitudinal delineation.

2. State two types of delineator.
3. Describe one type of the road studs.
Road Furniture
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 10
Answer
1. Generally it can be said that the various forms of longitudinal delineation

have three main functions:
a. To characterize the road.
b. To provide route guidance.
c. To act as a tracking reference.
2. Basically there are two types of delineators used on the carriage way:
marking and road studs.
3. Another type of road stud which is now rapidly coming into favor is the
corner-cube type of reflector.
Road Furniture
Question
1. Basically there are two types of delineators used on the carriage way:
marking and road studs. Explain in details on the markings material.
2. What is the meaning of Reflectorization?
Road Furniture
Answer
1. Marking materials.
The two most widely used materials are conventional paints and hot-
applied thermoplastics (including spray-plastics). Between 80-90 per
cent of the road-lines laid in Malaysia are thermoplastic, whereas on
Continent the reverse is generally true.
Although more expensive than paint, thermoplastic has the

advantages that;
1. It has a longer life.

2. The ability to fill the interstices of rough textured roads,
whereas paint soon wears from the surface-dressing peaks and the interstice fill
with dirt.
3. A high temperature of application which enable it to fuse
with a bituminous road surface, sometimes even when the road is cold or slightly
damp.
4. It is proud of the road surface, and this assists visibility on
a wet night by facilitating drainage of the water film.
5. It contains 60 per cent sand and a binder which ensures
good skid resistance as it erodes.
6. The material has a rough surface when laid which aids
immediate diffusion.
7. It sets almost immediately after being laid.
Road Furniture
The disadvantages of thermoplastic are;
8. It has a greater initial cost as compared with paint.

9. Rapid application on a large scale is more difficult because of the large bulk
of material which has to be melted down.
10. Care is needed to avoid an undue build-up of thickness by successive
application, as this can be hazardous to motorcyclists.
11. Adhesion is usually poor on concrete road surfaces.
12. On dirty roads carrying light traffic, thermoplastic discolors more readily
than paint which is relatively smooth and glossy.
2. The reflectorization of a paint or thermoplastic road marking is

achieved by the addition of tiny glass spheres (`ballotini') which
are premixed and dispensed (`dusted') on to the surface of the
line material as it is being laid. Premixing, very often followed by
dusting, is the usual practice with thermoplastic; dusting is the
more common practice with pain although reflectivity only exists
as long as the beads remain in place on the surface. An
advantage of premixing is that as the binding material becomes
worn by traffic, further beads are exposed to reflect the light from
the vehicles headlights back to the driver.
While the excellent reflectivity properties of lines containing ballotini

are well recognized in dry weather, there is some doubt about their
absolute effectiveness in geographical areas subject to regular rain
and fog. Experiment have shown that the reflectivity of the lines
decreases as rain falls, the water film tending to reflect the light from
the headlights away from driver. When the rain is heavy enough to
completely submerge the beads, as easily happens with paint, the
line can become practically invisible.
BASIC CHARACTERISTIC ROAD
SYSTEMS
UNIT 11
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A ROAD

SYSTEM
( Part 1)
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the basic characteristic of a road system.
Specific Objectives

state the characteristics that will influence the system.
identify the related factors of the system.
describe the importance characteristics of drivers.
SYSTEMS
INPUT

SYSTEM
11.0 INTRODUCTION
A Road Design includes Geometry and Pavement Design. These designs

are require in providing information on traffic flow. The highway engineer must
design for a wide range of vehicle operating characteristics and allow for great
differences in driver and pedestrian characteristics. Most highway facilities must
be designed to accommodate the smallest subcompact automobile as well as the
largest tractor-trailer truck. In may instances, the design must also accommodate
motorcycle and bicycle users and pedestrians. It should be remembered that
within each class of users there is great variability; differences in vehicle sizes,
weights, and operating characteristic ability to comprehend and react to highway
features and traffic events.
11.1 ROAD SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC
There are several characteristics in the road system.
11.1.1 DRIVERS CHARACTERISTICS
Drivers in Malaysia are licensed to drive under laws. The

differences about age, skill and experience also can produce some impact
to the traffic flow. It is important that highway engineers keep in mind that
street and highway facilities must be designed to accommodate driver with
SYSTEMS
a wide range of ages and skills, the young and the elderly and the novice
as well as the experienced professional.
11.1.2 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Vehicle characteristics also influence the traffic flow in any road

systems. Vehicles are used for transportation on the road or highway. All
types of vehicles have shapes, characteristics and own usage.
11.1.3 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC
Traffic characteristic are the most important characteristic in the

traffic flow for any road systems.
11.2 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC OF DRIVERS
The driver characteristics must be identified initially before a certain

geometry design and other related road design is implemented or proceed. The
drivers are also considered as the road user. There are several factors that
influence drivers, such as physical, environment and psychology factors.
11.3 INFLUENTIAL FACTORS.
There are some factors that would influence the characteristics of a driver.
11.3.1 PHYSICAL FACTORS
The drivers decisions and actions depend principally on

information received through the senses. This information comes to the
driver through the eyes, ears, and the sensory nerve ending in the
SYSTEMS
muscles, tendon, joints, skin, and organ. In general the order of

importance of the senses used by drivers are;
1. Visual ( sight ).
2. Kinesthetic ( movement ).
3. Vestibular ( equilibrium ).
4. Auditory ( hearing ).
Driver perception-reaction time is defined as the interval between

seeing, feeling or hearing a traffic or highway situation and making initial
response to what has been perceived. People generally react more
quickly to very strong stimuli than to weak one.
11.3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Weather and road condition also influence the characteristics of

drivers. Most of the drivers will take an extra cautious when the road is wet
and the road surface is damaged. This condition will endanger the safety
of driver.
11.3.3 PSHYCOLOGICAL FACTORS.
New drivers become nervous compare to the experienced drives

whenever they are driving in a crowded traffic area. They feel safer driving
through a straight road would speed more.
11.4 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
The standard of road design is influenced by the characteristic of vehicles

that used the road. The sizes of motor vehicle influence clearances for bridges,
SYSTEMS
tunnel, and grade separation structure and the geometric characteristic of

streets, roads, and parking facilities.
11.4.1 RESISTANT
A vehicles motion tends to be retarded by at least five types of resistance:

1. Inertia resistance.
2. Grade resistance.
3. Rolling resistance.
4. Curve resistance.
5. Air resistance.
11.4.1.1 Inertia resistance.
It will be recalled from the study of physics that inertia is the

tendency of a body to resist acceleration; the tendency to remain at
rest or to remain in motion in a straight line unless acted upon by
some forces. The forces, Fi, required to overcome a vehicles inertia
is described by the familiar relationship
Fi = ma = W/g a, kg
Where
m = vehicle mass
a = acceleration ( m/s2)
W = vehicle weight ( kg )
g = acceleration force due to gravity ( 9.81 m/s2)
SYSTEMS
When acting to move a vehicle forward, this force is positive.

When the force is slowing or stopping a vehicle, it and the
corresponding acceleration (deceleration) are negative.
11.4.1.2 Grade resistance.
Grade resistance is the component of the vehicle weight

acting down a frictionless inclined surface. As figure illustrates
below, the magnitude of the forces is directly proportional to the
gradient. By similar triangles;
G /100 = Fg/Fn
Fg = FnG/100 = W cos G /100
Where
G = gradient ( percent)
Fg = grade resistance ( kg )
Fn = normal forces ( kg )
For even the steepest highway gradients encountered in practice,

cos 1.0.
For practical purpose, the gradient resistance is
Fg = WG/100
11.4.1.3 Rolling resistance.
A vehicle does not operate on a smooth friction surface.

There is resistance to motion as the tires roll over irregularities in
SYSTEMS
the surface and push through mud, sand or gravel. This resistance,
termed rolling resistance, includes that caused by the flexing of the
tires and the internal friction of the moving part of the vehicle.
11.4.1.4 Curve resistance
As was stated earlier, once a vehicle is set in motion,

it tends to remain in motion in a straight line unless acted on by
some force. The forces changing the direction of a vehicle are
imparted through the front wheels. Components of these forces
tend to impede a vehicles forward motion. Curve resistance then is
the force required to cause a vehicle to move along a curve path. It
is a function of the radius or degree of curvature and the vehicle
speed.
11.4.1.5 Air resistance.
Air resistance includes the force required to move air from a

vehicles pathway as well as the friction effects of air along its top,
sides, and undercarriage. It is a function of the frontal cross-
sectional area of the vehicle and the square of the vehicle speed.
11.5 VEHICLE OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC
There are various vehicle-operating aspects that considered for geometry

design purpose. The vehicle-operating characteristics that influence are road
geometry design, curves radius, acceleration and braking.
SYSTEMS
11.6 ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION
A motor vehicle move according to fundamental laws of motion;

relationships between distance, time, velocity and uniform acceleration are given
by the following equation:
Vf = vo + at
D = vot + at2
V2f = v2o + 2ad
Where
vf = final velocity ( m/s )
vo = initial velocity ( m/s )
a = acceleration or deceleration
t = time ( sec )
d = distance ( m ).
Maximum acceleration rates vary with the size of the vehicle and its
operating speed. Vehicles are capable of greatest acceleration at lowest speeds.
From a standing start to a speed of 15 mph, maximum acceleration value range
from about 2 mph/sec for tactor-semitrailer trucks up to about 10 mph/sec for
large cars. For a speed change of 0 to 30 mph, typical maximum acceleration are
for tractor semitrailer truck 4.57 m/s2, for large car 3.14 m/s2 and for small
high performance sports car 4.33 m/s2.
Without braking, a vehicle will decelerate when the driver release the
accelerator due to the drag of the engine, air resistance, grade resistance and so
forth. A passenger car operating in the range of 50 to 60 mph will decelerate
about 0.91 m/s2 without braking; in the range of 20 to 30 mph, and automobile
will decelerate about 0.46 m/s2.
SYSTEMS
Under normal braking conditions, the levels of deceleration developed

usually do not reach the limit of vehicles braking capability nor that of the
pavement-tire interface. The deceleration may be limited by either the condition
of the brakes or that of the tires and roadway surface. In panic situations, most
drivers tend to apply the brakes to the extent that a locked wheel skid develops,
even though a greater frictional force is developed before skidding occurs.
SYSTEMS
ACTIVITY 11

INPUT
Question
1. The motion of the vehicle tends to be retarded by at least five types of

resistance. State the type of vehicles resistance.
2. Describe the grade resistance.
3. This formula is to determine acceleration or deceleration velocity. Find the
meaning of this formula,
V2f = v2o + 2ad

Where;
V2f = _____________________
v2o = _____________________
a = _____________________
d = ______________________
SYSTEMS
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 11
Answer
1. A vehicles motion tends to be retarded by at least five types of
resistance:
i. Inertia resistance.
ii. Grade resistance.
iii. Rolling resistance.
iv. Curve resistance.
v. Air resistance.
2. Grade resistance is the component of the vehicle weight acting

down a frictionless inclined surface. As figure illustrates below, the
magnitude of the forces is directly proportional to the gradient. By
similar triangles;
G /100 = Fg/Fn
Fg = FnG/100 = W cos G /100
Where
G = gradient ( percent)
Fg = grade resistance ( kg )
Fn = normal forces ( kg )
For even the steepest highway gradients encountered in practice,

cos 1.0.
SYSTEMS
For practical purpose, the gradient resistance is
Fg = WG/100
3. V2f = v2o + 2ad
Where
vf = final velocity ( m/s )
vo = initial velocity ( m/s )
a = acceleration or deceleration
t = time ( sec )
d = distance ( m ).
SYSTEMS
Question
Describe briefly the factors that would influence the characteristics of a driver.
Describe the following aspects: -
a. Curve resistance.
b. Air resistance
SYSTEMS
Answer
1. There are some factors that would influence the characteristics of a

driver.
PHYSICAL FACTORS
The drivers decisions and actions depend principally on

information received through the senses. This information comes to
the driver through the eyes, ears, and the sensory nerve ending in
the muscles, tendon, joints, skin, and organ. In general the order of
importance of the senses used by drivers are;
a. Visual ( sight ).
b. Kinesthetic ( movement ).
c. Vestibular ( equilibrium ).
d. Auditory ( hearing ).
Driver perception-reaction time is defined as the interval

between seeing, feeling or hearing a traffic or highway situation and
making initial response to what has been perceived. People
generally react more quickly to very strong stimuli than to weak
one.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
SYSTEMS
Weather and road condition also influence the

characteristics of drivers. Most of the drivers will take an extra
cautious when the road is wet and the road surface is damaged.
This condition will endanger the safety of driver.
PSHYCOLOGICAL FACTORS.
New drivers become nervous compare to the experienced

drives whenever they are driving in a crowded traffic area. They
feel safer driving through a straight road would speed more.
2. Curve resistance
As was stated earlier, once a vehicle is set in motion, it tends

to remain in motion in a straight line unless acted on by some force.
The forces changing the direction of a vehicle are imparted through
the front wheels. Components of these forces tend to impede a
vehicles forward motion. Curve resistance then is the force
required to cause a vehicle to move along a curve path. It is a
function of the radius or degree of curvature and the vehicle speed.
Air resistance.
Air resistance includes the force required to move air from a

vehicles pathway as well as the friction effects of air along its top,
sides, and undercarriage. It is a function of the frontal cross-
sectional area of the vehicle and the square of the vehicle speed.
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UNIT 12

SYSTEM
( Part 2 )
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the basic characteristic of a road system.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to: -

describe the traffic characteristics.
identify the term of volume flow.
describe the speed, traffic volume and density.
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INPUT
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
12.0 INTRODUCTION
A knowledge of traffic characteristic is useful to the highway engineer in

developing highway and transportation plan, performing economic analyses
establishing geometric design criteria, selecting and implementing traffic control
measures, and evaluating the performance of transportation facilities. Dozens of
measures have been employed to describe the quality and quantity of traffic flow.
12.0.1 TRAFFIC VALUME
Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point

along a roadway or traffic lane per unit of time. A measure of the quantity of
traffic flow, volume is commonly measured in units of vehicles per day,
vehicle per hour.
12.0.2 SPEED
Speed of travel is a simple and widely used measuring the quality of

traffic flow. Basically, speed is the total distance traversed divided by the
time of travel.
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12.0.3 DENSITY
Traffic density also referred to as traffic concentration, is defined as

the average number of vehicle occupying a unit length of roadway at a given
instant.
12.1 TERM OF VOLUME FLOW
The first basic characteristic of traffic is volume. Traffic volume study were
made to get accurate information about quantity vehicle movement characteristic
and pedestrian in an area, in a specific places in connection.
Volumes can be definition as a number of cars which post at a certain

point, a short road section in a certain time. If N were a number of vehicle
crossing a line at a road in a duration of time; T, so the volume traffic is
q = N/T
The unit of volume is vehicle/hour. The unit of time duration that were made not
necessary on hour or consistent to an hour. In a certain case, like peak time
study, time duration that were taken is 15 minute. So the volume unit is
vehicle/15 minute. Besides the general definition of volume that was discussed
earlier, there was more phase of volume that were used for a specific road
design.
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12.1.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC. (AADT)
To obtain the average traffic per day, count the number of vehicles
over the duration of more than a day. Then divided the total number of
vehicles by number of days.
12.1.2 DAILY AVERAGE TRAFFIC
Daily average is a unit of vehicles per day and is calculated as the

time duration is more a day and than a year traffic divided by the number
of days in that period of time.
12.1.3 PEAK HOUR VOLUME
1) Geometric design considering numbers and width of with of lane,

intersection design, and other road characteristic.
2) Determine insufficient payload of the road.
3) To plan and determining the location of the traffic control such as traffic
light, traffic sign and others.
4) To design a traffic operation program.
5) Planning and enforcing law.
12.1.4 VOLUME HOUR DESIGN.
The traffic flow is a dynamic phenomenon. The traffic characteristic

and the traffic flow always changes from time to time. Thus, an average
value should be obtained in designing purpose. For geometrical design,
traffic volume is calculated base on every hour. This volume is called
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volume per hour. For the purpose of design, the volume per hour should
be as close as possible value of the volume peak hour. The highest
volume per hour will not be used in road designing because it will result in
over design.
The identify volume per hour is known volume per hour design.
One criterion to determine the volume per hour design is congested rate
that were allowed in peak hour.
12.1.5 VOLUME HOUR DESIGN RATIO
In the proceeding sections of this chapter, consideration was given

to some predetermined, congested, or peak hour, and the temporal non-
uniformity of traffic flow over this hour was accounted for by using the
peak hour factor. However, there is a larger question that looms: How is
the peak hour determined for either highway design (i.e., determining the
number of lanes required, and so on) or congestion analysis? This
question is complicated by two concerns. First, there is considerable
variability in traffic volumes by time of day, day of week, time of year, and
type of highway.
Current design practice in the United States generally uses a peak

hour between the 10th 50th highest volume hour of the year, depending on
the type and location of the road ( e.g., urban freeway, rural multilane
highway, and so on ), local traffic data, and engineering judgment.
Perhaps the most common hourly volume used for roadway design in the
30th highest hourly volume of the year. In practice, the K factor is used to
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convert average annual daily traffic (AADT ) to the 30th highest annual
hourly volume.
K = DHV
AADT
12.1.6 PEAK TIME FACTORS.
In determining the level of service of a highway segment, a few key

definitions and associated notations must be well understood.
Hourly volume is the actual hourly demand volume for the

highway in vehicle per hour, given the symbol V. Generally, the highest
24-hour hourly volume ( i.e., peak hour volume ) is used for V in traffic
analysis computations.
Peak Hour Factor accounts for the non-uniformity of traffic flow

over the peak hour. It is denoted PHF and is typically defined as the ratio
of the hourly volume ( V ) to the maximum 15 min rate of flow ( V15 )
expanded to an hourly volume. Therefore,
v
PHF =
v15 x 4
Equation obove indicates that the further the PHF is from unity, the
more peaked or non-uniform the flow. For example, consider two roads
both of which have a peak-hour volume, v, of 2000 veh/hr. However, the
first road has 1000 vehicles arriving in the highest 15-mm interval and the
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second road has 600 vehicles arriving in the highest 15-mm interval.
Clearly, the first road has a more non-uniform flow, and this is
substantiated by the fact that is PHF of 0.5 (i.e,2000/(1000 X 4 )) is further
from unity than the second roads PHF OF ( i.e, 2000/(600 X 4).
12.2 TRAFFIC VOLUME CHARACTERISTIC
A knowledge of traffic characteristic is useful to highway engineer in

developing highway and transportation plans, performing economic analyses,
establishing geometric design criteria, selecting and implementing traffic control
measures, and evaluating the performance of transportation facilities. Dozens of
measures have been employed to describe the quality and quantity of traffic flow.
In this unit, information is presented on those flow characteristics that
fundamentally bear on the planning, design, and operation of highway section on
highway capacity, we will consider ways of estimating the ability of various
highway facilities to accommodate traffic flow.
12.2.1 TRAFFIC VOLUME FLOW CHANGGING - DAILY
The flow in each hour has been expressed as a percentage of the

daily flow since this most convenient way of studying such patterns and
permits easy comparison. Weekdays, Saturdays and Sunday usually have
distinctive patterns but, comparing day with day, patterns for routes of a
similar nature often show a marked similarity, which is useful in enabling
predictions to be made.
Especially significant in the design of roads and control of traffic is

the peak hours volume, which is usually 8-10% of total daily flow or 2-2 1/2
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times the average hourly volume. There are a morning and an evening
peak with the latter generally predominant. These include many work trips,
which are relatively, stable in time and fairly insensitive to charge from day
to day and weather and other travel conditions.
12.2.2 TRAFFIC VOLUME FLOW CHANGGING - WEEKLY
Variations are shown, which given a typical weekly flow pattern with
volumes expressed as a percentage of the total flow for the week. Traffic
flow for the weekly, Monday to Friday, remains fairly contents, but
weekend flows are more variable and depend to a large extent on season
and weather. On the average weekend, flows in the center of a large city
will be considerably lower than for weekdays, but main routes out of city.
12.2.3 TRAFFIC VOLUME FLOW CHANGING - SEASONAL

VARIATIONS
Volumes, in general are above in the more pleasant motoring

months of summer, but this is more pronounced in rural urban areas. This
monthly average flow is usually at a maximum for most rural roads in
August and at its lowest in January. A number of central urban areas show
a dip in midsummer flows but remain fairly consistent during the remainder
of the year. Seasonal patterns for a given type of route are the most
consistent of all the variation patterns and represent the economic and
social conditions of the traffic are served. It is only this condition change,
usually by a gradual process, than the patterns change.
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12.3 CALCULATION FOR TRAFFIC VOLUME
The traffic volume in one direction for each section of the route and for
each class of vehicle is obtained from the following formula.
Q = x + y
Ta +Tw
Where;
Q= Vehicles ( of the appropriate class) per minute in the direction of the
stream.
X= Number of vehicles (of the same class) met travelling.
Y= Number of vehicle ( of the same class) overtaking the test vehicle
traveled with the stream.
Ta = Journey time, in minute, of the vehicle travelling against the
stream.
Tw = Journey time, in minutes, of the test vehicle travelling with the
stream.
The average journey in minutes of the particular class of vehicle in the

stream is given by,
T = Tw - y
q
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ACTIVITY 12

INPUT
Question
1. What is the meaning of these items?

a. Traffic volume.
b. Speed
2. How to determine the traffic volume value using a formula.
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FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 12
Answer
1.
TRAFFIC VALUME
Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point

along a roadway or traffic lane per unit of time. A measure of the
quantity of traffic flow, volume is commonly measured in units of
vehicles per day, vehicle per hour.
SPEED
Speed of travel is a simple and widely used measuring the quality of

traffic flow. Basically, speed is the total distance traversed divided by
the time of travel.
2. Q = x + y
Ta +Tw
Where;
Q= Vehicles ( of the appropriate class) per minute in the direction of the
stream.
X= Number of vehicles (of the same class) met travelling.
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Y= Number of vehicle ( of the same class) overtaking the test vehicle

traveled with the stream.
Ta = Journey time, in minute, of the vehicle travelling against the
stream.
Tw = Journey time, in minutes, of the test vehicle travelling with the
stream.
The average journey in minutes of the particular class of vehicle in the

stream is given by,
T = Tw - y
q
Traffic volume value will be determined with using this formula.
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Question
1. Describe briefly the traffic volume changing daily.

2. Give the definition on these items.
a. Hourly volume.
b. Peak-hour factor
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Answer
1.
TRAFFIC VOLUME FLOW CHANGGING - DAILY
The flow in each hour has been expressed as a percentage of the

daily flow since this most convenient way of studying such patterns and
permits easy comparison. Weekdays, Saturdays and Sunday usually have
distinctive patterns but, comparing day with day, patterns for routes of a
similar nature often show a marked similarity, which is useful in enabling
predictions to be made.
Especially significant in the design of roads and control of traffic is

the peak hours volume, which is usually 8-10% of total daily flow or 2-2 1/2
times the average hourly volume. There are a morning and an evening
peak with the latter generally predominant. These include many work trips,
which are relatively, stable in time and fairly insensitive to charge from day
to day and weather and other travel conditions.
2.
Hourly volume is the actual hourly demand volume for the
highway in vehicle per hour, given the symbol V. Generally, the highest
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24-hour hourly volume ( i.e., peak hour volume ) is used for V in traffic
analysis computations.
Peak Hour Factor accounts for the non-uniformity of traffic flow

over the peak hour. It is denoted PHF and is typically defined as the ratio
of the hourly volume ( V ) to the maximum 15 min rate of flow ( V15 )
expanded to an hourly volume.
BASIC CHARACTERISTIC OF ROAD
SYSTEMS
UNIT 13

SYSTEM
( Part 3 )
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the basic characteristics of a road system.
Specific Objectives

describe the characteristics of speed.
state the types of speed.
identify the method to measure the speed.
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INPUT
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEED
13.0 INTRODUCTION
Speed of travel is a simple and widely used that measures of the quality of
traffic flow. Basically, speed is the total distance traversed divided by the time of
travel. Speed is commonly expressed in miles per hour or feet per second. Its
reciprocal, travel time, is usually expressed in units of minute per mile.
13.1 SPEED
Speed is the rate of travel usually expressed in kilometers per hour (km/h)
and is generally qualified according to three main types:-
a.) Spot speed
b.) Running speed
c.) Journey speed
13.1.1 Spot speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at any specified point.
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13.1.2 Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular

course while the vehicle is moving and is found by dividing the length of the
course by the time the vehicle is in motion.
13.1.3 Journey speed
Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey

between two points, and is the distance between the two points divided by the
total time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey, where the time
includes any stopped time due to traffic delays.
In a typical journey, where stopped delays are incurred, it follows that

journey speed must be slower than the running speed, and that spot speeds
will vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed.
High running speed with low journey speeds is undesirable and

represents stop-go conditions with enforced decelerations and accelerations.
Uniformity between the two speed measures denotes comfortable travel
condition. On long trips, high journey speed mean substantial time savings,
but on short runs, particularly in urban areas, the necessity of high journey
speeds is less significant in terms of time savings. For example, with a
journey of 500 km, rising the speed from 50 km the saving would be only 3
min, but on the other hand, raising the speed from 15 to 30 km/h would save
10 min.
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13.2 SPEED MEASUREMENT METHOD

13.2.1 REGISTRATION NUMBER AND VANTAGE POINT METHODS
The system requires observers to be stationed along the route, one

at each section point. Using synchronized watches the observers record
the time and registration number for each passing vehicle. Subsequent
matching of numbers carried out either manually or by computer, identifies
the journey times of through vehicles and allows non-stop and stopping
vehicles to be estimated. The method does not reveal the cause, location
or provide running speeds which are often needed.
Where the length of the route or section under consideration is

short, such as a street in the central area of a city, it is often possible to
station an observer where there is a reasonably unobstructed view of the
entire length. Vehicles are selected at random and their course trace
along the road by nothing the time of entering the section, the duration
and nature of any delay and the time of leaving. In this way, all the
necessary data is obtained to evaluate journey and running speeds and
delays. Close circuit television may also be used for this purpose over a
network of streets covered by cameras. Alternatively, time-lapse
photography can be used to obtain the data. Very extensive information
on traffic flows; congestion point, speeds, delays and parking can be
derived from aerial photography over extensive areas. Time-lapse
photography and aerial method can be co-ordinated to give more detailed
information.
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13.2.2 MOVING OBSERVATION METHOD.
The median and mean speeds are only equal if the speed
distribution is symmetric which tends to be the case in free-flowing
conditions. The large number of runs required makes the method costly
and difficult to apply for limited access roads, particularly rural motorways.
A partial moving vehicle method has been used successfully where only
section journey times are recorded while classified vehicle counts are
continuously made at the mid-points of each run. The data is more
accurate and manpower is effectively employed. Other modified methods
have included the mounting of a rime-lapse camera in a good, forward
field of vision, to take photographs at intervals of 1 s. while good results
were obtained, care had to be exercised in avoiding tailing high vehicles;
the outside lane gave a better observational position. A fuller record of
delays is available for analysis and the influence of parking and
pedestrians can be included in the assessments. While crew running time
reduced, subsequent analysis is lengthy, although an important advantage
is the ability to vary the section points in the aggregation of a route. Similar
possibilities are available for using video recorders for subsequent replay
of television film.
A method of measuring speeds on motorways has been evolved by

Duncan and is called the two-speed method. The test car is driven several
times over a length of road at each of two constant speeds with an
observer separately recording the total number of cars overtaking (overs)
and undertaken (unders). For each of the pair of speeds selected the
value of the ratios under / overs are plotted and joined by a straight line.
From the analysis diagram estimates of mean speed, the standard
deviation of speeds and percentiles for the speed distribution.
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13.2.3 TIME-LAPSE PHOTOGRAPHY, VIDEO AND PEN RECORDERS
This method employs a camera to record the distance moved by a

vehicle in a selected short period of time. Exposures are made at a
constant time interval and the interval and the distance traveled between
exposures is measured by projecting the film. The distance divided by the
time interval between exposures gives a speed measurement. Cameras
usually 16 mm triggered to take single shots at pre-selected frequencies
or use suitable repeat-cycle timers called intervalometers. The projectors
are operated to advance the film frame by frame and are equipped with
resettable frame counters. Films are either on to prepared grid screens or
back projected through a mirror box into a plastic or frosted screen.
Photographic methods are saturation flow, turning movements, vehicle
spacing and lane use, congestion and delay, and may also be used to
study a wide range of vehicle characteristics and pedestrian behavior.
The more recent introductions of suitable portable video cameras,

with less costly playback studio equipment, extend the instrumentation
range available for traffic studies and film is re-usable. Static and mobile
mounting positions for cameras can be adopted.
The main advantages of cinematography are that observations do

not disrupt the pattern of activities; accurate analysis of complex varying
characteristics can be undertaken albeit that many playback run of a film
will be required; difficult observational techniques and crew training are
obviated; records can be permanent and permit previously undetected but
influential items to be analyzed, and both the space and time of events are
recorded. A very considerable disadvantage is the time-consuming nature
of the subsequent analyses, but using oscilloscopes with light pens or
coupling to a teleprinter, coordinates can be abstracted an movements
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processed directly by a computer. Further difficulties may be

experienced in finding a vantage point with in adequate field or
view ; weather conditions and camera failures may also occur.
Impulse received from detectors can be fed to multi-pen apparatus,

which event-mark a moving mark, a moving chart. Suitably arranged
detectors can evaluate lane volume, lane speed, and headways or push
button switches used to record events. Chart speed is usually variable.
13.2.4 RADAR SPEED METERS.
The apparatus transmit high-frequency electromagnetic waves in a

narrow beam towards a selected vehicle, and the reflected waves, altered
in length depending on the vehicles speed, are return to a receiving unit
calibrated to directly record the spot speed.
Another type develop more recently uses a system of narrow

reflecting strips producing an image of the vehicle as a succession of
separated vertical events focused on a photodiode. The output voltage
from the cell varies as a frequency directly related to the speed of the
target vehicle. Measurements are made at right-angels to the flow and the
meter is passive in operation, not transmitting light or radio energy.
Recently develop optical meters enable the speed of other vehicles

to be measured directly from a moving vehicle by timing its passage for a
length of travel. The target vehicle can be moving in any direction relative
to the observer provided that it remains visible during the timing operation.
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13.2.5 ENOSCOPE.
To overcome this parallax effect, use can be made of an

Enoscope. This instrument, also known as a Mirror-box, is an L-
shaped box, open at both ends, which contains mirrors set at a 45-
degree angle. One of these boxes is located at each end of the test
length, and the observer takes up a position approximately midway
between. As he looks into the appropriate Enoscope his line of sight
is bent so as to be perpendicular to the direction of travel. Thus he
can start and stop the stop-watch the instant the vehicle passes by
the appropriate box, and so more accurate measurements can be
obtained. Night-time measurements can also be taken by placing
small lights at the reference points directly opposite the mirror-boxes.
As vehicles flash by they break the beam, thus again indicating the
beginning or ending of timing.
13.3 SPOT SPEED DATA ANALYSIS
Usually, travel speeds are measured continuously at various points.

The system detectors measure the speed of each vehicle that passes over
the detection zone. This data is recorded and processed to analyze the
travel speeds and volumes. The daily average volume of vehicles for each
24-hour period is presented for each month in terms of average, median,
and 85th-percentile speed.
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i. Average speed
Average speed is the most commonly used speed statistic and

does the total number of vehicles divide the sum of all individual
speed measurements.
ii. Median speed.
Median speed is the speed under which 50 percent of vehicles

travel.
iii. 85th percentile speed
85th percentile speed is sometimes referred to as the critical speed

as it is commonly used as a guide in establishing reasonable speed
limits. This represents the speed under which 85 percent of the
vehicles are traveling.
The last three columns of the table reflect the percentage of

vehicles exceeding 65 miles per hour, 70 mph and 75 mph.
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13.3.1 DISTRIBUTION OF VEHICULAR SPEEDS IN A TRAFFIC
STREAM
Time mean speed
V
V T
=
n
T
Where
V T
is the time mean speed ,
V T
are the individual speeds in time ,
n is the number of observation.
Where are averaged over space as is the case when the mean
journey speed is calculated then it is the space mean-speed that is
calculated, that is
n
V S
=
1
V T
Where
V S
is the space mean-speed ,
n is the number of observations.
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Wardrop has shown that time and space-mean speeds are

connected by the relationship
2
V T
=V S +
VS
Where s is the standard deviation of Vs
13.3.2 ANALYSIS OF SPEED STUDIES
Because in any speed study a considerable number of speeds are

observed, statistical techniques are used to analyze the data obtained.
Depending upon the accuracy of the data, the use to which the derived
results are to be put and number of observations obtained, a suitable
class interval is chosen.
13.3.2.1 Statistic
Table 1.1 shows speed observations obtained on a major

traffic route. Individual speeds have been grouped into 4 km/ h
classes given in column 1 an interval which reduces the data into
an easily managed number of classes yet does not hide the basic
form of the speed distribution. In the selection of class intervals
thought should be given to the dial readings when observation of
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the speed is made. Most speeds will be recorded to the nearest dial
reading and these form convenient mid-class marks.
( Table 1 )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Speed Frequenc Percentage Cummulati Percentage Deviation (2)x (6) (2)x( 6)
class y frequency ve cumulative
(km/h ) frequency frequency
44 -47.9 1 0.286 1 0.286 -9 -9 81
48 51.9 2 0.571 3 0.857 -8 -16 128
52 55.9 2 0.571 5 1.429 -7 -14 98
56 59.9 4 1.143 9 2.571 -6 -24 144
60 63.9 11 3.143 20 24.000 -5 -55 275
64 67.9 24 6.875 44 37.714 -4 -69 384
68 71.9 40 11.429 84 55.714 -3 -120 360
72 75.9 48 13.714 132 67.143 -2 -96 192
76 79.9 63 18.000 195 76.857 -1 -63 63
80 83.9 40 11.429 235 85.143 0 0 0
84 87.9 34 9.714 269 76.857 1 34 34
88 91.9 29 8.286 298 85.143 2 58 116
92 95.9 25 7.143 323 92.286 3 75 225
96 99.9 13 3.714 336 96.000 4 52 208
100 5 1.429 341 97.429 5 25 125
103.9 3 0.857 344 98.286 6 18 108
104 1 0.286 345 98.571 7 7 49
107.9 2 0.571 347 99.143 8 16 128
108 2 0.571 349 99.143 9 18 162
111.9 1 0.286 350 100.000 10 10 100
112
115.9
116
119.9
120
123.9
350 -180 2980
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The mean speed is given by
mid- class mark of selected class + class interval ( column 7 )

( column 2 )
82 4.180 = 79.9 km/h

350
The standard deviation is given by
Class interval (frequency (deviation)) - ( frequency x deviation )

(column 2 ) (column 2 )
The value of (frequency x deviation) has already been

calculated in column 6 and it now necessary to calculate the
frequency ( deviation ) for each speed class. These values are
given in column 8.
4 2980 _ -180 = 11.6 km / h

350 350
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Percentage of vehicles traveling at a speed equal to , or less than.
)
u
V = 1 / ( x 2 ) exp ( (V V
2
)
/ 2 2 dv

Where
V is the mean speed ,
is the standard deviation of speeds.
A demonstration of the fit of the observed cumulative speed

distribution to a cumulative normal distribution may be obtained by
plotting the probits of the percentage of vehicles traveling at or less
than a certain speed, against the speed upper class limit. Value of
probits may be obtained from the suggested reading or can be
obtained from figure table 1 . The use of this technique converts a
cumulative normal curve into a straight line whose equation is
Probit of percentage of vehicles traveling at ;
Speed < V =
5 +1(V V )
( frequency ( devision )2
Using the derived values of and V this givens
Probit of percentage of vehicles travelling at

a speed < V = 5 + 0.0862 ( V 79.9 )
= 0.0862 V 1.6887
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(Table 2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Upper Column 1 Column 2 Normal Probability Theoretical Observed ((6) (7) ) /
speed minus divided by area frequency frequency (6)
class limit mean standard
( km / h) speed deviation
44 35.9 -3.10 -0.499
48 31.9 -2.75 -0.497 0.002 0.7 1
52 27.9 -2.40 -0.492 0.005 1.8 2 2.27
56 23.9 -2.06 -0.480 0.012 4.2 2
60 19.9 -1.72 -0.457 0.023 8.1 4
64 15.9 -1.37 -0.415 0.042 14.7 11 0.93
68 11.9 -1.025 -0.349 0.066 23.1 24 0.04
72 -7.9 -0.680 -0.252 0.097 33.9 40 1.10
76 -3.9 -0.336 -0.132 0.119 41.9 48 0.89
80 +0.1 0.009 0.004 0.137 48.0 63 4.69
84 +4.1 0.354 0.138 0.134 46.9 40 1.02
88 +8.1 0.70 0.258 0.120 42.0 34 1.52
92 +12.1 1.04 0.351 0.093 32.6 29 0.40
96 +16.1 1.39 0.418 0.067 23.4 25 0.11
100 +20.1 1.74 0.459 0.041 14.3 13 0.12
104 +24.1 2.08 0.481 0.022 7.7 5
108 +28.1 2.42 0.492 0.011 3.8 3
112 +32.1 2.76 0.497 0.005 1.8 1 0.01
116 +36.1 3.11 0.499 0.002 0.7 2
120 +40.1 3.46 0.500 0.001 0.4 2
124 +44.1 3.81 0.500 0.000 0 1
13.10
13.3.2.2 Graphic - Histograms and Frequency Curve
The information revealed by the frequency distribution table

in best presented graphically by histograms and frequency curves
as in Fig 8.14.1. This histogram is plotted directly from columns 1
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the 4 of the table and the frequency curve is found by rounding off
the histogram in such a way that the area under the curve is equal
to the area of the histogram. The modal speed is the speed
occurring most frequently and is the peak of the frequency curve.
The curve is also useful for determining the pace of the vehicles
where the pace is the speed range, for some nominal increment of
speed (usually 20 km/h ) which contains the most vehicles. In the
example the mode is approximately 68 km/h and the 20 km/h pace
is 60-80 km/h.
Fig 13.3.1 Histogram And Frequency curve spot speeds on three-lane rural trunk road.
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13.3.2.3 Cumulative Frequency Curve
The cumulative frequency curve or ogive is used for

determining the number of vehicles traveling above or below a
given speed. It is plotted from columns 5 and 1 of the table and the
shape of the curve is seen in Fig. 8.14.2. The median speed,
another measure of central tendency, is that speed below which
50% of the vehicles are moving, in this case, 70 km/h. Percentile
speeds ( i.e. that speed below which a specified percentage of
vehicles are traveling ) are also readily indicated. The percentile
speeds of particular interest are the 98th percentile which can be
used in the consideration of speed limit imposition or overtaking
distances, and the 15th percentile shows the slower vehicles whose
speed may be causing interference within the traffic stream. These
percentile speeds are respectively 112 km/h, 90 km/h and 58km/h
for this road.
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Fig 13.3.2 Cumulative frequency curve spot speeds on three-lane trunk road.
13.4 DEFINITION OF DENSITY
Traffic density, also referred to as traffic concentration, is defined as the

average number of vehicle occupying a unit length of roadway at a given instant;
it is generally expressed in units of vehicles per mile. Traffic density bears a
functional relationship to speed and volume.
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Fig. 14.3: Example Speed Histogram
Fig. 13.3: Example Speed Histogram
13.5 CALCULATION OF DENSITY
The relationship between traffic speed, volume, and density is shown by

the fundamental equation
q
k=
us
Where
q = average volume of flow ( vehicle/hr )
k = average density or concentration ( vehicle/mile )
us = space-mean speed ( mph ).
SYSTEMS
ACTIVITY 10

INPUT
Question
1. Speed is the rate of travel usually expressed in kilometers per hour (km/h)
and is generally classified into to three main types. What are the three main
types of speed?
a. ____________
b. ____________
c. ____________
2. What is the definition of density?
SYSTEMS
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 10
Answer
1. The three main types of speed are:
a. Spot speed
b. Running speed
c. Journey speed
2. Traffic density, also referred to as traffic concentration, is defined as the

average number of vehicle occupying a unit length of roadway at a given
instant; it is generally expressed in units of vehicles per mile. Traffic
density bears a functional relationship to speed and volume.
SYSTEMS
Question
1. Describe two measurement methods that are used to determine the speed
of vehicle.
2. How to analyze the speed data?
SYSTEMS
Answer
1. MOVING OBSERVATION METHOD.
1. Moving Observation Method
The median and mean speeds are only equal if the speed
distribution is symmetric which tends to be the case in free-flowing
conditions. The large number of runs required makes the method
costly and difficult to apply for limited access roads, particularly
rural motorways. A partial moving vehicle method has been used
successfully where only section journey times are recorded while
classified vehicle counts are continuously made at the mid-points of
each run. The data is more accurate and manpower is effectively
employed. Other modified methods have included the mounting of
a rime-lapse camera in a good, forward field of vision, to take
photographs at intervals of 1 s. while good results were obtained,
care had to be exercised in avoiding tailing high vehicles; the
outside lane gave a better observational position. A fuller record of
delays is available for analysis and the influence of parking and
pedestrians can be included in the assessments. While crew
running time reduced, subsequent analysis is lengthy, although an
important advantage is the ability to vary the section points in the
aggregation of a route. Similar possibilities are available for using
video recorders for subsequent replay of television film.
SYSTEMS
Enoscope.
To overcome this parallax effect, use can be made of an

Enoscope. This instrument, also known as a Mirror-box, is an
L-shaped box, open at both ends, which contains mirrors set
at a 45-degree angle. One of these boxes is located at each
end of the test length, and the observer takes up a position
approximately midway between. As he looks into the
appropriate Enoscope his line of sight is bent so as to be
perpendicular to the direction of travel. Thus he can start and
stop the stop-watch the instant the vehicle passes by the
appropriate box, and so more accurate measurements can be
obtained. Night-time measurements can also be taken by
placing small lights at the reference points directly opposite
the mirror-boxes. As vehicles flash by they break the beam,
thus again indicating the beginning or ending of timing.
2. a. Statistic.
b. Graphic - Histograms and Frequency Curve
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
UNIT 14
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To know the methods and procedures in designing the flexible pavement for
roads in Malaysia.
Specific Objectives

describe the basic layers of road design
calculate the design using the required formula and figure.
design the basic flexible pavement using JKR method.
INPUT
14.0 INTRODUCTION
A typical section through a pavement is shown in the following sketch ( not to

scale )
Surfacing Wearing course

Base course
Upper
Road-base
Lower
Sub-base
Capping
Sub-grade
In some type of construction some layers maybe combined.
14.0.1 Foundation
Foundation provides uniform support to the pavement through its

life so that maintenance operation is confined to the upper level of the
pavement.
i. Sub-grade either natural soil or material placed to form

embankment.
ii. Capping on sub-grade with a low CBR, a capping layer

is required provide working. Platform on which
sub-base construction can proceed with
minimum intersection from wet whether a
minimize effect at weak sub-grade on road
performance.
14.0.2 Sub-base
This layer forms the upper of the pavement foundation and

provides a regulated working platform at a consistent strength on which to
transport, place and compact the bound layers of pavement.
14.0.3 Road Base
Road base is a main structural element that purposes to spread

induced by repeated wheel loads over the foundation and to with stand
internal stresses without excessive deformation.
14.0.4 Surfacing
Surfacing is done in order to provide acceptable running surface of

adequate skid resistance and to reduce water penetration to underlying
layer.
14.1 FACTORS FOR DESIGN

14.1.1 Failure Criterion
The definition from Croney, failure as transformation shape or deflection of 20mm

tires lane not speeding that measuring from ground level.
Slow lane Fast lane
20 mm
14.1.2 Traffic Loading
Protection of the sub-grade from the loading imposed by traffic is one of

the primary functions of a pavement structure. The designer must provide a
pavement that can withstand a large number of repeated applications of a
variable-magnitude loading. The primary loading factors that are important in
flexible pavement design are
1. Magnitude of axle (and wheel) loads.
2. Volume and composition of axle loads.
3. Tire pressure and contact area.
The magnitude of maximum loading is commonly controlled by legal load

limits. Traffic survey and loadometer studies are often used to establish the
relative magnitude and occurrence of the various loading to which a pavement
during its design life is a very difficult but obviously important task. Most design
procedures provide for an increase in traffic volume on the basis of experience

by using some estimate growth rate.
14.1.3 Climate or Environment
The climate or environment in which a flexible pavement is to be

established has an important influence on the behavior and performance of the
various materials in the pavement and sub-grade. Probably the two climatic
factors of major significance are temperature and moisture.
The magnitude of temperature and its fluctuation affect the properties of

certain materials. For example, high temperatures cause asphaltic concrete to
lose stability whereas at low temperatures asphaltic concrete becomes very hard
and stiff. Low temperature and temperature fluctuations are also associated with
frost heave and freeze-thaw damage. Granular materials, if not properly graded,
can experience frost heave. Likewise, the sub-grade can exhibit extensive loss in
strength if it becomes frozen. Certain stabilized materials can suffer substantial if
large numbers of freeze-thaw cycles occur in the material.
Moisture also has an important influence on the behavior and performance

of many materials. Sub-grade soils and other paving materials weaken
appreciably when saturated, and certain clayey soils exhibit substantial moisture-
induced volume change.
14.2 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD
14.2.1 JKR Method
This method is a combination of two methods above using a formula and

figures from the result of the testing. A complete guideline for pavement
design can be found in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85. The thickness of the
pavement depends on the CBR value and the Total Cumulative of

Standard Axle ( JBGP ).
Some data need to be collected before starting any design. They are;
i. Design life.
ii. Road hierarchy base of JKR classification.
iii. Average daily traffic volume.
iv. Percentage of commercial vehicle.
v. Yearly rate of traffic growth.
vi. CBR value for sub-grade.
vii. Topography condition.
14.2.3.1 Design Life
The design life on JKR Design Method is suggested for 10 years.

The design life begins from the road starts in use for traffic until the
maintenance is required.
14.2.3.2 Road Hierarchy Base Of JKR Classification.
a. Road Classification and its Construction Material.
CLASS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

A1 Concrete Surfacing
A2 Hard Bituminous Metalled
B Hard Waterbound Metalled
C Hard Bituminous Sealed
D Gravelled Waterbound
E Soil Surfacing
b. Category and its road width.
CATEGORY WIDTH OF ROAD RESAVE

W (m) R (cm)
01 4.5 20.0
02 5.0 30.0
03 6.0 30.0
04 7.0 40.0
05 7.5 40.0
06 3.5 per lane 40.0 or more
Notes : 01 03 Village Roads.
04 06 Urban Roads.
14.2.3.3 Classification by JKR Standard
Road hierarchy Description
R1U & R1 ( A)U1 ( A) The lowest of hierarchy and geometry design level. Traffic for one
way.
R2U 2 This road hierarchy is same like R3 type. Geometry design
U3
level is lowest from R3 type. The lowest hierarchy for single
U3
carriageway.
R3U 3
This road is design for local traffic. Geometry design level low
and non inflow traffic control.
R4U 4
Another road is allowed to intersect in the same level. Geometry
design level is intermediate. Allowed maximum velocity
intermediate.
R5U 5
Inflow control degree half. Distance quite far. Geometry design
R6U 6 level high.
Inflow control degree fully. Distance far. Geometry design level

high
Notes :
R Rural
U Urban
14.2.3.3 Traffic Estimation
To design using this method, commercial vehicles without loading

weight more than 1500 kg are to be taken.
The formula is include:
1 Pc
Vo = PLH x365 x
2 100
Where :
Vo = Total of Yearly Commercial Vehicle for one
direction.( JBKP )
PLH = Average Daily
Traffic Ratio for two directions.
Pc = Commercial Vehicle Percentage.
To determine the Total of Yearly Commercial Vehicle ( JBKP ) for

the one direction for ever lasting Design Life, we have to apply
following formula;
x
Vo [( 1 + r ) 1]
Vc =
r
Where;
Vc = JBKP at one direction for x year.
r = Rate of Traffic Growth.
x = Road pavement Design Life ( in years unit )
To determine the Total Cumulative of Standard Axle ( JBGP ) for

traffic mixture, equivalent axle load concept is used.
JBGP = JBKP x equivalent factor
Where ;
JBKP = Vc
Equivalent Factor = use the data in Table 10.7 = e
Thus,
JBKP = Vc x e
Using the JKR Method, the traffic volume checklist is used by

comparing the maximum traffic volume. The formula is;
Vx = V 1 ( 1 + r ) X
Where;
Vx = The total traffic volume (commercial and non

commercial) at the end of pavement design life
of one direction after x year.
V1 = The Daily Traffic Volume of one direction
r = Rate of Yearly Traffic Growth.
x = Life design (in years unit)
c=IxRxT
Where;
c = Maxima Traffic Loading per hour for one way.
I = Absolute Traffic Loading per hour - ( Refer
Table 10.8 )
R = Road Decreasing Factor ( Refer
Table 10.9 )
T = Traffic Decreasing Factor ( Refer Table
10.10 )
In JKR Standard, Traffic Loading for an hour is assumed that equal

with 10 % daily loading, as:
C = 10 x c
Where;
C = Daily Traffic Loading ( 24 hours traffic loading
at one direction)
c = Traffic Loading per hour.
With comparison C value and Vx, we can conclude that;
a). C > Vx - Road still obtain to support the Traffic Volume

at the end of the life design for x years.
b). C < Vx - Road cannot obtain to support the Traffic
volume at the end of the life design for x
years.
For (b) condition, this formula are used,
C = V ( 1 + r )n
Where;
log( C / V )
n = log( 1 + r )
C = Daily Traffic Loading for one way ( 24 hours )

V = Daily Traffic Volume for one way that
assumed loaded for road.
r = Rate of Yearly Traffic Growth.
n = Life Design.
14.2.3.4 CBR-Sub-grade Value
To determine the CBR value, 1.0 m sub-grade soil must be taken

from the hard rock level. To get CBR for sub-grade design, this
formula must be applied.
NGC (%) =
( NGC 1)1 / 3 h1 + ( NGC 2)
1 / 3 h 2 +.......... .. (
NGC n)
1 / 3 hn

100

Where;
NGC1, NGC2 , = CBR value for layer 1,2 .
h1, h2 = soil deepness from form level for
sample 1,2 .
14.2.3.5 Pavement Thickness Design
Figure 10.8 shows the Nomograph Thickness Design that is used

to design pavement thickness. An early process of design, the
CBR (Sub-grade) and JBGP value must be determined first. To use
the Nomograph, the following steps are normally applied.
Line A value is fixed to 3% and line B is the required JBGP. Draw a

straight crossed line. Then determine C values i.e the thickness
Equivalent, (TA).
a. Insert CBR design value at the line A and draw a line by using
previous C value until crossing line D, Determine D value i.e the
Equivalent Thickness Interval (TA), if all the entire pavement is
constructed from the wearing course or road base.
To determine the thickness of each pavement layer, table 10.11

and table 10.12 is used with the following formula below i.e to
determine D1, D2 and D3 value of the surface layers, base and road
sub-base.
SN = a1D1 + a2D2 + a3D3
Where,
a 1, a 2, a 3 = Determine from the table 10.11 based on the
types of pavement requirement at the certain
layers.
= Layer Structure Coefficient.
D1, D2, D3 = Approximate thickness design of the certain
layer ( minimum thickness value according to

table 10.12 )
ACTIVITY 14

INPUT
Question
1. State the factors of design that will give impact on to the designing of
flexible pavement.
2. What is the meaning of R2U 2 in road hierarchy outlined by JKR standard.
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 14
Answer
1.
a. Failure Criterion
b. Traffic Loading
c. Climate or Environment
d. Moisture
2. R2U 2 -
This road hierarchy is same like R3

U 3 type. Geometry design level is
lowest from R3
U 3 type. The lowest hierarchy for single carriageway. R is
for Rural and U is for urban,
Question
A road with hierarchy of 05 has a surface width of 7.0 m and road reserve of
40.0m is to be built as a main road in a residential area. It has a initial average
daily traffic of 7000cv/day in both directions. The rate of traffic growth is 7%.
Percentage of commercial vehicle is 25%. Design a flexible pavement for the
road which needs a design life of 10 years. The CBR for sub-grade of the road is
5%. ( Employ the JKR Malaysia Design Method ).
Note:
Requirement of pavement layers:
i. Wearing Course = Asphalt Concrete.
ii. Road-Base Course = Broken Aggregate.
iii. Sub-Base Course = Broken Aggregate.
Answer
1 Pc
Vo = PLH x365 x
2 100
1 25
Vo = 6800 x365 x
2 100
= 310250
x
Vo [( 1 + r ) 1]
Vc =
r
10
310250 [ ( 1 + 0.07 ) 1]
Vc =
0.07
= 4286552.98
JBGP = JBKP X EQUAVALENT FACTOR
JBKP = Vc x e
JBKP = 4.29 x 106 x3.0
= 12.87 x 106
Vx = V1 ( 1 + r ) x
Vx = 6800/2( 1 + 0.07 )10
Vx = 6689
c=IxRxT
I = Absolute Traffic Loading per hour - ( Refer

Table 10.8 )
= 2000/2
= 1000
R = Road Decreasing Factor ( Refer

Table 10.9 )
= 1.0
T = Traffic Decreasing Factor ( Refer Table

10.10 )
= 100/(100 + 25 )
= 0.8
c = IxRxT
= 1000 x 1.00 x 0.8
= 800 vec/hr/lane
C = 100c
= 100(800 vec/hr/lane )
= 8000 vec/day/lane
From Nomograph Diagram;
D = 43 cm
From table10.11 and table 10.12
a1 = 1.00
a2 = 0.32
a3 = 0.25
From table 10.12
Wearing Course = 4+5
= 9 cm
Base Course = 10 cm
Sub Base = 10 cm granular
SN = a1D1 + a2D2 + a3D3
SN = 1D1 + 0.32D2 + 0.25D3

= 43 cm
Try and Error
1. D1 = 9
D2 = 10
D3 = 10
SN = 1(9) + 0.32(10) + 0.25(10)
= 14.7 cm < 43 cm
2. D1 = 20
D2 = 40
D3 = 50
SN = 1(20) + 0.32(40) + 0.25(50)
= 46 cm > 43 cm
3. D1 = 18
D2 = 40
D3 = 50
SN = 1(18) + 0.32(40) + 0.25(50)
= 43.3 cm < 43 cm OK
ROAD MAINTENANCE
UNIT 15
ROAD MAINTENANCE
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the management and the types of road maintenance.
Specific Objectives

identify the types of maintenance operation.
describe the categories of maintenance.
explain the purpose of road maintenance.
identify the organizations of road maintenance in Malaysia.
state the maintenance operation activities.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
INPUT
ROAD MAINTENANCE
15.0 INTRODUCTION
Road maintenance is a continuous process that involves keeping and

repairing the existing road . So, it is carried out to control the rate of damage
and to ensure the safety towards the road users or the public. Thus, the
maintenance is done in order ;
a. to ensure the durability of the road.

b. To maintain the usage for the traffic user.
c. To improve the traffic system operation.
15.1 MAINTENANCE OPERATION
The highway maintenance operation is specifically planned according to

restorative and preventive methods. It is categorized into the following ;
a. Immediate maintenance.
b. Routine maintenance.
c. Periodic maintenance.
d. Rehabilitation maintenance.
15.1.1 Immediate Maintenance
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Immediate maintenance is carried out to overcome an incident that

happened outside the immediate maintenance area . The incidents are ;
a. bank avalanche
b. erosion
c. flood
d. carcass
e. traffic light damage
f. accident
15.1.2 Routine maintenance
Routine and periodic maintenance are implemented in order to avoid

massive destruction that was caused by heavy traffic and weather condition.
These two types of maintenance are also needed to ensure the safety of the
road users , in terms of environment and the road condition. The following
table is on routine operation maintenance.
a. Routine Operation Maintenance
Activities Return period
- Grass cutting. - 4 6 times per year

- Drainage cleaning - 12 times per year
- Puddle patch/tile. - if needed
- Road shoulder maintenance. - 2 3 times per year
- Bridge and culvert cleaning. - 2 times per year
- Sign board cleaning. - 2 3 times per year
- Bridge maintenance. - 1 2 times per year
- Traffic light and - When have any requirement.
intersection checking.
b. Periodic Operation Maintenance
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Activities Return period
- Rebuild A2 road surface with 7 10 years per time

premix.
- Surface dressing. 3 5 years per time
- Grading and rebroadcast 2 3 years per time
shoulder roads stone.
- Replace the members of 2 3 years per time
wooden bridge.
- Paint the center road line. 1 2 times per year
15.2 UPGRADING
Road upgrading is needed when routine and periodic maintenance are not
sufficient to achieve a quality that is required. Therefore, road maintenance is
carried out when the number of traffic increases.
The maintenance work routine depends on the road and the traffic
condition. It is usually determined by obtaining the Benkelmen Beam Test result
of the existing road surface. Examples of the upgrading work are:-
a. Flatten road tile.
b. Maintaining the road shoulder and roadside drain.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
ACTIVITY 15A
WANT TO IMPROVE YOUR UNDERSTANDING? TRY THESE ACTIVITIES AND GOOD

LUCK!!!
15.1 What is the general purpose of road maintenance?
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
c. ______________________________
15.2 Write down 4 categories that include in the maintenance operation.

a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
c. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
15.3 Match the correct return period and its activities of routine operation
maintenance below.
Grass cutting 12 times per year
Drainage cleaning 4 6 times per year
Puddle patch/tile. If need
Road shoulder maintenance 2 times per year
Bridge and culvert cleaning 2 3 times per year
ROAD MAINTENANCE
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 15A

15.1 What is the general purpose of road maintenance?
a. Make the road that built everlasting and stronger.
b. Highway maintenance for the traffic use.
c. Improve the traffic system operation.
15.2 Write down 4 categories that include in the maintenance operation.

a. Immediate maintenance.
b. Routine maintenance.
c. Periodic maintenance.
d. Rehabilitation maintenance.
16.3 Match the correct return period on activities of routine operation

maintenance as listed below.
Grass cutting 12 times per year
Drainage cleaning 4 6 times per year
Puddle patch/tile. If need
Road shoulder maintenance 2 times per year
Bridge and culvert cleaning 2 3 times per year
ROAD MAINTENANCE
15.2 MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
The organizations that are involved with the road maintenance in Malaysia
are:
1. Federation Government by Highway Malaysian Boarded for highway link

maintenance.
2. Federation Government by Federation JKR for federation road link
maintenance.
3. State Government by State JKR, District JKR, Town Council etc.
The size , manpower , location and equipment / machines of the maintenance

organizations vary according to the types and length of roads and types of work
to be done. The immediate maintenance and routine maintenance are usually
done by class F contractors where the maintenance work is done by using hand
tools and observed by Foreman.
Road Division
(District JKR)
O.B
Division Supervisor
(Technician)
Foreman Foreman Foreman

(workers 1) (workers 2) (workers 3)
ROAD MAINTENANCE
In implementing the routine maintenance and upgrading works , it is done

by increasing the manpower, material, tools and machines . They are operated
as one gang. The jobs will then be carried out by the contractors workers. While
the Supervisor Division will be monitoring them.
A good relationship between the road maintenance contractor or

organization and the civilian or the public is important in providing good
services and safety for the road users Roads are public property and the road
maintenance contractor is responsible to maintain it
15.3.1 Example of Maintenance Management
This is example for maintenance management that has been done

by JKR.
a. Puddle patch.
Substances : Premix
Tools/Machinery : 1 2 lories.
1 small plate.
1 compaction machine
1 machinery platform.
1 set traffic controller.
1 set of safety jacket, hammer and
scoops.
Main powers : 1 foreman

8 workers
1 driver
Work limited : 2 3 mile/day
ROAD MAINTENANCE
b. Road center line painted ( main power )
Substances : Paint ( white/yellow )

Tools/Machinery : 3 5 painted brush
3 painting rope line
20 cylinders con.
1 safety jacket.
1 set of road-crossing controller.
Workers : 1 foreman
5 workers.
Work limited : - mile/day
c. Single layer surface ( surface dressing )
Substances : Well crusher run

Binder course 80/100 bitumen
Tools/Machinery : 1 carriage machine
1 pneumatic tyre roller
1 sprayer bitumen machine
1 sweep machine.
3 unit 10 ton carriage lorry.
Workers : 1 foreman
8 drivers
Work limited : 2/3 mile for 18ft road width
Note : The work will be done in dry surface
condition and well whether.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
d. Grass cutting routine on Road Shoulder
Substances : 3 grass cutting machine

1 van
3 sickle
Workers : 1 foreman
3 workers
1 driver
e. Culvert cleaning
Substances : capping stone cover layer, mine sand

cement and ext drain.
Tool/ Machinery : Scoops
Small exe
Mortar hand tools
Wheel barrow
1 small lorry
1 digging machine
Workers : 1 foreman
1 driver
1 digging machine driver
10 workers
Work efficiency : depend on situation
ROAD MAINTENANCE
15.3 ROAD MANTENANCE ACTIVITIES
The maintenance operation and its process are stated in the

table of the previous sub topic; they are routine time, immediate time
and emergency time .
However, the maintenance operation activities can be categorized into :-
a. Maintenance of road surface.

b. Maintenance of road shoulder and road side drain.
c. Maintenance of culvert.
d. Maintenance of road sign and road furniture.
e. Maintenance of puddle and hole.
15.4.1 Maintenance of road surface.
Road surface maintenance or resurfacing work must be done

regularly. Surface maintenance program will be done as follow:-
a. Resurfacing A2 class by premix.
This is done due to the high traffic flow (approximately 1000 pcu/hr
of traffic per day). Roads under A2 class must be resurfaced from
time to time. Before any resurfacing of road is being carried out,
several important criteria should be considered , namely:-
- Proper drainage system.

- Culvert line is not clog.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
- Side drain must be cleaned with sufficient design

gradient.
- Stabilize road shoulder with its sufficient design gradient.
- Precaution signage and safety divider must be provided.
- All kind of machineries such as Road Premix Vehicle,
steam roller vehicle, a tanker and bitumen emulsion
binder must be at the wok site.
- Premix substances at plant provider must be ready and
all means of transportation to transport workers are also
necessary.
During the resurfacing of the road , heat or temperature

control is a stringent step. Since premix is a hot substance ,all
processes involved such as transporting, premixing and rolling
,should be carried out instantly before its temperature drop.
Before premixing is done, the substances temperature should not
be under 1350 C ( 2750 F ). While during premixing, it is not wise to
resurfacing the road under humid surface or during raining day.
Standard BS 1621 bitumen macadam premix is seldom

used by JKR. While premix quarries is becoming less in usage
compared to Asphalt Concrete Premix . This is because it is ,
stronger and lasting .
b. Surface Dressing
Surface dressing is carried out by resurfacing the road on B

and C class where the average traffic are below than 100 pcu/hr.
Surface dressing is done by resurfacing one or two layers. If it is
done correctly, the surface is smooth with a good skidding
resistance. Compared to premix, the surface dressing method does
ROAD MAINTENANCE
not last long and the surface is a bit rough. However, the sealing
effect is good and can withstand water sealing effect or withstand
the humidity underneath.
Good surface dressing works need:-
- Suitable gravel grading according to sizes.

- Free dust and free humidity of the gravel or
aggregate.
- Cuboids gravel are preferred in order to have a
suitable mixing ratio with bitumen.
- Gravel distribution rate with binder substance must
suit to existing road surfaces which are due to sizes and
the traffic volume.
- New road surface must be premixed before any
treatment process can be carried out.
c. Gravel and Soil Road Surface Maintenance.
i. Gravel Road
Gravel surface road consists of selected gravel and is not

given any bitumens mix. State and village road from D
and E class are from this types of road. This kind of
gravel contains laterite soil, gravel hill and shale.
ii. Soil Road
Normally, soil road is appropriate to be used during dry

weather. Although dusty, soil road also can give
condusive surface for driving. Soil road is normally build
ROAD MAINTENANCE
from the nearest soil. The strength of the road to support

the traffic depends on the location of the road, type of the
soil around it and weather. To ensure the construction of
the road (E class road ) is good, full concentration must
be given to the maintenance works especially shaping
and drainage.
15.4.2 Road Shoulder and Road Side Drain Maintenance
a. Road Shoulder
The functions of a road shoulder are; it
i. prepares a flat support to the road pavement.
ii. drains the water surface to the road side drain and
avoid humidity from diffusion.
iii. provides space for traffic users to stop by the
roadside of the road and also for emergency lane
during overtaking, especially on the one way street
road.
iv. provides lane/ path for pedestrians and cyclists
v. provides space for traffic signs and guard rails.
The maintenance process of the soil and gravel of the road

shoulder are:-
i. reshaping and leveling the road shoulder using motor

grader.
ii. Topping/ Adding new substances to fill up the lost
substance due to erosion and traffic impact.
iii. Compacting the new and existence substances by
leveling and rolling.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
b. Roadside drain.
It is located at the side of the road. The functions are; it
i. removes the water from the road surface.

ii. avoids the water from high level to flow over to the
road area.
iii. avoids water diffusion that will cause the sub-grade
failure.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
ACTIVITY 15B
WANT TO IMPROVE YOUR UNDERSTANDING? TRY THESE ACTIVITIES AND GOOD

LUCK!!!
15.4 Name the organizations that are involved in road maintenance in

Malaysia.
1. __________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________
15.5 The maintenance operation activities can be categorized into 5

categories. List down all the categories.
i. __________________________________________________
ii. __________________________________________________
iii. __________________________________________________
iv. __________________________________________________
v. __________________________________________________
ROAD MAINTENANCE
FEEDBACK ON
ACTIVITY 15B
15.4 Name the organizations that involve with road maintenance in Malaysia.
1. Federation Government by Highway Malaysian Boarded for highway

link maintenance.
2. Federation Government by Federation JKR for federation road link
maintenance.
3. State Government by State JKR, District JKR, Town Council ect. For
local and state roads link.
15.5 The maintenance operation activities can be categorized into 5 categories.

List down all the categories.
i. Maintenance of road surface.

ii. Maintenance of road shoulder and road side drain.
iii. Maintenance of culvert.
iv. Maintenance of road sign and road furniture.
v. Maintenance of puddle and hole.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Question 15 - 1
The highway maintenance operation is specifically planned according to
restorative and preventive. It can be categorized into several types of
maintenance. Describe the immediate maintenance.
Question 15 - 2
Surface maintenance or resurfacing work must be done regularly. Explain

briefly about Resurfacing A2 class by Premix.
Question 15 - 2
State three functions of roadside drain.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Answer 15.1
Immediate maintenance is required to overcome the incident which

happens outside of the immediate maintenance area. The incidents are
a. bank avalanche
b. erosion
c. flood
d. carcass
e. traffic light damage
f. accident
Answer 15.2
d. Resurfacing A2 class by premix.
This is done due to the high traffic flow (approximately 1000 pcu/hr
of traffic per day). Roads under A2 class must be resurfaced from
time to time. Before any resurfacing of road is being carried out,
several important criteria should be considered , namely:-
- Proper drainage system.

- Culvert line is not clog.
ROAD MAINTENANCE
- Side drain must be cleaned with sufficient design

gradient.
- Stabilize road shoulder with its sufficient design gradient.
- Precaution signage and safety divider must be provided.
- All kind of machineries such as Road Premix Vehicle,
steam roller vehicle, a tanker and bitumen emulsion
binder must be at the wok site.
- Premix substances at plant provider must be ready and
all means of transportation to transport workers are also
necessary.
During the resurfacing of the road , heat or temperature

control is a stringent step. Since premix is a hot substance ,all
processes involved such as transporting, premixing and rolling
,should be carried out instantly before its temperature drop.
Before premixing is done, the substances temperature should not
be under 1350 C ( 2750 F ). While during premixing, it is not wise to
resurfacing the road under humid surface or during raining day.
Standard BS 1621 bitumen macadam premix is seldom

used by JKR. While premix quarries is becoming less in usage
compared to Asphalt Concrete Premix . This is because it is ,
stronger and lasting .
ROAD MAINTENANCE
Answer 15.3
The functions of roadside are:-
1. It removes the water from the road surface.

2. It avoids the water from high level to flow over to the
road area.
3. It avoids water diffusion that will cause the sub-
grade failure.

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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1

BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS

Name : Azman Bin Hasan

Name : Norazila Binti Abdul Aziz

What Do You Think Of This Module?

Title of Module: _______________________ Module Code : ___________

Students Name: _______________________ Registration No. : ___________

Module Writers: ______________________________

Please use the following scale for your evaluation:

Instruction : Please on the space provided.

The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by

No. TOPIC UNIT Total

1 Introduction Of Highway 1 3 Hours

2 Planning Technique and 2 3 6 Hours

Traffic Control And 9 10

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

UNIT 2 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

UNIT 3 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION

UNIT 4 PAVEMENT MATERIAL ( Part 1 )

UNIT 5 PAVEMENT MATERIAL ( Part 2 )

UNIT 6 CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ( Part 1 )

UNIT 7 CONSTRUCTION OF RIGID/CONCRETE PAVEMENT

UNIT 9 TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURES ( Part 1 )

UNIT 10 TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURES ( Part 2 )

UNIT 11 BASIC CHARACTERISTIC ROAD SYSTEMS ( Part 1 )

11.3 Vehicle Operating Characteristic

UNIT 13 BASIC CHARACTERISTIC ROAD SYSTEMS ( Part 3 )

UNIT 14 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

UNIT 15 ROAD MAINTAINANCE

1. This module is divided into 17 units.

Subject Unit 1 Page number 8

Answers to the questions in the activity section are given here

1. You have to follow the units in sequence.

PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE

At the end of this module, students should be able to :

TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES NEEDED

1. Road Work Theory and Practical, Wignall and P.S Kendrick.

To understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.

At the end of the unit you should be able to :-

CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURE FOR

1.0.1 Different modes of transportation

Modes of transportation can be classified as follows :

The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of

Similarly planning, designing, operation, control and maintenance

Besides the above stated four major modes of transportation, fluids

1.0.2 Road transport characteristics

a. Roads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock

1.1 HISTORY OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :

1.1.1 Early roads

After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be

1.1.2 Roman roads

In the ancient Rome era, more intensive system of roads was

those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction. Many of the

1.1.3 Modern roads

In eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads

Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in

1.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF SOME IMPORTANT EARLY ROADS

Important early roads include:

a. Roman roads construction

1.2.1 Roman roads

Romans developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the

The main characteristics of Roman roads were as follows:

Title of Module: _____________ Module Code : _

Students Name: _____________ Registration No. : _