Data Analysis

Zeynab Moosavi
Be very accurate and careful
when working with the data
Data Analysis
Check
Double-check

Triple check

Quadruple check
 The purpose

a) To answer the research

questions
b) to help determine
relationships among the
variables.
 Steps in Data Analysis

Before Data
Collection

After Data
Collection
 Before Data Collection
Determine the method of data analysis

Determine how to process the data

Consult a statistician

Prepare dummy tables

 After Data Collection

Process the data

Prepare tables and graphs
Analyze and interpret findings
Consult again the statistician
Prepare for editing
Prepare for presentation
Data Analysis

Coding data

write a code number on each completed

questionnaire (unique identifier)

Assign numbers to the response items

If the question isnt answered, leave the cell blank

Calculating descriptive statistics

Blank Excel Worksheet
Create a data base title

https://www.wcasa.org/file_open.php?id=951
 Missing Data
Participants do not answer certain items on a
questionnaire
it is not clear what the correct answer is
not be able to read the answer
they might have circled two responses
in pre- & post-test experiments, participants
complete one phase of the study, such as the pre-
test, but are absent for the second phase
 Reverse Coded Items

The items are reverse coded.

Refers to the items that actually say the opposite
of what was intended.
For example,
"I enjoy going to school Strongly
Disagreeing
the other item is "I dislike school Strongly
agreeing
 Kinds of Data Analysis
Descriptive
Analysis
Inferential
Analysis
 Descriptive Analysis
refers to the description of the data from a
particular sample;
hence the conclusion must refer only to the sample
these summarize the data and describe sample
characteristics

Descriptive Statistics
are numerical values obtained from the sample that
gives meaning to the data collected.
Types of Descriptive Statistics

frequencies
central tendency
(averages)

variability
 Frequency
the number of participants who
indicated that category
 central tendency (averages)
1. Mode

2. Median

3. Mean
 variability

Statistics that concern the degree to which the

scores in a distribution are different from or
similar to each other
 Inferential Analysis
The use of statistical tests, either to test for
significant relationships among variables or to
find statistical support for the hypotheses.
Inferential Statistics
are numerical values that enable the researcher
to draw conclusion about a population based on
the characteristics of a population sample.

the researcher draws conclusions - or

inferences - about the entire
population based on the results from
the sample.
The purpose is
to determine whether the
findings from the sample can
generalize - or be applied - to the
entire population
Inferential statistics is used to determine
whether the difference between the two
groups in the sample is large enough to be able
to say that the findings are significant.
If the findings are indeed significant, then
the conclusions can be applied, or generalized,
to the entire population. On the other hand, if
the difference between the groups is very
small, then the findings are not significant and
therefore were simply in the result of chance.
This p-value is
the probability that the result is due to chance.
The p-value can range from 0.000 to 1.000. The
larger p is, the more likely the results are due to
chance.
If p is 0.50, the probability that the result is due to
chance is 5 out of 10.
A p of 0.850 means that the probability that the
result is due to chance is 85 out of 100
The standard in research is that the p
must be is less than 0.05 for the results to
be significant.
if the calculated p-value is less than
0.050, then the null hypothesis is
rejected. If the statement "There is no
significant difference" is rejected, this
means that there is a significant
difference. It can therefore be concluded
that a difference exists between the two
groups in the population, not just the
sample.
 Null
p<0.05 hypothesis is
rejected
P-value
Null
p>0.05 hypothesis is
retained
 Create Tables and Figures
Every table must be discussed in the text.
Refer to tables by the table numbers only, not where
they appear in reference to the text.
This is acceptable: "As can be seen in Table 3..."
This is not acceptable: "The table above shows..."
The rationale for this rule is that the placement of the
table may change when the final document is produced.
Readers should be able to interpret a table just by
looking at the table, without reading the body of the
research report itself. Therefore, each table should
have a clear title that focuses on the key statistics
within that table and all acronyms and abbreviations
should be explained in the table notes.
 Rules
Table titles should be brief, but clearly explain the
table.
All similar entries in the table should carry the
same number of decimal points
Every entry within the same column should have
the same number of decimal places.
P-values & correlations should be rounded to three
decimal places (thousandths place value)
All other numbers (means, standard deviations, t-
values, F-values) should carry two decimal places
(hundredths place value).

If you are not the original author of the table, you

must cite the source of the table in a note at the
bottom.
Once the tables have been placed in the text,
number the tables starting from 1 in the order
that they appear in the work.

The decimal points must be lined up in each of

the columns. This makes the table easier to
read.

Tables typically have a horizontal rule at the

top, bottom, and after the table labels. Vertical
lines are rarely used according to APA
regulations
 Figures
Graphs effectively illustrate means, frequencies, and
percentages
figures should also be fully understandable without
reading the text, but also be referenced in the text
Figures should also be numbered consecutively
Notes should be included so the reader can easily
interpret the figure
Figures do not have titles
A caption or legend at the bottom of the figure
functions both as a title and an explanation of the
The Results section should be
structured around:
the demographics of the participants
reviewing the purpose of the study
answer each Research Question one by one
Explain the statistic used to answer the Research questions
Explain the measurement of each variable
Present the statistics in a Table or Figure
Interpret the statistics.
Errors in reporting of the Results:
A lack of clear reporting:
Numbers are reported in a table, but it is unclear
how the numbers were calculated based on the
items from the questionnaire
The statistics are not thoroughly explained:
Research hypotheses particularly need a detailed
explanation to interpret the key findings.
To repeat all statistics from the Table/Figure
in the body of the text.