Atlantis (in Greek, Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, "island of Atlas") is a legendary island first mentioned

inPlato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias.

In Plato's account, Atlantis was a naval power lying "in front of the Pillars of Hercules" that
conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9,000 years before the time of Solon, or
approximately 9600 BC. After a failed attempt to invade Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a
single day and night of misfortune".

Scholars dispute whether and how much Plato's story or account was inspired by older traditions.
Some scholars argue Plato drew upon memories of past events such as the Thera eruption or
the Trojan War, while others insist that he took inspiration from contemporary events like the
destruction of Helike in 373 BC[1] or the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC.

The possible existence of a genuine Atlantis was discussed throughout classical antiquity, but it
was usually rejected and occasionally parodied by later authors. As Alan Cameron states: "It is
only in modern times that people have taken the Atlantis story seriously; no one did so in
antiquity".[2] While little known during the Middle Ages, the story of Atlantis was rediscovered
by Humanists in the Early Modern period. Plato's description inspired the utopian works of
several Renaissance writers, like Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis". Atlantis inspires today's
literature, from science fiction to comic books to films, its name having become a byword for any
and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Plato's account

• 2 Reception

o 2.1 Ancient

o 2.2 Modern

 2.2.1 In Nazi mysticism

 2.2.2 Recent times

• 3 Location hypotheses

o 3.1 In or near the Mediterranean Sea

o 3.2 In the Atlantic Ocean

o 3.3 Other locations

• 4 Art, literature and popular culture

• 5 Notes
 • 6 Further reading

• 7 External links

[edit]Plato's account

A 15th-century Latin translation of Plato'sTimaeus

Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written in 360 BC, contain the earliest references to
Atlantis. For unknown reasons, Plato never completed Critias; however, the scholar Benjamin
Jowett, among others, argues that Plato originally planned a third dialogue
titled Hermocrates. John V. Luceassumes that Plato, after describing the origin of the world and
mankind in Timaeus and the allegorical perfect society of ancient Athens and its successful
defense against an antagonistic Atlantis in Critias, would have made the strategy of the Greek
civilization during their conflict with thePersians a subject of discussion in the Hermocrates. Plato
introduced Atlantis in Timaeus:

For it is related in our records how once upon a time your State stayed the course of a mighty host, which,
starting from a distant point in the Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to attack the whole of Europe,
and Asia to boot. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; for in front of the mouth which you Greeks
call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' there lay an island which was larger than Libya and Asia together;
and it was possible for the travelers of that time to cross from it to the other islands, and from the islands to
the whole of the continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that we have
here, lying within the mouth of which we speak, is evidently a haven having a narrow entrance; but that
yonder is a real ocean, and the land surrounding it may most rightly be called, in the fullest and truest sense,
a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there existed a confederation of kings, of great and marvelous
power, which held sway over all the island, and over many other islands also and parts of the continent.[3]
The four persons appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as
well as the philosophers Socrates andTimaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis.
While most likely all of these people actually lived, these dialogues, written as if recorded, may
have been the invention of Plato. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic
dialogues in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition.

The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of
the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect
society, described in Plato's Republic (ca. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might
recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that
would make the perfect example, and follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias.
In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the "perfect society" and Atlantis its opponent,
representing the very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic. Critias claims that
his accounts of ancient Athens and Atlantis stem from a visit to Egypt by the legendary Athenian
lawgiver Solon in the 6th century BC. In Egypt, Solon met a priest of Sais, who translated the
history of ancient Athens and Atlantis, recorded on papyri in Egyptian hieroglyphs, into Greek.
According to Plutarch, Solon met with "Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis the Saite, the most
learned of all the priests";[4] Plutarch refers here to events that would have happened five
centuries before he wrote of them.

According to Critias, the Hellenic gods of old divided the land so that each god might own a
lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island
was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined,[5] but it afterwards was sunk by
anearthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean.
The Egyptians, Plato asserted, described Atlantis as an island comprising mostly mountains in
the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in
the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across
the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi]
from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides...broke it off all round about[6]... the
central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].[7]

In Plato's myth, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore
him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island
and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth
and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given
the extremity of the island towards the Pillars of Hercules.[8] The other four pairs of twins—
Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and
Diaprepes—were also given "rule over many men, and a large territory."
Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three
circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land
proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a
route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges
carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain;
they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by
gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings. The walls were constructed of
red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin and the
precious metal orichalcum, respectively.[9]

According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the
Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had
conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules as far as Egypt and the European
continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance
of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone
against the empire, liberating the occupied lands.

But at a later time there occurred portentous earthquakes and floods, and one grievous day and night befell
them, when the whole body of your warriors was swallowed up by the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like
manner was swallowed up by the sea and vanished; wherefore also the ocean at that spot has now become
impassable and unsearchable, being blocked up by the shoal mud which the island created as it settled
down.[10]
[edit]Reception

[edit]Ancient

Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fiction while others believed it was real.[11] The
philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's studentXenocrates, is often cited as an example of a
writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Plato's Timaeus, is
lost, but Proclus, a Christian historian of the fifth century AD, reports on it.[12] The passage in
question has been represented in the modern literature as both claiming that Crantor actually
visited Egypt and had conversations with priests and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story, or as
learning about them from other visitors to Egypt.[13] Proclus wrote

As for the whole of this account of the Atlanteans, some say that it is unadorned history, such as Crantor,
the first commentator on Plato. Crantor also says that Plato's contemporaries used to criticize him jokingly
for not being the inventor of his Republic but copying the institutions of the Egyptians. Plato took these critics
seriously enough to assign to the Egyptians this story about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make
them say that the Athenians really once lived according to that system.

The next sentence is often translated as Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the
Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars
which are still preserved. But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but
with the word 'He', and whether this referred to Crantor or Plato is the subject of considerable
debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the word
should be translated as Crantor[14] Alan Cameron argues that it should be interpreted as 'Plato',
and that when Proclus writes we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians,
that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others
as myth... he is treating "Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first
quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes."[15] Cameron
also points out that whether 'he' refers to Plato or Crantor, it does not support statements such as
Otto Muck's "Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely
covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for
him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis...." or J.V.
Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" and that he may simply be
referring to Plato's own claims.[15]

Another passage from Proclus' commentary on the Timaeus gives a description of the geography
of Atlantis: "That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by
certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there
were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of
enormous size, one of which was sacred to Pluto, another to Ammon, and another one between
them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km]; and the inhabitants of it—
they add—preserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of
Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in
the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things
Marcellus has written in his Aethiopica".[16] Marcellus remains unidentified.

Other ancient historians and philosophers believing in the existence of Atlantis

were Strabo and Posidonius.[17]

Plato's account of Atlantis may have also inspired parodic imitation: writing only a few decades
after the Timaeus and Critias, the historianTheopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the
ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his voluminousPhilippica,
which contains a dialogue between King Midas and Silenus, a companion of Dionysus. Silenus
describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on
the island of Meropis (Cos?): Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, "Pious-town") and Machimos(Μάχιμος,
"Fighting-town"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to
conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans
were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other
details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, for the
purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.[18]

Zoticus, a Neoplatonist philosopher of the 3rd century AD, wrote an epic poem based on Plato's
account of Atlantis.[19]

The 4th century AD historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a
historian writing in the 1st century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the
inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's
testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's actual sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to
western Europe; but Ammianus in fact says that “the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the
population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond theRhine"
(Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the
Netherlands or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west.
[20]
Instead, the Celts that dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods (Dioscori)
that appeared to them coming from that ocean.[21]

A Hebrew treatise on computational astronomy dated to AD 1378/79, alludes to the Atlantis myth
in a discussion concerning the determination of zero points for the calculation of longitude:

Some say that they [the inhabited regions] begin at the beginning of the western ocean [the Atlantic] and
beyond. For in the earliest times [literally: the first days] there was an island in the middle of the ocean.
There were scholars there, who isolated themselves in [the pursuit of] philosophy. In their day, that was the
[beginning for measuring] the longitude[s] of the inhabited world. Today, it has become [covered by the?]
sea, and it is ten degrees into the sea; and they reckon the beginning of longitude from the beginning of the
western sea.[22]

A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire. From Ignatius L. Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian
World, 1882.
[edit]Modern

Francis Bacon's 1627 essay The New Atlantis describes a utopian society that he called
Bensalem, located off the western coast of America. A character in the narrative gives a history of
Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. It is not clear whether Bacon
means North orSouth America. Isaac Newton's 1728 The Chronology of the Ancient Kingdoms
Amended studies a variety of mythological links to Atlantis.[23] In the middle and late 19th century,
several renownedMesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg,
and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon proposed that Atlantis was
somehow related toMayan and Aztec culture. The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian
World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. Donnelly took Plato's
account of Atlantis seriously and attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were
descended from its high Neolithic culture. He also said that Atlantis was technologically
advanced, saying that Atlantians invented gunpowder and the compass thousands of years
before the rest of the world invented written language.

Ignatius L. Donnelly, Americancongressman, and writer on Atlantis.

During the late 19th century, ideas about the legendary nature of Atlantis were combined with
stories of other lost continents such as Mu and Lemuria. Helena Blavatsky wrote in The Secret
Doctrinethat the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato who describes them mainly as
a military threat), and are the fourth "Root Race", succeeded by the "Aryan
race". Theosophists believe thecivilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and
900,000 years ago but destroyed itself through internal warfare brought about by the inhabitants'
dangerous use of magical powers.Rudolf Steiner wrote of the cultural evolution of Atlantis[24] in
much the same vein. Edgar Cayce first mentioned Atlantis in 1923,[25] and later suggested that it
was originally a continent-sized region extending from the Azores to the Bahamas, holding an
ancient, highly evolved civilization which had ships and aircraft powered by a mysterious form of
energy crystal. He also predicted that parts of Atlantis would rise in 1968 or 1969. The Bimini
Road, a submerged rock formation of large rectangular stones just off North Bimini Island in the
Bahamas, was claimed by Robert Ferro and Michael Grumley[26] to be evidence of the lost
civilization.

According to Herodotus (c. 430 BC), a Phoenician expedition had circumnavigated Africa at the
behest of pharaoh Necho, sailing south down the Red Sea and Indian Ocean and northwards in
the Atlantic, re-entering the Mediterranean Sea through the Pillars of Hercules. His description of
northwest Africa makes it very clear that he located the Pillars of Hercules precisely where they
are located today. Nevertheless, a supposed belief that they had been placed at the Strait of
Sicily prior to Eratosthenes, has been cited in some Atlantis theories.

American psychic Edgar Cayce, 1910

[edit]In Nazi mysticism

The concept of Atlantis attracted Nazi theorists. In 1938, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich

Himmler organized aGerman expedition to Tibet in 1939 to search for Aryan Atlanteans[citation needed],
although this suggestion has been criticised as inaccurate[27] and that the expedition was looking
for the origins of the 'Europid' race or that it was a more general biological expedition[28].
According to Julius Evola, writing in 1934,[29] the Atlanteans were Hyperboreans—Nordic
supermen who originated on the North pole (see Thule). Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (The Myth of
the Twentieth Century, 1930) spoke of a "Nordic-Atlantean" or "Aryan-Nordic" master race.
[edit]Recent times

As continental drift became more widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased
understanding ofplate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the
geologically recent past,[30]most “Lost Continent” theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.
Instead, the fictional nature of elements of Plato's story became widely emphasized.
Plato scholar Dr. Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had
this to say on the matter:

The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers of reading Plato. For he is clearly using
what has become a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an event (and the discovery of
hitherto unknown authorities) as an indication that what follows is fiction. The idea is that we should use the
story to examine our ideas of government and power. We have missed the point if instead of thinking about
these issues we go off exploring the sea bed. The continuing misunderstanding of Plato as historian here
enables us to see why his distrust of imaginative writing is sometimes justified.[31]

Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the
dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:

And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been
repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious
coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon. ...[32]

Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole
narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about
Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy."[33]

[edit]Location hypotheses
Main article: Location hypotheses of Atlantis

Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point
where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account.
This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today
are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic or
other pseudoscientific means. Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of
the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been
demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.

[edit]In or near the Mediterranean Sea

Satellite image of the islands of Santorini. This location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of
Atlantis.

Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such
asSardinia, Crete and Santorini, Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such
as Troy,Tartessos, and Tantalus (in the province of Manisa), Turkey; Israel-Sinai or Canaan;[citation
needed]
and northwestern Africa.[34][35] The Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC,
caused a large tsunami that experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby
island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that
inspired the story.[36] A. G. Galanopoulos argued that the time scale has been distorted by an
error in translation, probably from Egyptian into Greek, which produced "thousands" instead of
"hundreds"; this same error would rescale Plato's Kingdom of Atlantis to the size of Crete, while
leaving the city the size of the crater on Thera; 900 years before Solon would be the 15th century
BC.[37] In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been
proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon). The Sea of Azov was
proposed in 2003.[38]

[edit]In the Atlantic Ocean

The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has certain appeal given the closely related names.
Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting. Several
hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Sweden (by Olof
Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702), or in the North Sea. Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf
and Andalusia as possible locations, and that there is a link to Ireland.[39] The Canary
Islands have also been identified as a possible location, west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in
proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also
identified as possible locations, notably the Azores. However detailed geological studies of the
Canary Islands, the Azores, and the ocean bottom surrounding them found a complete lack of
any evidence for the catastrophic subsidence of these islands at any time during their existence
and a complete lack of any evidence that the ocean bottom surrounding them was ever dry land
at any time in the past.[40] The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also
been suggested.[41]

[edit]Other locations
Caribbean locations such as Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle[42] have been
proposed as sites of Atlantis. Areas in the Pacificand Indian Oceans have also been proposed
including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland).[43] The stories of a lost continent off India named "Kumari
Kandam" have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis, as has the Yonaguni Monument of
Japan. Antarctica has also been suggested.