Introduction to Semiconductor

Optoelectronics
1. Brief introduction to physical optics

2 Optoelectronic devices briefly: light emitters,

2. emitters
modulators, waveguides and photodetectors

3 S
3. Semiconductor
i d optics:
i light
li h absorption
b i (also,
( l see solar
l
cells) and light emission:

3a. Light emitting diode spontaneous emission

3b. Semiconductor laser stimulated emission

1
 Brief Introduction to Optics:
Newtons Optics (Particles)

Newton (1704) described light as a stream of particles

(rectilinear propagation, theories of reflection and
refraction. 2
 Brief Introduction to Optics:
Wave Optics

Ren Descartes Christiaan Augustin-Jean

Huygens Fresnel

Descartes, Huygens and Fresnel, contemporary of

Newton, developed the wave theory of light, light
explaining diffraction and interference (1700-mid 1800s).3
 Brief Introduction to Optics:
p Optics
Quantum Mechanics
In 1900, Max Planck used the
particle theory (light quanta)
to explain the spectrum of
black body radiation.
p and
In 1905, Albert Einstein
postulated that electromagnetic
radiation is quantized,
quantized and
explain the photoelectric effect
4
Modern Optics: Wave
Wave-Particle
Particle Duality
Example: transmission electron microscopy (TEM) uses
electrons to image atomic structures of solid materials. A
typical acceleration voltage for electrons is 200 kV.
Wh t iis th
What the wavelength
l th off electrons?
l t ? Use
U Pl Plankk constant,
t t
free electron mass and formula for kinetic energy

5
Modern Optics & Electromagnetic
Spectrum

6
 Optoelectronics vs Electronics:
Light vs Electrons
No RC delay

http://www.internettrafficreport.com/
The Internet Traffic Report monitors the flow of data
around
ou d thee wo
world;
d; approximately
pp o e y doubles
doub es every
eve y two
wo
years; http://www.hbtf.org/files/cisco_IPforecast.pdf 7
Optoelectronics
p vs Electronics:
Light vs Electrons

8
History of Optical Communications

9
History of Optical Fiber
Communications

10
 Wire vs Fiber: WDM

IIn fib
fiber-optic
ti communications,
i ti wavelength-division
l th di i i
multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes
multiple optical carrier signals on a single optical fiber
by using different wavelengths of laser light to carry
different signals. This allows for a multiplication in
capacity in addition to enabling bidirectional
capacity,
communications over one strand of fiber. This is a form
of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) but is
commonly l called
ll d wavelength
l th division
di i i multiplexing
lti l i

11
 Typical Fiber Optics
Communication System

Semiconductor laser 12
Semiconductor photodetector
Optical Fiber Attenuation

13
Semiconductor Optoelectronics:
Other Applications

14
Semiconductor Materials for
Optoelectronic Devices

15
 Direct and Indirect Band Gap
Semiconductors

Optical absorption and emission are more efficient in

direct band gap materials 16
 Semiconductor Photodetectors:
Reverse biased p-n and p-i-n diodes
Photocurrent:
IL = eAJph(0)[1 exp (W)]
Jph = Optical photon particle current
W = Depletion
D l ti region i
A = Device area

17
 Semiconductor LEDs: Forward
Biased P-N Diodes

The LED is a forward biased p-n diode. Electrons

(holes) are injected into p-side (n-side) region where
they recombine with holes (electrons) to emit photons.
18
 Semiconductor LEDs: Forward
Biased P-N Diodes
EF

p
n

EF

p n
E itt d photon
Emitted h t energy ~E
Eg
Emitted spectral line-width ~kBT
Upper limit to LED switching time ~1 ns electron-hole
19
recombination time
 Electron-hole Recombination in
Semiconductors
At high carrier densities
the e-h recombination
time approaches a
nanosecondd in
i mostt direct
di t
gap semiconductors.

Electrons and holes recombine in LEDs via a process

called
ll d spontaneous
t recombination.
bi ti
Energy-momentum conservation rules apply. 20
 Spontaneous Emission in
Semiconductors: LED

Out-coming photons are incoherent - random phases

Electron-hole recombination lifetime is limited by ~1 ns
21
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
If an electron is already in an excited state (an upper energy
level, in contrast to its lowest possible level or "ground
state"), then an incoming photon for which the quantum
energy is equal to the energy difference between its present
level and a lower level can "stimulate" a transition to that
lower level, producing a second photon of the same energy.

Eex Eex
hv
hv
Egr Egr
22
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
A fundamental concept in lasers is the idea of a "population
inversion". A normal thermal population in any material will
have most of the particles in the ground state. However, we
would prefer to have most of the particles in the excited state
so we can get free photons through stimulated emission. Thus
in a laser we strive to create a "population inversion" where
mostt or all
ll off the
th particles
ti l are in
i the
th excited
it d state.
t t

Eex Eex
hv
hv
Egr Egr
23
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
Another fundamental concept in lasers is the idea of gain.
Suppose we have just pumped our laser medium so that all of
the particles are in their excited state. One of those particles
now spontaneously decays back down to its ground state,
emitting a photon. This photon is of the right frequency to
stimulate emission from another excited state particle, which
emits
it another
th photon
h t whichhi h can stimulate
ti l t another
th excited
it d state
t t
particle, and so on.
Eex Eex
hv
hv
Egr Egr
24
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
In addition to emission processes there are also absorption
processes in which a ground state particle absorbs a photon
matching the energy gap and jumps to the excited state. Thus
we lose one photon to each stimulated absorption process.
process
Since the probabilities for stimulated absorption and emission
processes are equal (relative to population of the ground and
excited states -- Einstein's famous result), it is clearly
detrimental to the laser to have any particles in the ground
state. For this reason,, two level lasers are not practical
p -- it is
not in general possible to pump more than half of the
molecules into the excited state.

25
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
The three level scheme solves the
problem by exciting the particles to an
excited state higher in energy than the
upper laser state
state. The particles then
quickly decay down into the upper
laser state. It is important for the
pumped state to have a short lifetime
compared to the upper laser state. The
upper
pp laser state should have as longg a
lifetime as possible, so that the
particles live long enough to be
stimulated and thus contribute to the
gain. 26
Introduction to Stimulated Emission
When a sizable population of electrons resides in upper
levels, this condition is called a "population inversion
(also known as negative absolute temperature
consider Bolt
Boltzmann
mann energ
energy distrib
distribution)
tion) and it sets the
stage for stimulated emission of multiple photons. This is
the precondition for the light amplification which occurs
in a laser, and since the emitted photons have a definite
time and phase relation to each other (still, energy and
momentum conservations are valid). The critical detail of
stimulated emission is that the emitted photon is identical
to the stimulating photon in that it has the same
frequency phase,
frequency, phase polarization,
polarization and direction of
propagation (coherent radiation). 27
Stimulated Emission: Coherence
In physics, coherence is a property of waves, that enables
stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant)
interference. Coherence was originally introduced in
connection with
ith Yo
Youngs
ngs do
double-slit
ble slit experiment
e periment in optics
optics.
Temporal coherence is the measure of the average
correlation between the value of a wave at any pair of
times, separated by delay . Temporal coherence tells us
how monochromatic light is. Waves of different
frequencies (different colors) can interfere to form a pulse
if they have a fixed relative phase-relationship (see
Fourier transform).

28
Stimulated Emission: Coherence
Spatial coherence describes the ability for two points in
space, x1 and x2, in the extent of a wave to interfere,
when averaged over time. More precisely, the spatial
coherence is the cross-correlation between two points in a
wave for all times. In general, the concept of coherence is
related to the stability,
y, or p
predictability,
y, of p
phase.

Summary: Spatial coherence describes the correlation

between signals at different points in space - laser beam
spatial dispersion. Temporal coherence describes the
correlation or predictable relationship between signals
observed at different
iff moments ini time
i monochromatic i
29
light (same wavelength or color).
Spontaneous vs Stimulated Emission
in Semiconductors

Stimulated emission lifetime is short and

laser pulses can be as short as 10^-15 s
Spontaneous
p vs Stimulated Emission
in Semiconductors
Stimulated Emission - light emission in laser diodes

Electron-hole recombination in the presence of other

photons
Photons produced are coherent, i.e., have the same
p
phase
Electron-hole recombination lifetime is
spon
~ N photons
stim
Goal: laser gain medium - a medium which can
amplify
lif li
light
ht
31
 Introduction to Semiconductor
Lasers
Physical Requirements Solutions

Population Inversion p+/n+ Junction

(G i medium)
(Gain di )

Resonator Cavity (mirrors)

A laser also requires a laser resonator (or laser cavity), in

which the laser radiation can circulate and pass a gain
medium which compensates the optical losses.

32
 Semiconductor Laser Design:
Junction and Resonator (Cavity)
Laser di
L diode
d iis similar
i il ini principle
i i l to
t an LED but
b t needs
d a
p+/n+ junction [at least for continuous wave (CW)
operation].

Laser diode also requires an optical cavity that will

facilitate feedback in order to generate stimulated
emission.
The laser radiation is
generated at one or several
frequencies corresponding to
resonances ((resonator modes).
)
33
 Examples
p of Semiconductor Lasers:
p+/n+ Forward Biased Junction
p+ Junction n+
Ec

Eg p+ n+
eV o Ec EF n
In v ers io n
reg io n Ec
Ev Eg
EF p Ho l es in V B EF n eV
Electro ns El ectro ns in C B
Ec
EF p

Ev
(a) (b)

The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with no bias. (b) Band
diagram with a sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and
hence stimulated emission.
34
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Examples of Semiconductor Lasers:
Laser Modes

35
 Semiconductor Laser Device
Characteristics
Optical P ower Laser
Optical Power

Optical P ower LED

Stimulated
emission
Optical P ower Laser
Spontaneous
emission

I
0
Ith

Typical output optical power vs. diode current (I) characteristics and the corresponding
output spectrum of a laser diode.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
36
Semiconductor Laser Gain

37
 Semiconductor Laser:
Operation Below Lasing Threshold

38
 Semiconductor Laser:
Operation at Threshold and Above

Above the Lasing Threshold 39

 Semiconductor Laser Cavity:
y
Cavity Modes

m L where : m is an integer (mode or resonant frequency)
2n
n is the refractive index of the semiconductor
is the free space wavelength

Photons reflected from the cleaved surface stimulate more

photons.
The of radiation that escalates in the cavity is
dependant on the length L of the cavity (resonant length)
Only multiples of exist
40
 Modern Semiconductor Lasers:
much more than a diode

Double heterostructure laser,,

quantum well laser, vertical
surface emitting laser, etc.

http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/lasers/diodelasers/index.html

41
Franz-Keldysh
y Effect: Semiconductor
Electro-Optical Modulators
The Franz-Keldysh effect is a change in optical
absorption by a semiconductor when an electric field is
applied. The effect is named after the German physicist
Walter Franz and Russian physicist Leonid Keldysh.
EC

EV

42
Electro Optical Light Modulators
Electro-Optical Mod lators
Electro-optic
El t ti modulator
d l t (EOM) iis a d device
i iin which
hi h an
element displaying electro-optic effect is used to modulate
a beam of light. The modulation may be imposed on the
phase, frequency, amplitude, or direction of the
modulated beam.

Jifeng Liu, et al., Design of monolithically integrated

GeSi electro-absorption modulators and photodetectors
on a SOI platform,
l tf Optics
O ti Express,
E Vol.
V l 15,
15 Issue
I 2,
2 pp.
623-628 doi:10.1364/OE.15.000623

43
Integrated
g Opto-Electronic
p Systems:
y Toward
Cost Effective Optical Communication

www.fiberoptics4sale.com/
wordpress/

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