Course : Environmental Science

(compulsory for 2nd year)

Noise Descriptors

Prof. K. Pathak
Mining Engineering Department,
IIT Kharagpur
After going through this lesson you will be able to

Recapitulate what you already studied regarding sound energy to correlate them with
practical examples around you
Identify noise sources that require management to improve noise environment
Explain what is the nature of noise environment in a locality and how to represent it
through noise measurement
Define aerodynamic noise and its characteristics
Explain the meaning of noise related phrases like threshold of hearing, threshold of
pain, persistence of hearing.
Describe the parameters used to qualify noise.
Calculate the permissible exposure time for a given noise level
Distinguish near field, far field and free field of sound
Distinguish equivalent sound pressure level (Leq) and Sound Exposure Level (SEL)
Distinguish between Day-Night averaged (Ldn), Day Evening Night Averaged (Lden) or
Community Noise Equivalent level (CNEL)
Carry out a noise survey given a brief training on use of noise measuring instruments
and draw community noise exposure charts or n-percent exceeded level, Ln
We know Sound Behavior

Vibrations can produce sounds

The slower the repetitions the lower the frequency of noise
High frequency sound is more easily reflected
Low frequency noise travels around objects and through openings
High frequency sound is greatly reduced by passing through air
More noise is produced when great force is used for a short time than
with less force for a longer time
Airborne sound is usually caused by vibrations of solids or turbulence in
fluids
The human ear is less sensitive to low frequency noise
How will you describe noise
coming from various sources?
967983

Examples of typical noise sources:

Industrial Sites Pneumatic hammer
Construction Work
Road Traffic Conveyor Belt
Animals (Dogs barking)
Aircraft noise
Entertainment venues Aircraft landing

Party Noise
 Sound is produced by vibration

Aerodynamic noise: http://youtu.be/8BmESsMroRM

 NOISE SOURCE

MOBILITY PERIODICITY
CHARACTERISTICS

Mobile Continuous Constant continuous

Semi mobile Intermittent Constant intermittent
Fixed Random Periodically fluctuating
Non-periodic
fluctuating
Repeated impulse
Single impulse

Types of noise sources.

Aerodynamic Noise: Old Lecture from Imperial College

Source of figure L http://www.who.int/occupational_health/publications/noise5.pdf

 Some Facts you already read in your physics class

Sound waves actually propagate through the air as longitudinal wave.

Sound travels through dry air at a speed of about 300 m/sec
A distinct and clearly audible repetition of a sound is called echo
Multiple reflections of a sound such that you cannot clearly hear them
individually is called reverberation
The lowest frequency of sound that can generally be discerned (heard)
by the human ear is approximately 15-20 Hz
The highest frequency of sound that can generally be discerned by the
human ear is 20kHz(heard)
Human ear hears at 1kHz louder than at higher frequency

Basic of Sound Wave: how sound propagates

http://youtu.be/GkNJvZINSEY

Activity to show sound wave

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93DFanOXzL8
 The humming of a refrigerator: 45 decibels
Normal conversation: 60 decibels
Noise from heavy city traffic: 85 decibels
Motorcyles: 95 decibels
An MP3 player at maximum volume: 105 decibels
Sirens: 120 decibels
Firecrackers and firearms: 150 decibels
Figure typical record of noise in an office
Typical outdoor sound measured on quiet suburban street
Source: http://www.nonoise.org/library/levels/levels.htm#measurements
We need to measure noise of different characteristics:

Continuous
Extraction Fans, compressors etc
Road traffic
Industrial Processes
Intermittent
Transport
Construction
Animals
Industrial Processes
Broadband (Noise that has a fairly even tone content and less annoying)
Tonal Noise (Noise that has dominant tone(s) that can be very annoying)
Whining machinery
Low frequency noise that causes vibration within surrounding buildings
etc.
Wind turbines
What Is Noise?

Occupational noise can be any sound in any work environment.

A textbook definition of sound is "a rapid variation of atmospheric pressure caused by some disturbance of the air."

Sound propagates as a wave of positive pressure disturbances (compressions) and negative pressure disturbances (rarefactions), as
shown in Figure 1. Sound can travel through any elastic medium (e.g., air, water, wood, metal).

When air molecules are set to vibrate, the ear perceives the variations in pressure as sound (OTM/Driscoll). The vibrations are converted
into mechanical energy by the middle ear, subsequently moving microscopic hairs in the inner ear, which in turn convert the sound waves
into nerve impulses. If the vibrations are too intense, over time these microscopic hairs can be damaged, causing hearing loss. Noise is
unwanted sound. In the workplace, sound that is intense enough to damage hearing is unwanted and, therefore, is considered to be noise.
Several key terms describe the qualities of sound. These qualities influence how it affects hearing and health, how it is measured, and how
it can be controlled. Effective occupational noise investigations require the investigator to understand these basic terms.

Sound Waves
Basic Qualities of Sound
Wavelength
The wavelength () is the distance traveled by a sound wave during one sound pressure cycle, as shown in
Figure. The wavelength of sound is usually measured in meters or feet. Wavelength is important for designing
engineering controls. For example, a sound-absorbing material will perform most effectively if its thickness
is at least one-quarter the wavelength.
Frequency
Frequency, f, is a measure of the number of vibrations (i.e., sound
pressure cycles) that occur per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz),
where one Hz is equal to one cycle per second.
Sound frequency is perceived as pitch (i.e., how high or low a tone is). The frequency range sensed by the
ear varies considerably among individuals. A young person with normal hearing can hear frequencies between
approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. As a person gets older, the highest frequency that he or she can
detect tends to decrease.

Human speech frequencies are in the range of 500 Hz to 4,000 Hz. This is significant because hearing loss
in this range will interfere with conversational speech. The portions of the ear that detect frequencies between
3,000 Hz and 4,000 Hz are the earliest to be affected by exposure to noise.

Audiograms often display a 4,000-Hz "Notch" in patients who are developing the beginning stages of
sensorineural hearing loss
Speed
The speed at which sound travels, c, is determined primarily by the density and the compressibility of the medium through which it is traveling.
The speed of sound is typically measured in meters per second or feet per second.
Speed increases as the density of the medium increases and its elasticity decreases. For example:
In air, the speed of sound is approximately 344 meters per second (1,130 feet per second) at standard temperature and pressure.
In liquids and solids, the speed of sound is much higher. The speed of sound is about 1,500 meters per second in water and 5,000
meters per second in steel.
The frequency, wavelength, and speed of a sound wave are related by the equation
c=f
Where c = speed of sound in meters or feet per second, f = frequency in Hz, and = wavelength in meters or feet.

Sound Pressure
The vibrations associated with sound are detected as slight variations in pressure. The range of sound pressures perceived as sound is extremely
large, beginning with a very weak pressure causing faint sounds and increasing to noise so loud that it causes pain.

The threshold of hearing is the quietest sound that can typically be heard by a young person with undamaged hearing. This varies
somewhat among individuals but is typically in the micro-Pascal range. The reference sound pressure is the standardized threshold of hearing and
is defined as 20 micro-Pascals (0.0002 microbars) at 1,000 Hz.

The threshold of pain, or the greatest sound pressure that can be perceived without pain, is approximately 10 million times greater than
the threshold of hearing. It is, therefore, more convenient to use a relative (e.g., logarithmic) scale of sound pressure rather than an absolute
scale.
Threshold of hearing
It is the minimum sound pressure level that
the human ear can detect. The threshold is frequency
dependent. Terminal threshold is the upper limit of
hearing .

Some discomfort is apparent at 120 dB, and

sensation of tickle and pain are experienced when
1000 Hz tone is about 140 dB.

Persistence of hearing
The sound sensation decays to the
threshold of hearing in 0.14 sec regardless of the
initial intensity.

Blending of two signals occur when time lag

between the two is 1/20th of a sec or 50 msec.
Decibels
Noise is measured in units of sound pressure called decibels (dB), named after Alexander Graham Bell.
The decibel notation is implied any time a "sound level" or "sound pressure level" is mentioned.
Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale: a small change in the number of decibels indicates a huge
change in the amount of noise and the potential damage to a person's hearing.

The decibel scale is convenient because it compresses sound pressures

important to human hearing into a manageable scale.

By definition, 0 dB is set at the reference sound pressure (20

micropascals at 1,000 Hz, as stated earlier).

At the upper end of human hearing, noise causes pain,

which occurs at sound pressures of about 10 million times
that of the threshold of hearing. On the decibel scale, the
threshold of pain occurs at 140 dB. This range of 0 dB to
140 dB is not the entire range of sound, but is the range
relevant to human hearing (see Figure).
Decibels are logarithmic values, so it is not proper to add
them by normal algebraic addition. .
Decibel Scale
 The sound pressure level (Lp) is measured in decibels (dB) on a logarithmic scale
as:

Lp = 10 log10(P/Pref )2

Where P is the instantaneous sound pressure, in units Pa, and Pref is the reference pressure level,
defined as the quietest noise a healthy young person can hear (20 Pa).

Sound Power Level

Sound power is related to sound energy emitted from a sound source and not influenced by the surrounding
environment.

Sound power level (Lw) is similar in concept to the wattage of a light bulb. In fact, Lw is measured in watts
(W). Unlike Lp, Lw does not depend on the distance from the noise source. The sound power level is
calculated using the following equation:
Lw = 10 log10(W/Wref )
Where W is the acoustic power in watts and Wref is the reference acoustic power, 10-12.
The following equation should be used to calculate the sum of sound pressure levels, sound intensity levels, or
sound power levels:
Noise Exposure Measurement
OSHA uses a 5-dBA exchange rate, meaning the noise level doubles with each additional 5 dBA.
The following chart shows how long workers are permitted to be exposed to specific noise levels:
To calculate a permissible duration that is not addressed in this chart, use the following equation:

T= 8 / (2(L-90)/5)

Permissible Sound Level

Duration (dBA, Slow
(Hours per Day) Response)
16 85
8 90
4 95
2 100
1 102
1 105
110
or less 115
Where T is the permissible duration (in hours) and L is the measured sound level (in dBA).
NOISE ASSESSMENT

To assess the impact of noise and noise related issues, we must be able to make
suitable noise measurements, or in some cases, monitor the noise levels for longer
periods.

Industrial noise, for example, is a much more exact science, as you are interested in
assessing specific noise levels and relating these to legislative or action levels.

Environmental noise is very different because the level of annoyance or nuisance can be
very subjective and will elicit diverse reactions from different people.
Sound Fields

Sound Field is the region in which sound is propagating : near field or far field

The near field is the space immediately around the noise source, sometimes defined as within the
wavelength of the lowest frequency component (e.g., a little more than 4 feet for a 25-Hz tone, about 1 foot
for a 1,000-Hz tone, and less than 7 inches for a 2,000-Hz tone). Sound pressure measurements obtained
with standard instruments within the near field are not reliable because small changes in position can result
in big differences in the readings.

The far field is the space outside the near field, meaning that the far field begins at a point at least
one wavelength distance from the noise source. Standard sound level meters (i.e., type I and type II)
are reliable in this field, but the measurements are influenced by whether the noise is simply originating
from a source (free field) or being reflected back from surrounding surfaces (reverberant field).

A free field is a region in which there are no reflected sound waves. In a free field, sound radiates
into space from a source uniformly in all directions. The sound pressure produced by the source is the same
in every direction at equal distances from the point
 If a point source in a free field produces a sound pressure level of 90 dB at a
distance of 1 meter, the sound pressure level is 84 dB at 2 meters, 78 dB at 4
meters, and so forth. This principle holds true regardless of the units used to
measure distance.

Attenuation of sound due to spreading in a free field

Original and Reflected Sound Waves

Noise Descriptors

Noise from different sources can be measured or described in different ways.

There are alternative ways to measure or describe even the same type of noise
source.
Scientists have conducted surveys and laboratory studies aiming to develop
descriptors to best correlate community response to various environmental
noise sources.
This is why different countries have adopted different noise descriptors for
assessment of different community noise sources.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) as a noise descriptor
The human ear can hear a broad range of sound pressures. Because of this, the
sound pressure level (Lp) is measured in decibels (dB) on a logarithmic scale
that compresses the values into a manageable range. In contrast, direct
pressure is measured in Pascals (Pa).

Lp is calculated as 10 times the logarithm of the square of the ratio of the

instantaneous pressure fluctuations (above and below atmospheric pressure) to
the reference pressure:
Lp = 10 log10(P/Pref )2

Where P is the instantaneous sound pressure, in units Pa, and Pref is the
reference pressure level, defined as the quietest noise a healthy young person
can hear (20 Pa).

Example: If a piece of equipment has a sound pressure of

2 Pa, the sound pressure level is calculated:
Lp = 20 log10 (2/0.00002) = 20 log10(100,000) = 20 5.0
= 100 dB
Sound Power Level
Sound power level (Lw) is similar in concept to the wattage of a light bulb. In
fact, Lw is measured in watts (W). Unlike Lp, Lw does not depend on the
distance from the noise source. The sound power level is calculated using the
following equation:
Lw = 10 log10(W/Wref )
Where W is the acoustic power in watts and Wref is the reference acoustic
power, 10-12.

Example: The sound power level associated with a

typical face-to-face conversation, which may have a sound
power of 0.00001 W, is calculated:
Lw = 10 log10(0.00001/10-12) = 70 dB
Equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq)

Leq (Equivalent continuous sound level) is defined as the steady sound level which, over
a given period of time, has the same total energy as the actual fluctuating noise. Thus
the Leq is in fact the RMS sound level with the measurement duration used as the
averaging time

1 2
=10log
0 02

Where,
T= measurement duration
p(t) = sound pressure
p0 = reference sound pressure of 20 mPa
Sound Exposure Level (SEL)

Sound Exposure Level is defined as that constant sound level which has the
same amount of energy in one second as the original noise event

1 + 2
=10log
0 02

Where,
T0= measurement duration of 1 s
p(t) = sound pressure
p0 = reference sound pressure of 20 mPa
The SEL is similar to Leq in that the total sound energy is integrated over the
measurement period, but instead of then averaging it over the entire measurement
period, a reference duration of 1 s is used.
Ldn : Day Night Average Sound Level

The Ldn is the average equivalent sound level over a 24 hour period, with a penalty
added for noise during the nighttime hours of 22:00 to 07:00. During the nighttime period
10 dB is added to reflect the impact of the noise.
Ldn measurements are useful for assessing the impact that road, rail, air and general
industry has on the local population.
The NoiseMeters Ldn calculator accepts hourly Leq measurements and calculates the
Ldn accordingly.

Day Evening Night Sound Level (Lden) or Community Noise Equivalent Level (CNEL)

The Lden (Day Evening Night Sound Level) or CNEL (Community Noise Equivalent Level) is the
average sound level over a 24 hour period, with a penalty of 5 dB added for the evening hours or
19:00 to 22:00, and a penalty of 10 dB added for the nighttime hours of 22:00 to 07:00.
It is very similar in nature (and in results) to the Ldn, but with the added penalty for the evening
period.
Lden or CNEL calculator takes the hourly Leq measurements and calculates the Lden (which is the
same as the CNEL).
As shown in Table 1-1, urban traffic is by far the most pervasive outdoor residential noise source, although aircraft noise is a significant source as well.
People get exposed, in and around their homes, to undesirably high traffic noise levels exceeding Ldn > 55 dB. Figures contained in Table 1-1 for each
source represent the number of people exposed at or above a given level (Ldn) for the source in question and do not take into consideration that an
individual may be simultaneously exposed to more than one source culminating in a higher total exposure.

People exposed to various levels of Ldn or higher from noise sources in the community

Number of People in Millions for Each Noise

Category

Urban
Ldn (dB) Aircraft Rail Industrial
Traffic

80 0.1 0.1 -- --

75 1.1 0.3 -- --

70 5.7 1.3 0.8 --

65 19.3 4.7 2.5 0.3

60 46.6 11.5 3.5 1.9

55 96.8 24.3 6.0 6.9 See details of the study in

http://www.nonoise.org/library/handbook/handbook.htm#T
HE NATIONAL NOISE PROBLEM
You can carry out a noise survey of a locality and plot
90
a graph of Leq levels at different locations. Now from Location D

this you can find a persons noise noise exposure 80

Location C
history by finding which time of the day he was at
which location. 70
Location E
Location B

Hourly Average Sound Level, dBA

60

50

40 Location A
Location F

30

20

10

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Hour of the day
 The n-Percent Exceeded Level, Ln

In most cases, the sounds and noises we hear are not steady. Apart from
variation in tones, the magnitude or the sound pressure level of a sound or
noise changes with time.
n-percent exceeded level, Ln
The, is the sound pressure level exceeded for n percent of the time. In other words,
for n percent of the time, the fluctuating sound pressure levels are higher than the
Ln level. Ln can be obtained by analysing a given noise by statistical means.

If the noise is being measured on the A-weighting scale, Ln is often written as

LAn.

Statistical descriptors are almost always

used as a single number to describe varying
traffic noise levels.

The two most common statistical descriptors

used for traffic noise are L10 and Leq. L10 is
the sound level that is exceeded 10 percent
of the time.
What can you do now?

Learning Activity
What is the principle of noise description? Explain how environmental
noise can be measured.
Use Google search to make a list of International Standards followed
to measure noise level.
Compare Noise standards (DN, BS and IS).
Ministry of Environment and Forest and Central Pollution Control
Board of India are responsible for managing the noise environment of
India. Find out what are the statutory conditions imposed by them to
maintain environmental noise in India.
Will be able to develop noise contour maps of IIT Kharagpur campus
or Kharagpur town? Make the steps to be followed for developing a
noise map of a locality.
Happy Learning
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