ICE PLANT

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We, the students of D.M.E. belonging to the ICE PLANT

batch, expressing thanks to our beloved guide M. SANDEEP B.E.,
fro his active participation and excellence guidance at every stage
and high dynamic and motivative encouragement in successfully
completing of this project.

We highly thankful to our beloved Principal Sri. B.

PARDHASARADHI, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.., for his cooperation in
completing our project.

We are also thankful to our beloved Head of the Mechanical

Engineering Department Sri. T.VENKATESWARA RAO, B.E., for
his cooperation and encouragement in completing this project.

We are also thankful to the staff and Lab Technicians of

Mechanical Engineering Department for their cooperation.

Also, we highly thankful to all other who are directly and

indirectly involved, with full co-operation to complete our project
work.

Project Associates

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 CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

1) INTRODUCTION
1

2) METHODS OF
REFRIGERATION 8

3) ICE MAKING
SYSTEM.. 10

4) BASIC
EQUIPMENTS
12
5) CLASSIFICATIONS OF
EVAPORATORS 20

6) MAKING OF
ICE.. 29

7) MANUFACTURING OF
ICE 36

8) ICE MAKING
CALCULATIONS.. 38

3
9) TECHNO FEASIBILITY REPORT ON 1.5 TON ICE PLANT
.

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 INTRODUCTION

Modern refrigeration has many applications. The firs and

probably still the most important is the preservation of food. Most
foods kept at room temperature spoil rapidly. This is due to rapid
growth of bacteria. At usual refrigeration, temperatures of about 4.4
(40 F), bacteria grow quite slowly. Food at this temperature will be
preserved for longer time. Refrigeration preserves food by keeping
it cold.

Other important use of refrigeration includes Ari Conditioning,

beverage cooling and humidity control. Many manufacturing
processes also use refrigeration.

HISTORY

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 The refrigeration industry became important commercially during
the 18th century. Early refrigeration was obtained by the use of ICE.
The use of natural ice required the building of insulated containers
or ice boxes for stores, restaurants and homes. The units first
appeared on a larger scale during the Nineteenth Century.

Ice was first made artificially about 1820 as an experiment.

Not until 1834 did artificial Ice manufacturing became practical.
Little artificial Ice was produced until shortly after 1890 during 1890,
a warm weather resulted in a shortage of Natural Ice. This helped to
start the mechanical Ice making industry.

In 1834 JACOB PERKINS and American Engineer invented the

apparatus which was the fore runner of our modern compression
systems. In 1855, a German Engineer produced the first Absorption
type of refrigeration mechanism, although Michael Faraday had
discovered the principles for it in 1824.

*****

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 BASIC TERMS USED IN REFRIGERATION

REFRIGERATION: Refrigeration is the science of providing and

maintaining temperature below that of surrounding (ambient)
temperature. The terms MAINTAIN implies the continuous
extraction or removal of heat from a body which is already at lower
temperature than its surroundings.

HEAT: Heat is a form of energy. This is evident from the fact that
heat can be converted in to other forms of energy and that other
forms of energy can be converted in to heat. Heat as a molecular
energy is almost universally considered thermodynamics. The
metric unit of heat is joules (J).

Since all other forms of energy may be converted in to heat, it

is considered to be an energy in its lowest from the availability of
heat energy to do work depends on temperature are differential,
available heat energy is always kinetic in nature.

LATENT HEAT : Latent heat difference from sensible heat in that it

does not cause a temperature rise with in a body, but does effect a
change in its of being Latent heat is generally speaking the amount
of heat required to change the state of a substance.

SENSIBLE HEAT : Heat which results in an increase in temperature

of a matter with out changing its state is known as sensible heat.
When the temperature of water is raised from 20 to 60 C the heat
observed to effect this change is sensible heat.

Change in sensible heat of a substance is given by the

following equation when there is change in temperature,

Q = Wt (T T) where T > T

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

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 The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat
that must be added or released to change the temperature of 1k.g
of substance to 1 k.

TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT :

Temperature is a property of matter and it is the measure of

intensity of heat or heat level and it has a relative value. It indicates
the degree of warmth or how hot or cold the substance or body is.

Like other forms of energy heat can be measured because it

has quantity and intensity. Heat is not visible, but manifests itself in
its effects on various substances.

Addition of heat increases the volume or substance or pressure

at constant volume. This property is used for measuring the
temperature with the help of mercury thermometer and gas
thermometer.

As the temperature of substance increase the color also

changes, this property6 is used for measuring the temperature in
radiation pyrometers.

REFRIGERATING EFFECT OF ICE :

Ice is still important to the refrigeration industry. Ice change to

water at 0 C and Atmospheric pressure. Heat absorption to
produce this change is 336 kj/k.g.

The Specific Heat capacity of Ice = 2.1kj/ kg

The Latent Heat of Fusion (melting) of Ice = 336 kj/kg

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 The specific Heat of water 4.19kj/jk K

ICE AND SALT MIXTURE:

Ice changes to water at 0 c (32 F) Therefore to get the lower

temperature required in some instance, ice salt mixtures are used.
These mixtures, Ice and salt Ice and CAC1, lower the melting
temperature if Ice. An ice and salt mixture may be made which will
melt at 18 C ( F). The reason that the ice and salt mixtures
produce lower temperatures is that the salt causes the ice to melt
faster.

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION AND

APPLICATION

The Science of refrigeration utilizes several methods providing

temperature differential facilitating heat transfer between the
bodies. Following are the various methods of refrigeration.

Ice Refrigeration
Dry Ice Refrigeration
Air Expansion Refrigeration
Evaporative Refrigeration
Gas throttling Refrigeration
Steam Jet Refrigeration
Liquid Gas Refrigeration
Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
Thermo Electric Refrigeration

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 APPLICATION OF REFRIGERATION

APPLICATIONS:

Following are the few applications of the science of

Refrigeration.

Comfort air conditioning of residential buildings, hotels,

auditoriums, hospitals, offices, tool rooms etc.
Manufacturing and preserving of medicines.
Manufacturing of Ice.
Preservation of Blood and human tissues.
Processing of Photographic materials.
Cooling of concrete for dams.
Treatment air for blast furnaces.
Processing of Chemical products.
Production of rocket fuels.
Computer functioning.

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 ICE MAKING SYSTEM

The manufacture of artificial ice will always occupy a large

sector of the refrigeration industries presently making ice by several
different processes, dependent on whether distilled water or raw
water is desired. Production of artificial ice takes two different
forms, depending on requirements, as :

1. Can Ice
2. Plate Ice

Can Ice: In the Can system, the water is placed in galvanized iron
can or moulds immersed in a brine tank which is kept cool by
ammonia expansion coils. In this system unless means are
introduced to prevent it, air and other impurities have a tendency to
collect in a core in the centre of the can. Making Ice from distilled
water will eliminate this trouble, but due to its higher cost, it is not
widely used. At the present time, the tendency is to raw water and
to agitate it in order to eliminate the air and impurities this agitation
is usually accomplished by special agitation equipment by a
refrigerant air jet or by special air piping.

Plate Ice : In the plate system (which is still used but is not being
installed in new plants to any large extent), hollow pans through
which cold brine (or) Ammonia circulates are immersed in a tank of
water until ice of 8 to 12 inches thick is formed. The plate is
arranged so as to allow the liquid ammonia to feed into it and the
gas to return to the compressor in the usual manner.

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PLATE ICE MADE BY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING METHODS

1) DIRECT EXPANSION SYSTEM : It consists of direct expansion,

zig-zag coils with 3 mm plates of iron bolted are riveted in place.
The thawing of the face of the ice is accomplished by turning the hot
NH gas from the machine direct into the coils.

2) DIRECT EXPANSION SYSTEM : It is similar as explained above

except the coil is immersed in a brine solution contained in a water
and brine tight cell. Thawing is accomplished by turning hot gas in
to the coil.

3) BRINE COIL PLATE SYSTEM : It is similar to direct expansion

plate except the brine is circulated through the coil instead of
ammonia. Thawing is accomplished by means of warm brine
circulated through the coils.

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 BASIC EQUIPMENT

Refrigerating equipment mainly consists of compressor, condenser,

evaporator, and expansion device. Each component is said to be
interdependent on the other.

COMPRESSOR : Compressor is heart of the vapour compression

system. It is device by an electric motor and is located between the
evaporator and condenser. Compressor compresses the vapour
refrigerant drawn from the evaporator and discharges to the
condenser.

CLASSIFICATION : Compressors are classified into several types

based on different criteria as follows :

Criteria Type of Compressor

1. Method of compression Reciprocating, Rotary,
Centrifugal, screw.
2. Assembly of Motor Open or Interdependent
Semihermatic, Hermatic
3. Axis Vertical, Horizontal.
4. Number of cylinders Single cylinder, Multi cylinder
5. Working of fluid Single Acting, Double Acting
6. Drive Direct Driven, Belt Driven
7. Method of construction V.W. Radial on In-Line.

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SINGLE ACTING RECIPROCTING COMPRESSOR : The capacity of
the compressor depends on the number and size of the cylinders, its
speed, the efficiency of compression, the suction and discharge
pressures and the number of hours of operation per day.

Single acting reciprocating compressors are generally used with

Refrigerants which have low specific volume

Refrigerants requiring small displacement of piston and high
condenser pressure

These compressors are suited for Plants of tones to 1000 tons

capacity. Such compressors are available in size ranging from 0.1
KW to 1000 KWs to be used from small domestic refrigerators to
large air conditioning units.

OPEN TYPE COMPRESSOR : Open type reciprocating compressor

is one which is directly coupled to an electric motor or driven by belt
drive. The motor compressor as a single unit is mounted on the
same base plate. Another feature of this unit is that the condenser
as well as the receiver tank are also mounted on the same plate as
shown in the figure. Advantage of this unit is its easy maintenance
and refrigerant can be charged with the help of same compressor
and motor.

HERMETIC AND SEMITHRMETIC COMPRESSORS : Hermetic

compressor is one that is enclosed in a welded shell along with its
motor and totally sealed from the atmosphere.

The advantage of this type of compressor is : Complete

prevention of refrigerant leakage, compact and occupies a small
place, less noisy, effective cooling of motor winding. These are
widely used in small plants such as Domestic refrigerators, freezers
and window air conditioners.

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 Hermetic or Semi hermetic compressors are built in sizes from
5 KW to 180 KW fro refrigeration work and 35 to 530 KW for air
conditioning applications.

ROTARY COMPRESSORS : Rotary compressor employs a rotating

member in place of reciprocating piston. They area available in
either open or hermetic types Rotary compressors are classified as
follows :

Roller type Rotary Compressors.

Vane type Rotary Compressors.
Screw Compressors.
Centrifugal Compressors.

First three types are of positive displacement type and the

centrifugal compressors are of non positive displacement type.

ROLLER TYPE ROTARY COMPRESSOR : This type of compressors

of 5 to 6 tones capacity are used in domestic refrigeration and
freezers. They are used up to 6 KW input capacities in packaged air
conditioning systems. They may also be used as booster
compressors in the low pressure section of large multistage
compressors systems.

VANE TYPE ROTATORY COMPRESSOR: these types of

compressors are suitable for low temperature applications such as
domestic refrigerators, freezers and small air conditioning packages.
They handle refrigerants with low specific volume at low suction
pressures. Both roller and vane type compressors when operating at
low speeds (1500 to 3000 RPM), have a low compression ability than
reciprocating compressors.

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SCREW COMPRESSOR : Screw compressors combine the
advantage of centrifugal and reciprocating compressors and are
increasingly used in large systems such as food storage. They may
eventually replace reciprocating designs. They can handle large
volume of refrigerant. With a compression ratio as high as 21, they
have high compression efficiency. They pose no surging problems.
They are being widely used in air conditioning units up to around 50
tons capacity.

NETRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR : Centrifugal compressors are used

in large installations ranging from 200 to 10,000 KW of refrigerating
capacity. Multistage compressors are used in high capacity (5000
tons plants in which evaporating temperatures may extend down to
50 to 100 C range). Small centrifugal compressors, on the other
hand may be used in plants of low (50 tons) capacity also.

CONDENSERS : Condenser is a component which abstracts the

latent heat from the high pressure refrigerant at constant
temperature and same pressure. It removes heat absorbed by
refrigerant in the evaporator and the heat of compression is added
in the compressor and condense it back to liquid. For this purpose,
the condenser employs a cooling medium such as air or water.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS : Condensers are broadly

divided into three types. They are

a) Air Cooled Condensers.

b) Water Cooled Condensers.
c) Evaporative Condensers.

AIR COOLED CONDENSER : The circulation of air over an air

cooled condenser may be either by natural convection or by the
action of fan or blower.

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 Air cooled compressors employing fans or blowers provide
forced air circulation. It may be divided into two types according to
the location of the condenser as

Chassis mounted
Remote mounted

Air cooled condensers are available in size ranging from less than 1
KW up through 500 KW or more capacities. These are used in small
units having capacity up to 3 tones.

WATER COOLED CONDENSERS : Water cooled condensers are

again classified into three types. They are

i. Shell and coil condenser

ii. Double tube condenser.
iii. Shell and tube condenser.

SHELL AND COIL CONDENSER : The shell and coil condenser is

made up of one or more bar tube coils enclosed in a welded steel
shell. These condensers are simple in construction. They are
suitable for small and medium capacities around 50 tons.

DOUBLE TUBE CONDENSER: It consists of two concentric

cylindrical tubes one inside the other.

SHELL AND TUBE CONDENSER : It is the most commonly used

condenser. It consists of cylindrical steel shell in which a number of
straight tubes are arranged in parallel. Baffles are provided to
prevent sagging of tubes. Shell and water tube condenser are
available in capacities ranging from 7 KW up to several hundred kilo
Watts or more.

EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER : Evaporative condensers are

commonly used in large Ammonia plants such as Ice making, Bottle
coolers etc., as they are found to be cheaper. The cooling produced

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is approximately 2260 KW/Kg of water evaporated. Advantages of
evaporative condensers are, they occupy less space, flexible for
indoor or outdoor location, needs relatively water for cooling, water
cooling is assisted and accelerated by air, they combine they
functions of condenser and cooling towers.

EXPANSION DEVICES : Basically, they are of two types viz.,

variable restriction type and Constant restriction type. An expansion
device is needed in every compression refrigeration system to
control the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator.

High pressure liquid refrigerant from compressor (via

condenser) flow into an expansion device which expands it down to
evaporator pressure. Expansion device also meters the quantity of
flow of refrigerant through it into the evaporator. The example of
variable restriction type is automatic expansion valve and
thermostatic expansion valve. Example of constant restriction type
is Capillary Tube.

AUTOMATIC EXPANSION VALVE : This is also called as constant

pressure expansion valve since it maintains constant pressure in the
evaporator. The automatic expansion valve is not suitable for a
varying load requirement. It is however used in applications where
precise control of the evaporator temperature is needed and where
cooling load is more or less constant. Its use is limited to plants of
capacity less than 30 KW such as milk coolers.

THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE : Name of the valve is

misleading because control is not actuated by the temperature in
the operator. But by the magnitude of Super heat of the suction
vapour leaving the evaporator. Hence it is more appropriately
called. Super heat control valve. This valve is so precise in action

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that it regulates the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant into the
evaporator in exact proportions to its rate of evaporation.

Thermostatic expansion valves are widely used in air

conditioning and many other refrigeration systems.

SOLENOID VALVE : Solenoid valve is often called magnetic valve.

It is fitted in the line just prior to an expansion valve. Following are
the uses of Solenoid valve.

It cuts off the liquid refrigerant flow in the liquid line controlled
by a pressure switch when section pressure raises to a point
that would over load the motor.
It shuts off the liquid flow in a line controlled by a thermostat
when the desired low temperature is reached.
It isolates coils in suction line during defrosting operations.
It acts as a by-pass wall to reduce the capacity of compressor.

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CAPILLARY TUBE : Ti is fixed restriction type expansion device.
Capillary tubes 1 to 6 mts. long with an inside diameter generally
from 0.5 to 2 mm. area available for use in small size plants.

Advantages in this tube is simple in construction with moving

parts, inexpensive, low starting torque motor is enough to drive the
compressor.

EVAPORATORS : Evaporator is a component which absorbs heat

from the surroundings to be cooled by using a volatile liquid called
refrigerant. Quick evaporating refrigerant flows through the coils of
evaporator and absorbs the heat of products placed in it, evaporates
and changes into liquid state. The heat picked up by the refrigerant
is carried to the compressor and then to the condenser.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporators are classified as follows based on different criteria.
Criterion
1. Refrigerant feed
2. Surface construction
3. Operating conditions
4. Cooling medium
5. Special design
DRY EXPANSION EVAPORATOR :
Type of evaporator
Flooded type, Dry or direct
expansion type, liquid over feed
type
Bare tube evaporator, plate
surface type, finned tube
evaporator
Frosting type, Defrosting type,
non-forsting type
Primary air cooling type
1) Natural convection type
2) Forced convection type
3) Liquid cooling type
Walk in coolers, liquid chillers
Double pipe chillers
Bandlot chillers
Tank type chillers
Shell and coil chillers
Shell and tube chillers
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In this, the dry expansion coil is not dry but as a refrigerant control
device that admits only enough liquid refrigerant to be completely
evaporated by the time it reaches the outlet of the coil. Refrigerant
leaves the evaporator in a fully dry state. These type of evaporators
required much smaller charge of refrigerant. They are widely used
in plants of capacity below 150 tons (600 KW)

FLOODEED TYPE EVAPORATOR: The flooded type evaporators

have the advantage that the surface of evaporator coils in contact
with the refrigerant under all load conditions. They provide high
rate of heat transfer. They are bulky in size and are used in large
installations.

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BARE TUBE EVAPORATIORS : The bare tube evaporator contains
simple piping coil to receive the liquid refrigerant. It flows through
the coil and evaporates as it receives heat from the surroundings.
Steel pipes are used fro Ammonia refrigerant and copper tubes for
Freon refrigerants. These are used in water chillers which employ
certain secondary refrigerants.

PLATE EVAPORATORS : Plate evaporator has its coils welded onto

a plate or placed between two plates which are welded together at
their edges. This arrangement increase area of contact of tubes and
thus higher rate of heat transfer from surroundings to the
refrigerant liquid.

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DRIER: Driers are meant to remove moisture content in a
refrigeration station These are installed in liquid line between
condenser and expansion valve.

TYPE OF DRIERS : Driers are also called Dehydrators. They are

of three types viz.

1) Sealed type or throw away type driers.

2) Refill type Driers.
3) Strainer filter type Driers.

SEALED TYPE DRIER: In this drier, the components are sealed and
cannot be repaired. The main moisture absorbing agent i.e.,
descant used in this drier is silica gel. This substance fully
absorbs the moisture and dries up the refrigerant. The filters
provided in the drier remove dust particles and any foreign matter in
refrigerant.

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REFILL-TYPE-DRIER: Refill type drier is a flange type filter drier.
This drier can be repaired by changing slice gel, spring etc., and can
be cleaned with petrol.

STRAINER-FILTER DRIER: The drying agent used in this type of

drier is silica gel. Theses are widely used in domestic refrigerator,
window type air conditioners etc.,

TUBING : Most tubing used in refrigeration and air conditioning is

made of copper. However, some aluminum steel, stainless steel and
plastic tubing is also being used. Most copper tubing used in air
conditioning and refrigeration work is known as Ari-Conditioning and
Refrigeration (ACR) tubing.

ACR tubing is usually charged with gaseous nitrogen to keep it

clean and dry until it is used. Nitrogen should be fed through it
during brazing and shouldering operations.
Types of tubing.
Soft copper tubing
Hard drawn copper tubing
FREEZING TANKS : Freezing tanks are made up of such materials
as wood, steel or concrete. Wooden tanks have a relatively short life
and are subject to leaks. For this reason, freeze thanks made of
steel cost with a water proof paints are preferable. Tanks made of
reinforced concrete are also recommended as being superior to
those made of wood.
The freezing tanks contain direct expansion freezing coils
equally distributed throughout the tank and submerged in brine.
The tank is provided with a suitable hard wood frame for supporting
ice cans and a propeller or agitator for keeping brine in motion. The
brine in tank acts as a medium of contact only. The ammonia

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evaporating in the freezing coils extract the heat from the brine,
which again absorbs the heat from water in cans thereby freezing it.
The brine temperature should be maintained at 10 to 20 F
and back pressure in Ammonia coils from 20 28 pounds per square
inch, which is equivalent to a temperature at 5 to 15 F in coils.

REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerant is any substance which acts as cooling agent by
absorbing heat from another substance. It is working agent or
media employed in a refrigeration system. Refrigerant is the fluid
used for heat transfer in a refrigeration system which absorbs heat
at a low temperature and low pressure.
PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS :
1. R717 Ammonia (NH)
2. R744 Carbon Dioxide (Co)
3. R764 Sulphur Dioxide (So)
4. R11 Trichloro fluoro methane (Cc1F)
5. R12 Dichloro Difluoro methane (Cc1F)

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SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS :
1. R729-air
2. R718-water
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL REFRIGERANT:
1. It should be non poisonous
2. It should be non explosive
3. It should be non corrosive
4. It must be non flammable
5. Leaks should be easy to detect
6. It should be non toxic

AIR PIPING : Air piping when used must be carefully installed

according to the manufacturing specifications. The air to
blower is usually drawn from under the frame work and
returned from the blower to the laterals without any further
conditioning. The temperature of air in the lateral must be
kept at 46 to 50 F. In order to prevent freezing of moisture in
them or freezing of ice on the drop pipes, keep air pressure as
low as possible, usually from 1 pounds to 1 pounds is
sufficient. In exceptional cases, two pounds may be necessary.
Be careful when putting the fitting into drop to leave it
sitting at an angel which ensures a free swinging of tube. The
secret of good ice is in keeping the tube at centre of the can.
Make the core spotlessly clean before refilling with fresh water.
Pull the ice regularly, a definite number of blocks per hour on
the day.
FILLING : The cans are usually filled by means of a filler
device which is so constructed as to automatically shut off the
water supply when the can is filled to the propter height. The
filler is inserted in the can and water is turned on. As the can
fills, a floating ball raises until the can is filled to the right dept,
when the ball automatically closes a valve. The life of Ice cans
are increased by this method of handling as compared to usual
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careless and injurious procedure followed when filling a can at
a time.

INEERIOR ICE : Cloudy or milky ice is usually caused by

presence of air. It may be due to deficient reboiling, the over
working at reboiler or due to insufficient supply of steam to the
distilled water condenser, in such case rapid condensation of
steam cause a vaccum, with the result that air is drawn in and
mixed with water.
To remove the ice, the can are lifted out of the brine and
sprayed with or dipped in warn water. In many cases it comes
from over working of boiler, carrying too much water.

ICE REMOVAL : To remove the ice, the cans are lifted out of
the brine and sprayed with or dipped in warm water. This
loosens the ice so that when the can is inclined on its side.
The cake slides out. The cans are usually tapered to facilitate
easy removal of ice.

ICE STORAGE : Manufactured ice is stored very much in the

same manner as natural ice, insulation being the most
important factor. Strips of lathe, saw dust in the south rice
chaff, are used for packing it. The space allowed per ton of ice
should be about 50 Cu.feet. Manufactured ice is usually
shipped in cars, where it is packed and insulated the same as
when putting in storage. Ice storage warehouses are usually
equipped with a cooled anti rooms.

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 WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment to render water more suitable for quality ice,
freezing must be restored. Undesirable water qualities can result
poor ice formation as to color, residues and tendencies or to Shafter
of crack. Water should be analyzed to determine the benefits of
treatment. Major advances have occurred in the means for water
treatment, some so advanced (though costly) as to render agitation
unnecessary and by or permitting freezing at faster rates with
extremely cold brines. Sweet water is preferable of limpid ice.
All water lines must be galvanized. Water treatment can be
done by sand or quartz filters. Periodic soaking and washing of
water filters and treating with soda ash is statutory method for
cleaning and removing discoloration causes in the ice and serves for
unknown reasons as inhibitor against their recurrence for a time.

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 PROCEDURE OF ICE MAKING
Clean water is taken is galvanized cans which are placed in a
brine tank. Brine acts as a secondary refrigerant (solution of Sodium
Chloride, Nacl or Cacl). Cooling coils or evaporator coils are wound
around the cans which carry the refrigerant in them.
The brine in the tank is chilled about 10C by the refrigerant
(Freon). Vaporized refrigerant flows too compressor where it is
compressed and delivered to condenser following a vapor
compression cycle.
Vapor refrigerant is condensed to liquid state in the condenser
and the liquid refrigerant is collected in the receiver tank. Then it
flows through a strainer and expansion valve which reduces its
pressure. Low pressure liquid refrigerant keeps on flowing in the
evaporator coils and absorb heat from brine. The chilled brine
extract heat of water in the containers until the water freezes into
ice. Cans are slightly tapered so that ice blocks can be easily
removed by simply wrapping or shaking them. Alternatively, the
cans are lifted our of brine tank after ice formation and placed in hot
water tank called THAWING TANK. By thawing operation, ice blocks
can be easily removed. Entrapped air and Co in ice render a milky
appearance. Tp produce transparent and good quality ice,
chemically treated pure and clean water is to be used.

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 PRINCIPLE
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
The standard VCR system comprises the following operations :
1-2 COMPRESSION : Reversible adiabatic compression of vapour
refrigerant from saturated vapour pressure, Pc to condenser
pressure, Pc Temperature of vapour rise from T1 to T2.
2-3 CONDENSATION : Irreversible rejection of heat at constant
pressure (P2 = P3= PC) This cause desuperheatinig and condensation
of refrigerant. Vapour refrigerant heat loss, equivalent to its latent
heat, to the cooling medium circulated in the condenser. Vapour
condenses to liquid from.
3-4 EXPANSION : Irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy from
saturated liquid pressure to the vapour pressure. Liquid refrigerant is
throttled down isenthalpically from T3 to T4 . Expansion wall serves
this purpose and it also measures the quantity of flow.
4-1 EVAPORATION: Reveresible addition of heat at constant
pressure, liquid refrigerant absorbs heat equivalent to its latent heat
from the products places in the evaporator. Liquid vaporizes to
vapour state.

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 Assume unit mass of refrigerant flowing through the system.
Let N= Refrigeration effect per cycle
W =Wrok supplied per cycle
Then N = (Enthalpy 1 Enthapy 4)
= H1 - H4
= H1 - H3 H4 = H3
H1 - h3 H3 - h3 liquid enthalpy

W=

FACTORS AFFECTING VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

Effecting of Superheating :
How the superheating results in is discussed in Art 3.4
Superheated cycle is shown in Fig.

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Effects of superheating the suction vapour from saturation
temperature t1 to t1 i.e., by adding a superheat of t
Specific volume of vapour sucked in increased thus reducing
the mass flow rate and decrease the capacity.
Increase in refrigerating effect from H1 - H4 to H1 - H4 by an
amount H
Increase in work supply from H2 - H1 to H2 - H1
C.O.P may increase, decrease or may not alter .
Each degree of superheat will cause a greater reduction in
cycle efficiency.
5 to 20 of superheat is always desirable.
Effect of under Cooling or Sub-Cooling : The process of cooling
the refrigerant below the condensing temperature for a given
pressure is known as sub-cooling or under cooling. T By installing a
sub cooler between the condenser and the expansion valve, the
liquid efrigerantcoming of the condenser may be cooled to a
temperature below its saturation temperature.
Sub-cooling is shown in Fig. by the line 3 -3. Effects of sub-cooling
are

33
 Increase in the refrigerating effect
Reduces flashing of liquid during expansion
Power requirement per ton of refrigeration will reduce
Increase of C.O.P
Sub-cooling is generally resorted to 5 to 10 only.
Flash (gas) is the vaporized refrigerant. When saturated liquid
expands through an expansion valve the fraction of refrigerant
it vaporized.
Effects of Changing Evaporator Pressure :

Fig. Show the effects of changing the evaporator pressure keeping

the condenser pressure constant.
Supposing evaporator pressure is reduced i.e., suction
pressure of compressor is decreased by say 0.4 bar we find that
Refrigerant effect decrease from (H1 H4) to (H1 - H4)
Specific volume increase thus reducing mass flow rate
Decrease in volumetric efficiency
Increase in compressor work from (H2 - H1) to (H2 - H1)
Decrease of C.O.P.
Effect of changing Codenser Pressure :

34
Fig. Shows the effect of changing the condenser pressure i.e.,
delivery pressure of compressor keeping evaporator pressure
constant. If condenser pressure is increased by (say) 1.2 bar, we
observe that
Increase in power consumption i.e.
Increase in compressor work from (H2 - H1) to (H2 - H1)
Decrease in refrigerating effect from (H1 - H4) to (H1 - H4)
Decrease of (C.O.P.)

MANUFACTURING OF ICE
The time to freeze a give thickness of ice is determined firstly
by the temperature of the ice freezing surface, in the case the top
brain. Most raw waters, treated or untreated, cannot be frozen
without cracking at a temperature below 12C. The brain velocity
also has a marked influence on the freezing time and should not
exceed above 105 rpm. The brain movement is caused by hydraulic
gradient best designed for about 3.2 to 3.8 cm in the tank length.

35
The brain level in the tank should permit the submergence of water
in the ice cans below the brine level.
A uniform rate of harvesting exactly according to the time
schedule is necessary for maximum yield. The rate of ice freezing
drops rapidly. As the ice layer becomes thickness, the thermal
resistance to heat transfer increases. A 28 cm * 56 cm can holding
145 kg of water in 14c, brine will make 127 kg of ice in 24 hours
and consumers and additional 14 hours to freeze the remaining 18
kg.
When brine agitation is moderate, 4.5 to 7.5 mpm, the total
freezing time for US standard cans, 28 cm thick may be expressed
by the equation 1 & 2
0.6b2
T= - (1)
(-t)

Where t = Temperature of brine, C

B = Thickness of Ice Block (short side) Cm.
T Total freezing time for the blocks hours
T= nm * 24 -(2)
1000
Where n = Number of cans per metric ton of ice produced in 24
hours
M = Mass of Ice block, kg.
Equation 3 is obtained by equation -1- and -2- and solving for the
brine temperature
T= 25b / nm -(3)
Thus, for a given Plant, the daily output is a function of the brine
temperature only. The number of cans per ton is the usual unit for
rating tank capacity, which also establishes the necessary brine
temperature for a given daily output.
36
 For Block thickness above 30 Cm. or below 25 Cm. Eq (3)
should not be used, because of the following reasons.
(1). It assumes that all resistance to heat flow is dependent upon
ice thickness, where as the resistance actually consists of
(a) Ice resistance (thickness) and
(b) Surface resistance (from brine to Ice)
Which is independent of the Ice Thickness.

(2). It does not take into consideration, the flow of heat across
narrow sides of the can, which becomes increasingly important as
the shape of can approaches a square.
The value of the Heat transfer coefficient various with the brine
velocity. For every high brine velocities F 285 W m k for
Ordinary ice tanks with relatively slow moving brine,
F = 140 W m1 - k .

37
 ICE MAKING CALCULATIONS

CAPACITY : Ice making capacity is usually equal to about 50% to

70% of the refrigeration capacity as expressed in terms of
refrigeration per day. However, such operating conditions as initial
temperature of water supply, room temperature and effectiveness
of insulation will influence this ratio. If heat leakage losses are
known, the Ice making capacity can be closely estimated.

HEAT LOSSES : Heat losses in Ice making usually very from less
than 10% in the best installations upto a possible 50% under poor
conditions. When the Ice production and refrigeration rating of the
machine is known, the heat losses may be calculated.

FREEZING TIME : Time required for freezing Ice depends upon

the temperature of brain and thickness of cake with a brine at about
15F, It will take approximately 50 hours to freeze 11 inches of
ice. The time for freezing may be calculated mathematically, if it is
remembered that, fro different thicknesses. An emphirical formula
has been used to determine forgoing time for ice in cans as follows.
Freezing time in hours At / 32-T
Where t = width of ice at top (narrow way)
T= Temperature of brine in F
A = A constant usually takes as 7

TON OF REFRIGERATION EFFECT : The cooling capacity of older

refrigeration units is often indicated in tons of refrigeration. A ton
of refrigeration represents the rate of cooling produced when a ton
200 (1b) of ice melts during one 24 hour day.
1 ton = Approx. 907 kg.

38
Latent heat = 337 KJ/kg.
Energy absorbed = Latent heat * weight=337 * 907 (KJ/kg * kg)
= 305.659 KJ (The melting of this Ice in one day has a cooling
capacity)
TROUBLE SHOOTING

SOME OF THE COMMON PROBLEMS :

1. The system runs but for a short time.
2. The system is very noise.
3. Evaporator temperature is very high
4. Cools occasionally on switching of the system.
5. Liquid lines freezes
6. Liquid line extremely hot

SOME OF THE COMMON CAUSES OF TROUBLES :

1. Faculty location of the unit
2. Air in the refrigeration system
3. Low suction pressure
4. High suction pressure
5. High head pressure
6. Load on evaporator not proper
7. Clogged condenser
8. Refrigerant shortage, Refrigerant over charge
9. Vibration or noise in the system
10. Low ambient temperature
11. Refrigerant control device leaking
12. Defective condenser fan or driving system.
13. Restricted liquid line.
14. Very low voltage, starting capacitor fault running
capacitor fault or burnt out.
15. Improper wiring, loose connections.

SOME OF THE REMEDIAL ACTIONS FRO AVODING PROBLEMS :

39
1. For water pumps, remove foreign matter, check and correct
direction of rotation and fir tight for the base.
2. Lubrication is necessary for effective running of pump motor
and compressor.
3. Strip and clean all strainer, valves, check pressure drip through
the system.
4. Remove obstructions.
5. Check and if possible remove cause of excess of load for all the
units namely condensing unit.
6. Investigate load at evaporator, if necessary, fit not gas by pass
system.
7. Check the efficiency of components, if necessary replace.
8. Check refrigerant charge and liquid line strainer and drier
check whether head pressure control is necessary.
9. Replace compressor if noise is interval
10. Check supply at motor and correct the voltage
11. Check all the wearing parts and replace.

40
 SPECIFICATIONS AND DETAILS OF
BASIC EQUIPMENT

1. COMPRESSOR a) Capacity = HP
b) Pressure = 30 cans
c) Company =
Deltron-India d) Speed
= 1500 rpm
2. MOTOR a) Capacity = HP
b) Company = Vijay

c) Speed = 1440 rpm

3. CONDENSER a) Capacity = HP
b) Dimensions
Height = 12
Base = 14
width =
2
4. RECEIVER a) Width = 3
b) Length =12
5. PIPE : a) Evaporator coil = 3/8
b) Condenser to receiver to
evaporator = 1/4
6. VALVE At evaporator entry = 1/4
7. REFRIGERANT : Freon 12
Pressure 12 bar
8. CHAMBER SPECIFICATIONS : Length * Width * Depth 14 *
10 * 12
9. ICE CANS Length * Width * Depth =
8*21/2*6
PLANT SIZE Length * Width * Depth =
5*14*15

41
 INTRODUCTION

This report gives a detailed idea about a small scale industry.

Educated young people should not depend on salary jobs
and should try for self employment. It is only possible when young
engineers and technical persons are willing to take risks for our
country to prosper.
Before going to put a small scale industry, investment in which
does not exceed rupees 35 lakhs in plants and machinery
irrespective of the number of persons employed.

SCOPE : At present, small scale industries account for about 40%

of the total combined industrial production. Small scale units
account for 10% of the fixed capital of all factories, provide
employment to 40 lakh persons. This is 35% of the total number of
employees in the industries and this section contributes nearly 35%
of total industrial output and 26% of total exported. Small industries
have large scope in our country. Today, Central and State
Governments are providing all types of help to the interested
person.

ROLE OF SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY :

42
 1. These create immediate and permanent employed on a
large scale.
2. They help in production of consumers goods and therefore
can meet the demand for consumer product.
3. They help reduction of prices.
4. They accelerate the rate of industrial growth.

PROCEDURE TO START A SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY :

Starting a small scale industry is not an easy task. At the same
time, it is not difficult too, if different factors are considered before
taking decision to start it.
The factors involved are
1. Market survey and study of the product as regards their
demand in the market. Decide the prospectus and the
necessary factors to manufacture on the basis of
a) Market Survey
b) Financial implications involved
c) Technical know-how available
d) Experience in the line etc.,
&
2. Selection of proper site for locating the unit.
3. Preparation of schemes.
4. Approval of schemes.
5. Registration of small scale industry.

43
 SELECTION OF PRODUCT

Selection of product is the key point to start an industry before

selecting a produce.
1. Conduct market survey and study the product.
2. As regards their demand in the market.
3. Study similar products available in the market that can be
probable competitors analize them as regard their utility, their
dependability and the main of all, quality and cost.
4. Decide the product you are going to manufacture on the basis
of
Market survey
Financial implications
Technical know-how available
Experience in the line etc.,

In this project, Selection of product is based on the Ice Making

System.

44
 MARKET SURVEY
A Survey is conducted by an entrepreneur to ensure himself
future sales of his proposed product. A survey can be conducted as
often as possible to predict changes in the demand.
Market survey is done by collecting data from representative
section of society in selected areas or towns. Market survey
involves more expenditure and time but is more effective and gives
clear picture.
Market survey gives details about competitors (manufacturers
of the same product), traders and consumers.
Market survey gives the information about competitors
regarding installed and utilized capacities of the product, terms of
business, marketing areas, trade practices, plans fro expansion and
silent features like quality finance and other resources.
Market survey gives the information about the distributors and
retailers regarding the business terms, turnover, his relation with
suppliers of other products, normal levels of stocks and their
valuable comments.
Market survey gives the information about consumers
regarding annual consumption, their present source of supply, his
preference to other brands, purchasing power, purchasing criteria
and his reactions to the change in the product quality and design.

45
 PRODUCT AND PRODUCT ANALYSIS

Process products such as sugar and cement are manufactured

by continuous production. Mass production is manufactured in large
number of products like Transistor.
When a firm manufactures several products, each product in
manufactured for some length of time. Such type of production is
called batch production. When the firm manufactured only a few
products in an year such as Stem Turbine or Boilers, it is called Job
Production.
Thus, if same product is manufactured in job production, cost is
more. But cost is cheap when it is manufactured in mass
production. So price of a product depends on volume of production.
Quantitative analysis of product should be done consulting the
product life cycle graph given.

46
 MATERIALS AND INPUTS
Suppliers are major manufactures of materials as identified.
Comparative statements regarding terms and conditions, time
required to materialize order, minimum order quantities and packing
methods. The entrepreneur must obtain test certificates from
suppliers or he should get the material tested for quality if
necessary, when some materials are critical.
The availability of raw materials must be studied closely with
information of previous years whether actual or artificial shortages
of materials occurred for previous years. Precautions must be taken
to control such shortages. Imported raw materials and materials
controlled by the Government need more attentions as supplies will
not be regular.

INPUTS : Men, machines, materials, money and management are

five inputs (or) 5Ms of an industry.
Machines should be carefully selected. Entrepreneur should
ask suppliers, the list of industries to whom he was centered. He
should select, if available, the machines approved by D.G.S. & D.
(Director General or Supplies and Disposals) who issues certificate
or approval after through testing.
Management is another criteria. If the Industry is large,
technical managers must be appointed who will reduce the cost of
production. Entrepreneur can read the text books ono management
and can a quaint himself managerial knowledge.

Money generated by profits should not be diverted to

unnecessary non productive uses. Sufficient reserve fund must be
developed to cater the needs of unforeseen events. Great economy
must be observed as money may be blocked and generally

47
entrepreneur faces monitory troubles frequently in the early years of
his Industry.

MAN POWER : Required number of skilled persons may be

selected. Semi skilled and unskilled persons must be trained in
similar industries. They must be made production conscious and
quality conscious to achieve maximum results. Scientific wage rate
systems maybe adopted, productivity linked wages and bonus may
be given to the staff. If may be remembered that Japan could
compete with all other Countries, because, if a man is employed, he
is employed for life.

LOCATION : Plant location may be defined as the functioning

determining where the plants are to be located for maximum
operating economy and effectiveness.

48
 ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL EVALUATION
ECONOMIC EVALUATION : Economic evaluation is presentation of
information regarding the profitability of proposed industry convince
financial institutions for sanction of loans and also enable the
entrepreneur to convince himself about the success of his project.
It should be examined whether the Government has priority for the
proposed product. Costs of inputs, cost of production, cost of office
and sale revenue. Profit should be sufficient to ensure return on
investment to entrepreneur. Debt service coverage ratio must be
equal to or more than two. Otherwise, financial institutions agitate
to sanction such projects.
TECHNICAL EVALUATION : Technical Evolution is another
important factor which forms basis for economic valuation.
Selection of manufacturing process, machinerys capacities are
critical.
If a product can be manufactured by alternative process, the
cost of production by different processes should be analyzed to
arrive at economic system of process.
Different processed need different machinery which again have
different capacities. Capacities of machines have to be select
according to rate of production and size of the product, automations
may be introduced where ever necessary.
If raw materials have different alternatives the merits and
demerits should be analyzed and suitable materials are selected.

49
 STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS WITH GOVERNMENT
DEPARTMENT
IN SETTING UP SMALL INDUSTRIES

REGISTRATION / LICENSE : Small scale industries have to be

registered with General Manger, District Industries Centre of
Commissioner of Industries. Large and Medium Scale are to be
registered with Commissioner of Industries or Secretary to
Government, AP Industries and Commerce Department.
Partnership firms are to be registered with Registrar of Firms,
AP State Government. Private or Public Limited Companies are to be
registered with Registrar of Companies are to be registered with
Registrar of Companies of Company Law Board of Government of
India.
Land and Industrial Estates will be provided by AP Industrial
Infrastructure Corporation. Any Government Land (Private Land if
large area is required) can be required with the help of District
Collector or Secretary of Government, Industries Department.

LICENSES : Panchayat Licenses for construction of Buildings and

Installation of Missionary should be obtained by Gram Panchayat.
Municipal License is required for establishing an Industry and for
storage of some critical items, from Municipality, Factory plans
forwarded by the Gram Panchayat should be approved by Chief
Inspector of Factories.
Registration of a factory and license are to be obtained by local
inspector of factories, in most cases, Electricity supply will be given
only after approval or

50
Inspector of factories, on application to Local Divisional Engineer of
A.P. S.E.B. Registration of Scale Tax Registration should be done with
Commercial Tax Officer.

SPECIAL LICENSE : These are required for some critical items and
conditions such as instillation of boilers, manufacture of explosive,
Alcohol and its products, drugs and Cosmetic, Handloom and
Textiles, Food grains, Foods Products, Kandasari Sugar and Sewage
disposal.

PREPARATION OF FEASIBILITY REPORT : Preparation of project

report of feasibility report is done (1) To set guidelines for future
action (2) To procure finance from Bankers (3) To obtain Registration,
to procure Raw materials from Government Agencies and to obtain
License to import machinery and Raw materials from concerned
Authorities.
Project Report should include (a) General information regarding
industry (b) Preliminary analysis of alternatives (c) Marketing plan
(d) Capital requirements and costs (e) Financial and Economic
Analysis.

51
PROJECT REPORT SHOULD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :
1. Location and its advantages.
2. Site and its advantages.
3. Market Analysis.
4. Different alternatives for production and their merit and
demerits.
5. Specifications of Product.
6. Advantage due to Government Policies.
7. Specifications of Raw material.
8. Analysis of Sources and Suppliers of Missionary and Raw
Materials.
9. Advantage of Technology of collaborating CSIR Laboratories of
forms.
10. Cost and data details of land and Buildings.
11. Flow charts, Process Charts & Building Layout.
12. Requirements of employees.
13. Working capital requirements.
14. Analysis of profitability.
15. Fund Flow Statement.
16. Environmental problems and their preventions
17. Past performance of promoters of the project.
18. Preparedness to implement the Proj. Re. without delay.
19. Availability of Power and Water.

52
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. COMMERICAL REFRIGERATION
-EDWIN P.
ANDERSON
2. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
- A.R.
TROTT
3. MODERN REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING
- ANDREW
D. ALTHOUSE
4. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
- C.P.
ARORA
5. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
- M.
ZAKRIABAIG
6. INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
- N. KRISHNA
MURTHY - RAJA
SIDDAIAH

****

53