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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This Chapter presents some foreign and local

literatures and studies which the researchers deemed

relevant with the present study. Such literatures and

studies cited paved the way in determining the extent of

how far researchers have gone through along the area under

investigation.

Related Literature

Stress

Johnson (2012) in his book entitled Coping Mechanism

of Stress defines stress as an unpleasant state of

emotional and physiological arousal that people experience

in situations that they perceive as dangerous or

threatening to their well-being. The word stress means

different things to different people. Some people define

stress as events or situations that cause them to feel

tension, pressure, or negative emotions such as anxiety and

anger. Others view stress as the response to these

situations. This response includes physiological changes

such as increased heart rate and muscle tensionas well as

emotional and behavioral changes. However, most

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psychologists regard stress as a process involving a

persons interpretation and response to a threatening

event.

Sources of Stress

Interpersonal
It is also widely known that Stress (Hoe, 2013) is

often the by-product of conflicts amongst peers, family or

colleagues. Since it is published in social media, such

types of conflicts are referred to as interpersonal

conflicts. These types of conflicts take away the

cohesiveness that would be otherwise seen in a group

situation and thus, cause stress amongst the members of the

group.
This type of a conflict is seen in almost every

setting, be it home, work or even a place as casual as a

leisure club or cafeteria! However, the extent to which the

stress is felt depends upon the role played by each

participant. Thus, this conflict can be invoked on one way

or two way lines.

For example, person A may feel a sense of conflict

with person B, but person B may not even be aware of it. In

another situation, both A and B may feel the conflict.

Thus, stress may be felt depending upon how active a person

is in the state of conflict. Usually, the person who holds

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grudges feels a lot of stress and so does the person

against whom the grudges are held. The extent of this

feeling of stress also depends upon how involved a person

really is. However, if a conflict is one-way, it might

result in a state of stress for the person against whom a

conflict is felt.
Such type of stress would then be called as 'perceived

stress'. It is imperative that the cause of conflict be

removed in order to do away with interpersonal conflict.

The immediate consequence would be that the levels of

stress would reduce manifold. The resolution of such a

conflict starts with the step called 'originate'. It refers

to a process in which each person makes a mention of the

other person's problem behavior. However, what one person

may perceive as a problem will not be a cause for worry for

another one (Jones, 2011).

The findings on the influence of gender on students'

reported levels of stress is inconsistent with that of

Misra and McKean (2012) and Taylor and Owusu-Banahene

(2012).
Misra and Mckean in thier book entitled Coping

Mechanism of Stress found that although women are able to

manage their time more effectively than men, they express

high stress and anxiety in academic environment than males.

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Taylor and OwusuBanahene further gave some plausible

reasons to explain these differences as: women are more

concerned about their living and sleeping environment; they

are often saddled with domestic activities in their halls

of residence, for example cooking and washing; and they

often attend to family and marital demands at home.

However, among the part-time female students, these reasons

do not largely apply to them because most of them do not

stay on campus.
Rather, both male and female students on the part-time

programme are faced with similar stressors on the

programme, for example, changes in sleep and eating habit,

having to combine job, schooling and family life, and

having to worry about their academic performance and the

financial demands that the programme places on them. A

comparison of the mean score for the stress level reported

by the students shows that although female students

reported a higher level of stress than male students, this

difference was statistically insignificant

(http://periodicals.faqs.org /201303)

Intrapersonal

In is published in a social media that Stress among

part-time (working) students has, in recent times, caught

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the attention of educational researchers. Studies have

found that college students holding jobs experience more

stress than those without a job. The purpose of this study

was, therefore, to identify the sources and levels of

stress among part-time students among part-time business

students in a Ghanaian university. A total of 300 part-time

business students were selected for this study. The Student

Stress Survey Scale and the Overload Assessment Test were

adopted and adapted as the main instrument for the study.

It was found that "change in sleeping habits", "change in

eating habit" and "combining job and schooling" were the

three most common sources of stress reported by the

students. Again, the students are reported that they

perceived the part-time programme to be stressful. The

researchers recommend, among others, that part-time

(working) students should reduce their social commitments

and engagements in other areas of life in order to

concentrate more on their jobs and schooling

(http://periodicals.faqs.org /201103).

Academic Stress

In is published in a social media that Academic stress

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among students have long been researched on, and

researchers have identified stressors as too many

assignments, competition with other students, failures,

lack of pocket money, poor relationships with other

students or lecturers, family or problems at home.

Institutional (university) level stressors are overcrowded

lecture halls, semester system, and inadequate resources to

perform academic work.

Erkutlu and Chafra (2011) in their book entitled

Mechanism of Stress for instance opines that, when these

events take place, an individual becomes disorganised,

disoriented and therefore less able to cope up, thus

resulting in stress related health problems. The pressure

to perform well in the examination or test and time

allocated makes academic environment very stressful. This

is likely to affect the social relations both within the

University and outside since there is conflict with the

social aspect of ones life. This not the only affect the

social relations within or outside the University, but this

goes to affect the individual person's life in terms of

commitment to achieving the goals.

Daniels (2013) in his book entitled Coping Mechanism

of Students Knowing the causes of students stress will

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make the University administrator know how to monitor and

control the stress factors that are responsible for the

students stress. scholars for instance identified the

symptoms and the causes of stress in work environments as

sitting for a long period of time, poor work performance,

poor interpersonal relationship, inadequate or lack of

resources, inadequate time to perform particular

assignments, poor working conditions, overcrowded work

stations, excessive paperwork, and many others. Whereas

these factors have been found to be responsible for stress,

it is worth noting that in order to minimise the stress

among students, the University administrators must develop

appropriate strategies that will enable them to detect in

advance the symptoms and causes of the stress. Researchers

have long identified stress symptoms as lack of energy,

taking over the counter medication, high blood pressure,

feeling depresssed, increase in appetite, trouble

concentrating, restlessness, tensions and anxiety among

others. An individual experiencing one of these factors is

likely to be a victim of stress. Although this may also

depend on how the individual appraises the situation, and

how resilient is the person. While the negative effects of

stress on an individual may vary considerably from one

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student based on their previous encounter with situations

and the resilient of the individual student. In their

findings point out that, the perception of the individual

determines whether or not the stressor has a detrimental

effect; that is whether it causes physical or psychological

symptoms of stress in the individual.

Simon (2014) made a study entitled Coping Mechanism

of Students indicated a close link between high amounts of

occupational stress and ill health. This means that

deterioration in health of the individual is likely to

affect the individual performance. In a higher learning

institution such as University where the demand placed on

students is based on deadlines and pressure for excelling

in tests or examination, students are likely to be the

victims of stress. Our argument is that, students stress

has not gained much attention since most scholars were

preoccupied with the conventional work related stress as

opposed to academic students stress. Institutions worldwide

have not taken serious steps to find out the health of

students, this could be attributed to the fact that

students who stay at the university is based on short

period, and therefore their stress have little direct

impact on the activities or operations of the institution.

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Another reason why little have been done on students stress

could be due to the fact that students' presence in the

institution have no direct relationship to the quality of

education they get. We argue that, unless the university

put appropriate measures that take care of well being of

the students, the student's health may compromise the

quality of education they are supposed to get.

Environmental Stress

Ongori (2012) in his book entitled Stress Management

cited that the outcome associated with stress such as

suicide, violence, and drug abuse among others have been

witnessed in the institution often, and are worth paying

attention to. Stress poses a great threat to quality of

life for students. Students interact amongst themselves as

well as with their lecturers, therefore unduly stressed and

unhappy students will reflect this in the process of the

engagement that may result in conflict.It has been found

that one traditional manifestation of increased stress

among college stress is a corresponding drop in grade-point

average.
Cochran (2011) in his book entitled Stressors for

students also identified some of the effects of stress

among students with jobs as depression, suicide, substance

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abuse and eating disorders.

Stress Management
Stress is a feeling that is created when we react to

particular events. It is the body's way of rising to a

challenge and preparing to meet a tough situation with

focus, strength, stamina, and heightened alertness.

The events that provoke stress are called stressors,

and they cover a whole range of situations everything from

outright physical danger to making a class presentation or

taking a semester's worth of your toughest subject.

The human body responds to stressors by activating the

nervous system and specific hormones. The hypothalamus

signals the adrenal glands to produce more of the hormones

adrenaline and cortisol and release them into the

bloodstream. These hormones speed up heart rate, breathing

rate, blood pressure, and metabolism. Blood vessels open

wider to let more blood flow to large muscle groups,

putting our muscles on alert. Pupils dilate to improve

vision. The liver releases some of its stored glucose to

increase the body's energy. Moreover, sweat is produced to

cool the body. All of these physical changes prepare a

person to react quickly and effectively to handle the

pressure of the moment.

This natural reaction is known as the stress response.

Working properly, the body's stress response enhances a

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person's ability to perform well under pressure. However,

the stress response can also cause problems when it

overreacts or fails to turn off and reset itself properly.(

Wikipedia, 2008. "Stress (biological)"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(medicine))

Rebecca J. Frey (2011) said that stress in humans

results from interactions between persons and their

environment that are perceived as straining or exceeding

their adaptive capacities and threatening their well-being.

The element of perception indicates that human stress

responses reflect differences in personality, as well as

differences in physical strength or general health.

Risk factors for stress-related illnesses are a mix of

personal, interpersonal, and social variables. These

factors include lack or loss of control over one's physical

environment, and lack or loss of social support networks.

People who are dependent on others (e.g., children or the

elderly) or who are socially disadvantaged (because of

race, gender, educational level, or similar factors) are at

greater risk of developing stress-related illnesses. Other

risk factors include feelings of helplessness,

hopelessness, extreme fear or anger, and cynicism or

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distrust of others.

Selye (2011) in her book entitled The Nature of

Stress explained that stress is non specific response of

the body to pay demand made upon it under ordinary

circumstances, the bodys reaction to specific stimulus

anticipate because of its repetitive pattern. Therefore, a

person experiences pain. When the body is warm, it

perspires and when it is used the body shivers. All human

exhibits uniform response to stimulus because of

homeostasis. When response is erotic and does not uniform

to the usual reaction expected from the application of the

stimulus, the body is said to be in stress.

Walter Cannon (2012) in his study that the human body

reacts either positively or negatively to a stress factor

producing two kinds of possible reaction. When the human

body tries to flee from stress situation, negative reaction

is exhibited. Positive reaction comes about when the body

makes the principle of homeostasis apply the body to

overcome stressful situation which is known as adaptation

or coping. He advocated that while the concepts of stress

is an absolute fact, its presence and intensity reception

are all relative in accordance with the physical and

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psychological make up of the individual. All people

therefore, experience stress but the way stress is present

and is handled by each individual is unique for each other.

A little difficulty is hardly felt by another. By

understanding, we can more easily identify stress factors

and their effects on who need or seek healthcare. Each

individual is experiencing stress, in her own particular

manner. How the individual adopt or fails to adopt depend

on several factors: personality and conditional make past

experiences dealing with stress. It is important to

remember that stress syndrome can be both positive and

negative. Any change or alteration in the balance of life

can create stress. We are all unique individual, we respond

differently to various stressors. Thus, it neither does nor

matter. Whether, it is positive or negative light or

severe. What matter is how we developed adoptive mechanism

to cope with these stressors and can be translated as the

ability to withstand stress and create a life experiences

that do not work against you. The implication of stress

theory is by being able to withstand stress and by coping

with it. Diluting it when occurs and eliminating it, you

can actually affect your life. You are not programmed for

premature aging. The fact is you control your own health.

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The quote of the journal of American Medical Association

says, Nature did not intend to grow old and ill, we were

designed to die young in old age but free of disease.

Schafer (2012) in his study entitled The Nature of

Stress defined stress as the arousal of mind and body in

response on the demand made upon them. The concept of

stress is important because it provides a way of

understanding the person as a human being who responds in

totality (mind, body and spirit) to a variety of changes

that takes place in daily life.

Accrding to Maraya de Jesus Chebat (2014) stress is

here to stay. What people must do is to learn more about

its nature, sources and alternatives so that people used

the energy positively and work in the best possible way.

Orlandi stated, Your ability to tolerate stressors

depends on the number of stressors in your life. People

who can handle stress use their coping mechanism, which is

powerful tool to use, to analyze events objectively and

observe calmly. Gather information at the state of

equilibrium, understanding of what to produce the tension

that helps you feel that the stress is alleviated.

Miranda (2011) in his study specified that the most

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effective way of managing stress are through relation and

exercise which ironically are extremely aesthetical acts

which involved dynamics of the mind and body. People who

are always stress survivors stay healthy throughout their

lives. They consider stressful situation opportunist for

growth.

Related Studies

According to Ann Marriner Tomey et. Al,(2014) defines

Stress that is a part of every student's daily life.

Leaving home or commuting daily managing, finances, living

with roommates, and juggling work, classes, and

relationships all contribute to the normal stress of being

a student. In addition, it is not uncommon for students to

feel stressed and anxious about wasting time, meeting high

standards, or being lonely. Stress can also come from

exciting or positive events. Falling in love, preparing to

study abroad, or buying a car can be just as stressful as

less-happy events. One of the most important things you can

do is to recognize when your stress levels are building.

The amount of stress that you can tolerate before you

become distressed varies with your life situation and your

age. A critical first step in coping with stress is taking

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stock of the stressors in your life. Whenever stress is

present, your body reacts. It acts like an alarm system

that prepares your body to depend yourself. A little stress

is good. It helps you think faster and harder and makes you

put that extra bit of effort to meet in the challenge of

life.

On the other hand, Lether and Woolfolk (2012) say that

the relaxation is the very valuable stress management

technique that can soothe the emotional turmoil and

suppress problematic psychological arousal. While Martin

and Lefcourt (2011) suspected humor might be worthwhile

coping response. Empirical evidence to that effect has

emerged only recent years. For them good humor functions as

buffer to lessen the negative impact of stress.

According to Calderon (2013) in his book said people

who experience a high level of stress for a long time and

who cope poorly with this stress may become irritable,

socially withdrawn, and emotionally unstable. They may also

have difficulty concentrating and solving problems. Some

people under intense and prolonged stress may start to

suffer from extreme anxiety, depression or other severe

emotional problems.

Odrigo G. Ancheta (2011) says that, Stress gives us

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energy to cope with the demanding activity of life. It is

true that stress is a normal constant part of our life

because it involves changes, challenges and emotions. Try

to imagine life without stress. You would not have any

challenges anything to affect your emotions and anything

new and exciting. It gives as energy because it activity

involves physically and emotionally. Stress might be

considered as a problem because we often bear about stress

in a negative light that people may only associates bad

experiences with stress. How you perceived and handled

stressors will determine whether the stress is good or bad

for you. A situation that seems extremely stressful to you

could leave very calm to somebody.

Flores (2012) said that a person who is stressed

typically less anxious thoughts and difficulty

concentrating or remembering. Stress can also change

outward behaviors. Teeth clenching, hand wringing, pacing,

nail biting, and heavy breathing are common signs of

stress. People also feel physically different when they are

stress. Butterflies in the stomach, cold hands and feet,

dry mouth and increase heart rate are all physiological

effects of stress that we associate with the emotion of

anxiety.
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Synthesis

The past study discussed in this chapter has given the

researcher the concept, theories and principles that pave

the way to the ideas of the present study and good starting

point for the researchers in assessing the stressors and

the stress management performed by the athletes.

The review has enabled the researchers to have a

better understanding of ideas of different well known

writers which resulted to broadening the researchers own

thinking in relation to the present study.