Introduction To The Biobased Economy

Introduction to the Biobased Economy
Auteur Michiel Klaassen

Laatst gewijzigd 12 July 2016
Licentie CC Naamsvermelding 3.0 Nederland licentie
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Inhoudsopgave
Preface
1. Introduction to the biobased economy
1.1 Drivers of a biobased economy
1.2 Biobased economy: part of a transition to a sustainable economy
1.3 The basic principles of a biobased economy
1.4 Conflicting interests
1.5 Learning
2. Biomass production
2.1 Growing biomass
2.2 Agricultural challenges
2.3 Biomass availability
2.4 Biomass types
2.5 Learning
3. Conversion processes and products

3.1 Mechanical/physical conversion techniques
3.2 Biochemical conversion techniques
3.3 Chemical conversion techniques
3.4 Thermochemical conversion techniques
3.5 Biobased products
3.6 Learning
4. Transition to a biobased society (partly work in progress)

4.1 Logistics
4.2 Business models
4.3 Legislation
4.4 Green washing
4.5 Learning
5. Further reading & references

5.1 Further reading
5.2 References
5.3 Author & improvements
Over dit lesmateriaal
Pagina 1 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Preface
The wikiwijs arrangement Introduction to the Biobased Economy is made and kept up to date with
help of the Centre of Biobased Economy (CBBE).
In the Centre for Biobased Economy (CBBE) eight education and research institutes have joined their
efforts, with help of trade and industry, to educate young professionals for a strong and sustainable
biobased economy. Core activitities are:
Knowledge transfer and development of educational materials

Reinforcement of applied research
Stimulation of innovation projects
The CBBE is represented by Wageningen UR | Avans | CAH Vilentum | HAS Hogeschool |

Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen | Inholland | Van Hall Larenstein | Hogeschool Zeeland
More information about CBBE:
Centre of Biobased Economy

kn.nu/wwd94ffb5 (cbbe.nl)

1. Introduction to the biobased economy
An illustration of the biobased economy

Closing the loops is a central principle in the biobased economy. The illustration shows that plants
grow by photosynthesis, needing energy from the sun and carbon dioxide from the air. The produced
biomass is used as food (for humans) and feed (for animals). All what is left can be converted into
materials, chemicals, fuels or energy. Examples of "left over" streams are unedible parts of plants,
manure, kitchen or supermarket wast and rejected crops or products. Remark that waste production
does not exist! The loop is closed.
In this introduction of the biobased economy three elements are highlighted:
- Biomass production
- Conversion processes and products
- Transition to a biobased society
As you can see the chapters have the same titles. But before we provide you with information about
these specific subjects, it is necessary to provide a good understanding of the backgrounds of a
biobased economy. This introduction is given in the following chapter (chapter 1).
The biobased economy encompasses the agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food and biotechnology
sectors, as well as a wide range of industrial sectors, ranging from the production of energy and
chemicals to building and transport. This implicates that for realizing a biobased economy we need
generalists and specialists from a great diversity of studies. This introduction is therefore important
for young people with know-how of:
- Biomass production: Biotechnology, plant breeding and plant cultivation & production, animal
husbandry......
- Conversion processes and products: Environmental science & technology, chemistry, product &
industrial design, mechanical and chemical engineering ,......
- Transition to a biobased society: Logistics, marketing, business administration,.....
In other words: the development of a biobased economy needs you!
Watch the two embedded videos for gaining a better understanding of what a biobased economy is.

First introduction video
kn.nu/ww6ebebce (youtu.be)
Second introduction video

kn.nu/wwd7e38e5 (youtu.be)
1.1 Drivers of a biobased economy

Why is a transition towards a biobased economy needed?
The main drivers, which are discussed in more detail are:
- Climate change
- Energy and resource scarcity
- Rural and regional economical development
- Sustainable economical development in The Netherlands
1.1.1 First driver: Climate change
Climate change is happening now: temperatures are rising, rainfall patterns are shifting, glaciers and
snow are melting, and the global mean sea level is rising. It is expect that these changes will
continue, and that extreme weather events resulting in hazards such as floods and droughts will
become more frequent and intense. Impacts and vulnerabilities for nature, the economy and our
health differ across regions, territories and economic sectors in Europe. Climate change is caused by the
emissions of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane.
Global warming
kn.nu/wwd7581e1 (youtu.be)
In the next figure the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide is depicted in the last thousands of
years. Data from an Antarctic ice cores reveals an interesting story for the past 400,000 years. during
this period, CO2 and temperatures are closely correlated, which means they rise and fall together.
In august 2015 the concentrations of carbon dioxide reached 399 ppm, explaining the concerns over
global warming. (In the graph the concentrations do not surpass 300 ppm, left axis).

Actual carbon dioxide concentration see: http://co2now.org/
Combating climate change became a more important element of the political agenda after the signing
of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. Since then, a range of measures has been identified, and
implemented, to reduce GHG (green house gas) emissions. Although some measures focus on
energy saving, increasing attention has been given to the production of renewable energy. The
common feature of solar, wind, hydraulic and bioenergy is that they thrive on natural forces. In the
case of bioenergy plants (biomass!) absorb carbon dioxide to produce glucose while exhaling
oxygen. Therefore an economy based on biomass utilization can result in a decrease of greenhouse
gas emissions.
Bioenergy came into focus as an option to combat climate change in industrialized countries towards
the end of the 20th century, first attempts being made by countries with large natural resources
(Sweden, Finland and Germany). The EU embraced bioenergy as an element of its climate change
programme in 2005, giving bioenergy a large momentum. Since then, biofuel and other bioenergy
programmes have been implemented in a number of other countries, including the USA (Langeveld
et al, 2012).
1.1.2. Second driver: Energy and resource scarcity
Our economy today is completely dependent on fossil resources. Crude oil is found trapped in some
of the sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust. How these fossil resources were formed is illustrated in
the figure below.
Millions of years ago, huge numbers of microscopic animals and plants - plankton - died and fell to
the bottom of the sea. Their remains were covered by mud. As the mud sediment was buried by
more sediment, it started to change into rock as the temperature and pressure increased. The plant
and animal remains were cooked by this process, and slowly changed into crude oil.
Fossil resources has been fundamental to industrialization. They delivered energy but also served as
basic resource for producing materials such as plastics, paints, floor coverings, pharmaceuticals,
shampoos, clothing, computer mouses, asphalt.....
The limits of this resource had been foreseen and discussed back in the 1950s when Hubbert
(1956),developer of the Peak Oil theory, made the first extrapolations of future oil production rates.
The point in time when oil production within a given area (a single oil field, a country, a region or the
entire earth) reaches the maximum rate of production was later named peak oil. History has shown
that in practice it is impossible to raise the rate of production after a decline. Hubbert said: The
amount of oil will never be completely finished, but the availability of oil will decline. In other words:
at a certain point in time there may still be oil but can we extract it?
Peak oil and oil demand, shortages will lead to higher prices for fossil fuels.
Let's take a look at the Dutch situation. The Groningen gas field is a giant natural gas field located
near Slochteren in the province Groningen in the eastern part of the Netherlands. Discovered in
1959, it is the largest natural gas field in Europe and the tenth-largest in the world. Substantial
income from the national gas endowment has been part of the Dutch governments operational
budget since 1963. The discoveries of oil at Schoonebeek (1943) and gas at Groningen(1959) have
had a tremendous impact on the postwar economic recovery of the Netherlands.
Does the Peak Oil theory apply to the Dutch gas bubble? Although much effort is invested to unlock
unconventional gas reservoirs large enough to delay the unfolding of a peak scenario for Dutch gas,
the answer be cautious yes.This is illustrated in the next figure.
The graph shows stacked on top of one another the production profiles of the Groningen Field, offshore small
fields, and onshore small fields.
In figure below is clearly illustrated that there energy consumption has increased immensely the past
two centuries. So, two conflicting issues can be ascertained: a decrease in the availability of fossil
fuels and an increase in the demand of energy worldwide.

Rapid increasing world energy demand
Summarizing, while fossil oil has been available in sufficient amounts at reasonable prices for
decades, its position now has become more erratic. Doubts have been cast on the availability of
fossil oil as the major energy and material source for the decades to come. In the light of a growing
world wide demand, it is wise to diversicate in the available energy and material sources.
Fossil fuel dependency
Depending on national policy, industrial countries try to secure their energy supply by reducing their
depency on oil imports. This holds especially for the USA and is partly explained by the fact that oil
exporters are organised in, and operate under, a cartel: the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC). While the formal objective of OPEC has been to stabilize the oil market, it has
also been successful in maintaining oil prices at a rather high level. The wish to reduce the
dependency on oil-exporting states is further explained by the fact that many of them are located in
the Middle East, adding to political and military tensions. There are, however, other geopolitical
reasons to limit dependency on oil-exporting countries. One of them is that some exporters seek to
use their position as a major oil exporter for political leverage in regional political disputes with its
neighbouring states. Oil exporters, finally, often show a (perceived) lack of democratic values, many
being run by dictatorial (sometimes military) regimes (Langeveld et al, 2012).
1.1.3 Third driver: Rural and regional economical development
The production of biomass is preferably connected on site to the conversion and processing of
biomass. This way long-distance transport can be prevented and loops can be closed on a local
scale. Thisimplies that the rural agricultural areas will not only function as production sites of raw
material but also as production facilities of products with added value. So, biobased innovation can
result in the creation of new employment in regions in need of an economic impulse.
Duckweed production in the Achterhoek: an example of a local biobased initiative

Example One
As an first example the duckweed initiative in the Achterhoek (East part of the province of
Gelderland) is used as illustration.
The EDV Consortium is researching whether it is economically feasible to process duckweed,
produced on a large scale, into cattle feed. Duckweed has a very high protein content with a
composition similar to soya, a protein source which is frequently used in cattle feed. Duckweed grows
in water and uses the minerals from manure. At Groot Zevert Vergisting in Beltrum, a production
pond measuring one hectare will be built for the production of duckweed. A special manure
measuring system and harvesting machine have also been developed. The EDV Consortium, in
which the six local companies participate (Groot Zevert Vergisting BV Beltrum, CC Advies Ulft,
Thecogas and ForFarmers Lochem), was awarded the Achterhoek Innovation Prize. The reason for
awarding this prize is to lend support to the many innovative companies in the manufacturing industry
of the Achterhoek and to chart the Achterhoek more firmly as an innovative region.
In the Netherlands many biobased initiatives look for cooperation with other companies, public
institutions and (apllied) universities in their own region. In the Achterhoek this collaboration is
facilitated by foundations such as Stichting Biomassa or public programs like the BICON (Bioenergie
Cluster Oost Nederland). Other rural provinces know similar programmes and initiatives.
Example Two
Bioethanol in Brazil is providing employment to over one million people. In a country lacking a social
security system to provide a minimum income, unemployment equates to poverty and deep misery,
and these jobs often play a crucial role. It is true that many of these jobs, that is, those related to the
harvesting of sugar cane, are temporary, and work in the cane fields is physically demanding and
threatening to health. It has, however, been argued that income from the biofuel industry often helps
the poor and deprived to gain a basic income. The President of Brazil has advocated biofuel
production as a major impetus for development in some of the poorest regions of Brazil. Other
countries could use bioenergy production to generate employment in underdeveloped regions, and
bioenergy holds promise especially for rural areas where economic opportunities currently are
scarce.(Langeveld at al, 2012)
Brazil is satisfying its fuel needs with bio-ethanol from sugar cane
Example Three
Mention in this short video how the Head of Operations of Clariant's Straubing biorefinery, explains
how their new plant uses the latest technology to produce fuel from residues left over after the wheat
harvest. The benefit is a sustainable energy source that substitutes for imported petrol and provides
additional income for local farmers.
kn.nu/ww1d5a78e (youtu.be)
DSM-POET and local economical development in Iowa

kn.nu/ww42df63b (youtu.be)
1.1.4 Fourth driver: Development of new entrepeneurship between agriculture en chemistry

sector in The Netherlands
The development of the biobased economy in the Netherlands is supported my two matching
developments:

A. Strong preference of consumers for "green" products. Biobased products can often be labelled
"green".
B. A rapid development of sustainable technologies, such as green chemistry or fermentation by
enzymes.
So, consumers ask for sustainable products and materials while at the same time the technology is
more and more able to comply.
In comparison to other countries, the dutch agriculture is one of the most productive in the world.
Moreover, the Dutch chemistry sector belongs to the top of the world. Agro and chemistry: two totally
different sectors which can profit both enormously from a strong collaboration in a biobased
economy. The expectation is that the chemistry will be increasingly oriented on agriculture as the
deliverer of commodities or feedstocks.
Example One
An example is the Biobased Delta. 'Agro meets chemistry' is the slogan of this region. Multinationals,
companies, public institutions and universities from the South West of the Netherlands work hand-in-
hand towards a biobased economy. Unique selling points of the region are the presence of a large
agrofood and chemistry sector and a favorable position at the axis Antwerpen-Rotterdam with many
ports, roads and logisitic facilities.
Bio based Delta, an extensive biobased network of chemistry, process industry, greenhouses and
research facilitites along the North Sea.
Watch this video about the biobased delta.
https://vimeo.com/blocnl/biobasedbackbone
kn.nu/ww.af6f7d6 (vimeo.com)
For more initiatives:

Agro en chemie: ondernemen in de biobased economy
kn.nu/wwb8fa7ca (agro-chemie.nl)
1.2 Biobased economy: part of a transition to a sustainable

economy
A biobased economy, a blue economy, a circular economy, People/Planet/Profit, Cradle2Cradle:
indeed, all these ideas are closely related. Each one has its own origin and focuss. The main
principle behind these theories is the classic definition of sustainability in the UN Brundlandt Report
(1987):
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"
1.2.1 Circular Economy
kn.nu/ww.26eb0ec
(youtu.be)
Let us take the example of the fridge to explain the difference between our present lineair economy
and the circular economy.The present economy is ruled by the "end of pipe" principle. You buy a
fridge because you need cold to store and cool your food. When the fridge is not functioning properly
anymore only one option remains: discharge the fridge and return to the store to buy a new one. The
destiny of the old fridge is most often the garbage dump. The question is: do you need a fridge or do
you need cold? Obviously you need the latter: the cold. So, why not go to the store and ask for cold
in stead of a fridge? Imagine, you buy cold for several years. It is then up to the store to choose how
to fulfill your wishes. They can decide to provide you with a fridge. When this very fridge is broken
down, the store is obliged to replace the fridge. In the end, it is a prime interest for the store to deliver
a fridge that lasts long and to deliver a fridge that can easily be disassembled and all parts van be
reused.
Resuming, the circular economy aims at resuing and retrieving of the valuable raw materials. At the
end of the life cylce, products are collected and the all the indivudual components are seperated for a
future product. The circular economy requires innovative designs and production systems, adapted
logistics and business models. Meeting the needs of consumers and services wil be become more
important than owning products.
A circular economy seeks to rebuild capital, whether this is financial, manufactured, human, social or
natural. This ensures enhanced flows of goods and services. The system diagram illustrates the
continuous flow of technical and biological materials through the value circle. Click on the link to see
the diagram on the original website.
Interactive system diagram

kn.nu/ww97fbdfa (ellenmacarthurfoundation.org)
1.2.2 Blue Economy

Information in text and video about the blue economy, developed by Gunther Pauli, can be studied in
and following PowerPoint:

PP Blue Economy
kn.nu/ww1788e01 (pdf,
maken.wikiwijs.nl)
1.3 The basic principles of a biobased economy

The European Commission describes a biobased economy as an economy that integrates the full
range of natural and renewable biological resources land and sea resources and biological
materials (plant, animal and microbial) and the processing and consumption of these bio-resources.
The biobased economy encompasses agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food and biotechnology and
industrial sectors, ranging from the production of energy carriers and chemicals to buildings and
transport. In this respect, a biobased economy is nothing new. Before the industrial revolution
economies were mainly biobased. New developments comprise a broad range of technological
solutions which could be applied in these sectors to enable growth and sustainable development. A
biobased economy, therefore, makes more widespread use of biomass to replace fossil-based
resources.
To ensure that a biobased economy is also a sustainable development 3 basic principles for a sustainable
biobased economy are formulated.
1.3.1 Three principles

Principle 1: Use renewable resources which are available today for the needs of today
In the next chapter attention will be paid to the production of renewable resources (biomass) and it
will be illustrated that the production of biomass has its limitations in terms of required inputs (for
example N and P). Moreover, biomass annually averaged efficiency using photosynthesis to form
biomass is restricted to 3-6 % of the incoming radation. So, when the production of renewable
resources knows a certain maximum, rate the consumption of biomass should not exceed this
maximum. In other words: the production of biomass has to be in pace with the consumption of
bioproducts.
Principle 2: Use every part of the biomass
Many cultivated plants are grown for one specific purpose or prime ingredient. For example soy or
grass is produced because of the protein it contains, sun flowers and rape seed because of the oil,
and mais and sugar cane because of the sugars. In the figure below an illustration is given off the
utilization of all different parts of the plant, in this case hemp.

Possible applications of different parts of the hemp plant
Hemp production and valorisation: which products can be made from

hemp?
kn.nu/ww2fd9b7b (youtu.be)
Principle 3: Use the most valuable parts of the biomass for the most added value products
The easiest way to converse biomass into a product is to combust it and produce energy. Burning
wood is world wide the most common method to produce heat. Think of the use of dead wood in
developing countries. Although this is a good example a biobased practice it can be questioned
whether this is the most ecologically desirable and economically profitable way.
The biobased economys value pyramid indicates that biomass value is determined by its
applications and end uses.
Converting biomass to energy is depicted at the bottom of the Value Piramid. The market for energy
is large (everyone needs energy) , but the market price is low. The market for fine chemicals or
pharmaceuricals is small but the price of these products is high. The intention is to convert the most
valuable parts of a plant to a product with a high added value. The principle entails optimal value
utilization meaning that those substances or materials that can be used in high quality products are
isolated first. So, a medicinal plant rich in special plant compounds is in the first instance used to
produce pharma. In second instance, applications of remaining components of the plant are being
sought in lower regions of the piramid. Taking manure as biomass stream, two high value

applications are (1) the production of a mineral concentrate as a replacement for a artificial fertiliser
or (2) the production of card board from the fibers. Low value applications are converting the biomass
to energy, in the case of manure, to biogas.
The sum of the highest possible economic values of all the various components of biomass, make
that biomass as a product can have a higher value for the producers than if the entire product is used
only for production of electricity or heat.
1.3.2 Biorefinery
To realise principle 3 Biorefinery a necessity. Biorefinery is the processing of biomass into a
spectrum of value-added products (chemicals, materials, feed and food) and energy (biofuels, heat
and power). The biorefinery concept is similar to petrochemical refinery, and depending on its
feedstocks and processes it could be sustainable or not.
Biorefineries exploit all of the elements of biomass, recycling secondary products and wastes of the
reaction into valuable products, even producing the very energy which powers the process itself. In
this respect, the concept is analogous to a petroleum refinery, where oil is refined into many
marketable products including chemicals, energy and fuels. However there is a crucial difference:
biorefineries are based on the use of renewable materials as a feedstock whereas todays petroleum
refineries are based on the use of non-renewable materials such as fossil fuels.
The use of all components of the biomass has a positive impact on both economics and the
environment. Typically, a mix of high-value, low-volume products (such as fuels and energy) and low-
value, high-volume products (cosmetics and nutraceuticals) are produced in a biorefinery. The high-
value products enhance profitability, the low-value products provide scale.
Example grass refinery

The illustration below shows the great diversity of ingredients of grass: proteins, fibers, lipids,
minerals etc. A much higher value per ton grass can be achieved when all components can be
extracted and converted to products. Grass as a raw material has a market price of 50- 70 euros per
ton whereas the separated components represent a value of 700 - 800 euros per ton.

Grass contains 10-20 % dry matter. The dry matter contains valuable ingredients for a biobased
economy. The numbers in yellow indicate the value per ton.
In chapter 3.1. attention will be paid to the technological aspects of grass refinery.
1.4 Conflicting interests

The central question in the food-fuel debate is whether the use of biomass for biofuels is competing
with food supply. Biofuel production has increased in recent years. Some commodities like maize
(corn), sugar cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food, feed, or to make biofuels. For
example, since 2006, a portion of land that was also formerly used to grow other crops in the United
Stated is now used to grow corn for biofuels, and a larger share of corn is destined to ethanol
production, reaching 25% in 2007. The public sentiment was that less food was available for human
consumption, especially in developing and least developed countries, where a family's daily
allowances for food purchases are extremely limited.

The debate reached a global scale due to the 2007-2009 world food prices crisis. World food prices
increased dramatically in 2007 and the 1st and 2nd quarter of 2008 creating a global crisis and
causing political and economical instability and social unrest in both poor and developed nations.
Systemic causes for the worldwide increases in food prices continue to be the subject of debate.
Initial causes of the late-2006 price spikes included droughts in grain-producing nations and rising oil
prices. Oil price increases also caused general escalations in the costs of fertilizers, food
transportation, and industrial agriculture. Root causes may be the increasing use of biofuels in
developed countries and an increasing demand for a more varied diet across the expanding middle-
class populations of Asia. These factors, coupled with falling world-food stockpiles all contributed to
the worldwide rise in food prices.
Although the rise of food prices can not be fully contributed to the production of first generation
biofuels, the food fuel debate had an enourmous impact on the european and dutch view on the use
of biomass. For example, EU directives were changed.
Old directive:
Under the Directive 2003/30/EC on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for
transport, EU established the goal of reaching a 5.75% share of renewable energy in the transport
sector by 2010.
New directive:
Under the Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources this
share rises to a minimum 10% in every Member State in 2020. Regarding the expand of biofuels use
in the EU, the Directive aims to ensure the use of sustainable biofuels only, which generate a clear
and net GHG saving without negative impact on biodiversity and land use.
Since the crisis Dutch efforts in the biobased economy were focussed on second and third
generation biofuels and the use of biomass for biomaterials & biochemicals instead of biofuels.
1.5 Learning
1.5.1 Multiple choice questions
1. The greenhouse effect is based on the relation between:
A. % CO2 en water availability
B. % CO2 en temperature
C. % O2 en water availability
D. % O2 en temperature

2. Why is biorefinery a prerequisite for a successful biobased economy?
A. Biorefinery creates jobs
B. Biorefinery reduces the green house gas emissions
C. Biorefinery reduces pollution
D. Biorefinery creates a high valorisation of biomass streams
3. The production of energy from biomass is characterized by:

A. High demand and low value
B. Low demand and high value
C. High demand and high value
D. Low demand and low value
1.5.2 Assignments
Assignment 1 Value Pyramid

Choose one of the following plants or biomass streams:
sun flower
maize
sugar beet
reed
manure
Make this assignment with your selected plant or biomass stream.
In relation to principle 1: Use renewable resources which are available today for the needs of today
1. What is the production per year of the plant or waste steam in the Netherlands?
2. What is the current valorization of plant or waste stream? So, of what use is the biomass today?
In relation to principle 2: Use every part of the biomass

3. Name every ingredient (part or component) of the biomass stream. What does the feed stock
consist of?
4. Make a long list with every possible application or end product from your selected biomass.
(Recommendation: take a look at the example of the hemp plant, paragraph 1.3)
In relation to principle 3: Use the most valuable parts of the biomass for the most added value
products
5. List the applications from low value to high value.
6. Make the value pyramid (see paragraph 1.3) for your biomass.
Assignment 2
Read the following article about the biobased initiatiave HarvestaGG.
Business case HarvestaGG

kn.nu/ww3651a23 (docx, maken.wikiwijs.nl)

Answers MC questions
1. B
2. D
3. A

2. Biomass production
For a proper understanding of this chapter it is important to refresh the basic knowledge of
photosynthesis. To help your on your way the following video about photosynthesis is embedded.
Explanation of photosynthesis
kn.nu/wwcf4fdc9 (youtu.be)
2.1 Growing biomass

2.1.1 Growing conditions
How much biomass can be produced on a hectare of land? The figure gives insight in all the factors
that determine the eventual production. These factors are categorized in three groups: defining
factors, limiting factors and reducing factors.
(Adapted from Langeveld et al, 2012)
Potential production is determined by light, ambient CO2 concentration, temperature and plant
characteristics. Crop management is assumed not to hamper growth. Under conditions with water
limitation, potential yields are reduced by water shortage. If nutrients are in short supply, but
assuming perfect water supply and full crop protection, yields are denoted as nutrient limited. Of
course most crop production suffer from a combination of water and nutrient shortage. In developing
countries the loss of production due to water or nutrient shortage is larger than in, for example, The
Netherlands. The availability of nutrients and water is stronlgy related to the soil quality. A high
quality soil has a good water holding capacity and steady rate of mineralisation creating a continuous
nutrient flow. A low quality soil retains no water and in this soil mineralisation hardly takes place
because of a lack of organic matter. Actual production refers to yields reduced by pests, weeds and
diseases and/or toxicities (e.g. pollution), often in combination with water and/or nutrient limitation.
Reality is always more complex, several factors concurrently exerting their influence, but this
framework can assist in analysing and understanding crop production situations. Potential growth
varies with latitude, altitude and time of the year. (Langeveld et al, 2010)

The actual agricultural yield of each country is lower than the potential production. But note that
major differences in yield exist between countries indicating that the gap between the actual and
potential production is gigantic in developing countries and smaller in developed countries such as
The Netherlands. This phenomenon is explained by land specific climate and soil conditions but also
by limited access to water and nutrients (artificial fertiliser) and chemicals for crop protection.
Moreover level of education, means for investsments etc. also play a role of importance.
Cereal yield, measured as kilograms per hectare of harvested land in 2010-2014

Country Yield
Sudan 589
Mozambique 818
Australia 1,992
Pakistan 2,722
Russian Federation 2,240
Canada 4,170
China 5,891
Germany 7,318
The Netherlands 8,653
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.YLD.CREL.KG
The table shows that the total production of biomass world wide has enormous potentials to increase.
2.1.2 Breeding
To create new cultivars the plant breeder disposes of a multitude of possibilities. The most simple
way - already applied for ages - is searching for the best plants in a crop: selection. More progress
can be made by including plants from all over the world in the selection process to make optimal use
of natural occurring genetic variation. A further step is making crosses by which characteristics of
different plants are combined. Sometimes traits can be changed artificially through chemical
treatment or radiation: mutation. As a result of increasing knowledge on the organization and action
of tissues and cells during the past decade, new techniques have become available such as fusion of
cells of different species (cell fusion), exchange of pieces of genetic information between different
organisms (transformation) or elimination of genes causing adverse effects. These new techniques
are commonly indicated as genetic modification, though actually nearly all breeding activities are kind
of genetic modification.
In relation to the biobased economy breeding is for example focussed on the plant cell walls for a
better understanding of the cell wall biosynthesis and degradation pathways, both for first and second
generation bio-fuels. Moreover, breeding enables the identification of interesting compounds and
genes for different industrial, food and medical applications, identifying the plant as a biorefinery.
2.2 Agricultural challenges

The contemporary economy is to a great extent powered by limited resources that are being
depleted. As they are being depleted we will have to develop alternative sustainable sources of
energy and raw materials; most likely with biomass as a cornerstone. The challenge is to develop an
economy that does not undermine the long-term productivity of agriculture and natural ecosystems
by depleting the natural capital that is the basis of the productivity. A bio-based economy depends on
a sustainable production of biomass. First priority in sustainable biomass production will be to ensure
conservation, regeneration, recycling and substitution of the needed resources: fossil energy,
nutrients, water, soil organic matter. The current agricultural practice is various aspects far from
sustainable. In the text below the major challenges are summarized.
2.2.1 Dependency on fossil fuels

Today, the main part of agriculture is driven by fossil energy, either as direct energy for fuels in

machinery or as indirect energy in mineral fertilizers and other inputs; for instance, US food
production when evaluated at the consumer level consumes seven times more fossil energy than the
energy value of the produced food.The out-phasing of fossil energy inputs in agro-ecosystems
requires a radical change of agricultural practices. Biofuels can in theory substitute fossil fuels used
for machinery. However, self-reliance at the farm level may require more than 10 to 20 per cent of the
land (Langeveld, 2012).
Artifical fertilisers are made by the so-called Haber-Bosch process. Carbon and oxygen are also
critical, but are easily obtained by plants from soil and air. Even though air is 78% nitrogen (N2),
atmospheric nitrogen is nutritionally unavailable; many plants are unable to use this form of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is a strong limiting nutrient in plant growth. In 1913 Carl Bosch managed to converse
nitrogen from the air in ammonia at full scale. Some people consider the Haber process to be the
most important invention of the past 200 years! The primary reason the Haber-Bosch process is
important is because ammonia is used as a plant fertilizer, enabling farmers to grow enough crops to
support an ever-increasing world population. The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia
(NH3) via the Haber-Bosch process is equivalent to 1-2% of the world's annual energy consumption.
The process requires high temperatures and pressure. This is an important disadvantage of the
process; ik depends heavily on fossil energy.
Possible solutions for replacing artificial fertilisers are:
- the use of nitrogen fixating plants. Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen (N2) in the
atmosphere is converted into ammonium (NH4+). Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include
the legume family Fabaceae with taxa such as kudzu, clovers, soybeans, alfalfa, lupines,
peanuts, and rooibos They contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within nodules in their root
systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants.
When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants and this helps
to fertilize the soil
- switching to a (more) vegetarian diet. World meat consumption increased from 47 million tons in
1950 to 260 million tons in 2005, more than doubling consumption per person from 17 kilograms to
40 kilograms. Consumption of milk and eggs has also risen. In every society where incomes have
risen, meat consumption has too, perhaps reflecting a taste that evolved over 4 million years of
hunting and gathering. As depicted below the conversion of vegetable protein to meat leads to a loss
of protein. So, a vegetarian diet stimulates the economically most wise consumption of protein.

One acre (=0,4 hectare) of soy produces 160,2 kg protein. One acre of land used for the production
of cattle feed, for example beef, delivers 9 kg protein in the end product. (1 lbs = 0,45 kg)
PowerPoint about the N-cycle

kn.nu/wwb2b82bf (pdf, maken.wikiwijs.nl)
2.2.2 Resources of fosfor will be more and more difficult to mine
Phosphorus is one of the building blocks of all life. Every living cell requires it. Plants need
phosphorus to grow as much as they need water. Many soils do not have enough to meet the
demands for phosphorus of high production crops. By mining phosphate rock and turning it into
fertilizer to spread on the land phsphorus can be supplemented to the soil. Unlike nitrogen,
phosphorous (P) is a finite mineral resource (current global reserves depleted in 50100 years and
declining production will occur much earlier). Therefore, future crop production will increasingly have
to rely on recycling of P from urban areas, as well as on the breeding of crops that are more efficient
in utilizing the soil phosphorous.
The Bou Craa mine in the Western Sahara sends phosphate down a 150-kilometer-long conveyor
belt to the port of El Ayoun.
Currently, only about 15 percent of that comes from mines in the Western Sahara and Morocco. But

the only other large producers, the U. S. and China, mostly keep supplies for their own use. So
Morocco is by far the biggest contributor to international trade, with more than half the total business.
A huge amount of phosphorus is transferred from the soil in one location to another as food is
transported across the world, taking the phosphorus it contains with it. Once consumed by humans, it
then usually ends up in local rivers via the sewage system. An example of one such crop in South
America that takes up large amounts of phosphorus is soy. At the end of its journey, the phosphorus
often ends up in rivers in Europe and the USA. Possible solutions are:
- precision agriculture, making sure the plant is able to take up phosphorus at the right time at the
right spot.
- reuse of fosfor from urban areas, regaining the fosfor form human and industrial waste.
More info about phosphorus scaricity:
Fosfaat: tekort aan wat nooit opraakt?

kn.nu/ww.7f8d07b (youtube.com)
PowerPoint about the P-cycle

kn.nu/ww10508de (pdf,
maken.wikiwijs.nl)
2.2.3 Organic matter in soils
The soil is fundamental to biomass production, and there is a great challenge in developing new
agricultural methods in Europe that can improve organic matter levels, soil biological activity and soil
structure. Many cultivated soils show a steady decline of organic matter unless they receive frequent
applications of organic matter (e.g. animal manure, compost). Soil organic matter improves the water
holding capacity and the activity of living soil organisms and thus the soil structure and health.
Sustainable biomass production should lead to a maintained level of soil organic matter. As organic
matter levels have been declining for many years, it could be argued that even an increase in the
organic matter level would be desirable, trying to compensate for historic non-sustainable land use.
Soil organic matter can be managed by inputs (growing perennial crops and use of organic fertilizers)
and minimising the degree of disturbance, for example soil tillage (Langeveld et al, 2012) .

Soil rich in organic matter
2.3 Biomass availability
The use of biomass for biofuels has evoked a worldwide debate. Can we convert maize into biofuels
while at the same time people are suffering from hunger? This food fuel debate is more extensively
elaborated in chapter 3. In relation to the availability the question is: can the world produce sufficient
biomass as feed & feed and as feedstocks for a bio-based economy? Is this technically feasible? Not
without restrictions because the conversion of a fossil fuel-based economy into a biobased economy
will probably be restricted in the European Union (EU) by the limited supply of ecologically
sustainable biomass. Imagine that 25% of the current oil use will be replaced by biomass; what
percentage of agricultural land shall be needed to achieve this? The numbers in the table below give
an indication.
Replacing 25% of the current oil use for biomass
% Agricultural area
Crop Production GJ/ha
needed for 25% replacement
wheat 45 40
mais 54 33
sugar beet 90 20
sugar cane 104 17
soy 9 200
sunflower 16 111
Source: Cahier Biogrondstoffen, 2011
The enormous surfaces required lead to a clear conclusion: no, it is not realistic to replace 25% of
our current oil use by biomass. It appears realistic that, for the EU, the sustainable biomass supply
will be enough to meet about 10% of the final energy and feedstock consumption in 2030. (Ros et al,
2012) Of this 10% only a limited amount of biomass will be used for energy, the remainder can be
used as feedstock for chemicals, fibres, medicines etc. In fact, the limited availability emphasizes
principle 3 Use the most valuable parts of the biomass for the most added value products (see
chapter 1).

More detailed information about biomass availablity and sustainability in The Netherlands from a PBL
study:
Biomassa: wensen en grenzen

kn.nu/ww.4d940be
(infographics.pbl.nl)
2.4 Biomass types

Feedstock is the renewable raw material (biomass) that is converted into marketable products in a
biorefinery. Today, renewable carbon-based feedstocks for biorefinery are typically provided from
four different sectors:
1. Agriculture (dedicated crops and crop residues).
2. Forestry (wood, short-rotation poplar, logging residues).
3. Industry (process residues and wastes) and domestic activities (organic residues).
4. Aquaculture (algae, seaweed).
(Cherubini et al, 2009)
Classification of biomass based on origin and characteristics.

A further distinction is made between those feedstocks which come from dedicated crops, produced
on agriculture or forestry land or in aquatic systems, and those that come from residues, from
agricultural, forestry and industrial activities. Biomass feedstocks vary in composition, with different
shares of basic components (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, starch, triglycerides, and proteins). In
the group of dedicated feed stocks one can distinguish which primarily produce sugars, starch or
lignocellulose. Other important characteristics are water content, heating value and specific volume.
These characteristics result in two distinct groups: grasses and marine biomass. The residues is
divided in three different groups: oil-based residues (animal fat from food industries, used cooking oil
from restaurants, households and others), nonlignocellulosic residues (crop residues, saw mill
residues etc.),organic residues and others (e.g., organic urban waste, manure, wild fruits and crops).

Types of biomass
Types of biomass, especially when used as biofuels, are often categorized in yet another way. This
categorization occurred as a result of the food versus fuel dilemma. Food versus fuel is the dilemma
regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production to the detriment of the food
supply. Biofuel production has increased in recent years. Some commodities like maize (corn), sugar
cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food, feed, or to make biofuels. For example, since 2006,
a portion of land that was also formerly used to grow other crops in the United States is now used to
grow corn for biofuels, and a larger share of corn is destined to ethanol production, reaching 25% in
2007. Second and third generation biofuels could potentially solve the dilemma's that arose from this
food versus fuel discussion.
First-generation products are created largely from feedstocks that have traditionally been used as
food. A classic example is the use of starch from maize for biofuels. Starch can easily be converted
into useful products, such as ethanol or lactic acid.
Second-generation products are made from nonfood feedstocks using advanced technical
processes. Cellulosic ethanol is the most developed second-generation biofuel and is produced from
the cellulose or cell wall of plant cells. Mention that the use of second generation feedstocks do not
compete with the food supply for humans. At disadvantage is however that the cellulose is more
difficult to break down than starch.
Third-generation products, like second-generation biofuels, are made from nonfood feedstocks, but
are harvested from water instead of land. Typical examples are duckweed and algae. Growing third
generation biomass is not demanding land and it is thus not competing in any way with growing for
food.
Rape seed is a first generation biomass

Straw is a second generation biomass
Algae are a third generation biomass

2.5 Learning
1. The production of a certain crop at a certain location has a maximal potential. Which factors do not
limit or reduce the potential production of this crop?
A. Water or nutrient shortage
B. Pests and diseases.
C. Radiation and crop characteristics.
D. Weeds and pollutants
2. Phosphorous is a limited resource. Efforts are taken to:

A. Produce phosphorous with less energy
B. Regain phosphorous from the soil
C. Reuse phosphorous from human or animal waste
D. Use phosphorous binding plants
3. Second generation feedstocks generally contain more cellulose than starch. Therefore:
A. Second generation feedstocks have less competition with food
B. Second generation feedstocks result in stronger end products
C. Second generation feedstocks are more easily converted
D. Second generation feedstocks can be cultivated with less fertilisers

2.5.2 Assignment Certification of sustainable biomass
(based on the NTA 8080 standard and Cramer criteria)
What is sustainable biomass? Is biomass produced in a sustainable way?

Check the criteria!
Sustainability Criteria
1. Greenhouse gases
Considered over the entire chain, the use of biomass needs to result in a sharp reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels.
2. Competition with food and local applications of biomass
The production of biomass for energy purposes may not endanger the food supply or other
local applications.
3. Planet Biodiversity Biomass production may never harm protected or vulnerable biodiversity
but wherever possible needs to strengthen the biodiversity.
4. People Well-being The production of biomass needs to contribute to the well-being of the
employees and the local community.
5. Environment In the production and processing of biomass, the quality of the soil, surface and
ground water and air needs to be preserved, if not improved.
6. Profit Prosperity The production of biomass needs to contribute to the local economy.
A. Palm oil for biofuel

Obtained from the fruit (both the flesh and the kernel) of the oil palm tree, it contributes to the
economic development of the producing countries and to the diets of millions of people around the
world. Oil palms are highly efficient oil producers, with
each fruit containing about 50% oil. As a result they require ten times less land than other oil-
producing crops. In fact palm oil can be found in a huge percentage of every day supermarket
products. As a result they can be found in one in two supermarket products, ranging from margarine,
cereals, crisps, sweets and baked goods, to soaps, washing powders and cosmetics. Nevertheless
you may never have heard of palm oil since its rarely listed as an ingredient on product labels, with
the term vegetable oil often being used instead. Palm oil can also be used in animal feedstuffs and
as a bio fuel.
Question?
Is palm oil a sustainable biomass?
Search the internet and check the 6 sustainability criteria to formulate your answer.
B. Verge grass (bermgras) for energy and/or materials

The dense infrastructure in the Netherlands consists of a variety of highways and roads with
extensive verges that require wide-ranging yearly maintenance. Harvesting the vegetation is
necessary to maintain short vegetation for traffic safety. The total area of verge grass mown in the
Netherlands is approximately 50.000 ha. Some 20% of this grass is used as cattle feed. The
remaining 80% is composted at high costs. These costs range from approximately 25 to 50 Euro per

tonne fresh. Depending on the vegetation type and time of year verge grass contains valuable
proteins, sugars and minerals, and often more than 50% fibrous material weight (approx. 50% DW).
A lot of effort is dedicated to produce materials and energy from verge grass.
Question?
Is verge grass a sustainable biomass?
Search the internet and check the 6 sustainability criteria to formulate your answer.
1. C
2. C
3. A

3. Conversion processes and products
The previous chapter discussed how the biomass as raw material can be produced. However,
biomass is not the endproduct. To make an endproduct conversion steps are necessary. Multiple
options exists to go from biomass to products. A nice overview of all the possibilities is given in the
so-called "Routekaart biobased economy" which you can find here.
Routekaart
kn.nu/wwef9fb87 (biobasedeconomy.nl)
For a proper understanding of this chapter it is important to refresh your knowledge about the
structure of the basic molecules in biology. Therefore the following video is embedded.
The major groups of these basic molecules are:
1. Sugars or carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats or triglycerides
4. Secondary metabolites (vitamins, compounds responsible for color, smell, taste, plant defense etc)
5. Minerals
Often biorefinery serves to (partly) separate the different groups of molecules, and to converse them
in order to form bioproducts.
Explanation of the structures of the basic biomolecules

kn.nu/wwae84c06 (youtu.be)
3.1 Mechanical/physical conversion techniques

Definition
Mechanical/physical (e.g., pressing, pre-treatment, milling, separation, distillation) processes do not
change the chemical structure of the biomass components; they only perform a size reduction or a
separation of feedstock components.
Example 1: First steps of grass refinery
Grass refinery seeks to add more value to the growing surplus of grass. The surplus is due to more
extensive farming enforced by manure legislation as well as the expanding area of (natural)
grassland. Refining grass aims to isolate the low-grade grass protein and then upgrade it for use in
feed concentrates. To make this economically viable, the residual fibre must also be put to profitable
use - for instance as an ingredient for the paper-making industry or as a co-product for biogas
production.

Pressing grass
The grass juice is pressed out and furher refined to for example ethanol or a feed product. The
remaining fibers can be applied as potting soil, constrution material or paper or polymer extrusion
products. The screw press is a typical example of a mechanical separation step.
Grassa: a grass refinery initiative

kn.nu/ww60e00eb (youtu.be)
Example 2: Mechanical separation of manure

Based on its high livestock density, the Netherlands has developed effective mechanisms for the
environmentally sound handling and distribution of manure. Environmental quality is guaranteed by
strict standards for the use of animal manure and artificial fertilisers. In addition, as of 2014 all
farmers are obliged to process their surplus manure. This will lead to the transportation of manure to
regions with a shortage, most probably in the form of high quality fertilisers. In addition, the
agricultural sector is exploring methods of refining manure to produce novel products that contribute
to a biobased economy and a resource-efficient Europe.
Pay specific attention to page 28 and 29 of the following publication " Manure a valuable resource,
Wageningen UR, 2014. These pages give an illustration of the production of a liquid N concentrate
by several separation steps. In this process reversed osmosis is one of the most complicated and
sensitive physical separation steps.
Manure, a valuable resource

kn.nu/ww5b61572 (edepot.wur.nl)
3.2 Biochemical conversion techniques

Definition
Biochemical (e.g., anaerobic digestion, aerobic and anaerobic fermentation, enzymatic conversion)
processes occur at mild conditions (lower temperature and pressure) using microorganisms or
enzymes.
Enzymes are the working force in micro-organisms. Depending on the specific technique micro-
organisms or isolated enzymes are employed. The use of enzymes has great advantages to classical
chemical conversion processes. The reactions with enzymes occur in water and do not need high
temperatures or large pressures. This results in a low energy use and low carbon dioxide footprint. A
difficult step in enzyme mediated conversions is the isolation of the end product from the watery
solution, often by centrifigation or membrane filtration. The use of enzymes to convert biomass is
crucial for the biobased economy. A few examples are given as illustration.
Example 1: Anaerobic digestion

As the name anaerobic refers, the anaerobic digestion is carried out by microorganisms that can only
live in an oxygen free environment. The decomposition of biowaste occurs in four stages: hydrolysis,
acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis as shown in the figure below.
The four stages in anarobic digestion

Anaerobic treatment processes require the presence of a diverse closely dependent group of
bacteria to bring about the complete conversion of complex mixtures of substrates to biogas (made
up mostly of methane and carbondioxde). Every step in the process involves different bacteria
groups. The last group is for example called the methane forming bacteria. Biogas can be combusted
to produce renewable electricity and heat. Another option is to upgrade the gas to natural gas quality,
thus facilitating the inlet of the (green) gas in the natural gas pipeline network.
Dutch farmers exploiting an anaerobic digester are supported by subsidies (MEP, SDE).
Nevertheless it is hard to make a profit due to low electricity prices and increasing costs for co-
products, such as maize or glycerol.
Anaerobic digestion at farm scale

Example 2 Yeasts converting C5 sugars
Ethanol can be used as biofuel or basic chemical compound to produce other chemicals. The
common way to produce ethanol is by converting feedstocks such as maize and sugarcane.
However, these feedstocks can also be used for human consumption. A lot of effort and research is
therefore dedicated to produce ethanol from nonfood feedstocks like straw or wood chips. One

technical challenge producing ethanol from cellulose economically is a robust organism to utilize the
different sugars present in cellulosic biomass. Unlike starch where glucose (C6!) is the only sugar
present, cellulosic biomass has other sugars such as xylose and arabinose, usually called C5 sugars.
As shown in the illustration woody biomass consists of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. Cellulose
is the long chain of C6 sugars. Hemi-cellulose contains C6 sugars but also a minor amount of C5
sugars.
The three main components of wood: cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. There is one C5 sugar
present in hemi-cellulose. The C5 sugar has a ring with 5 angles.
After enzymatic hydrolysis yeasts ferment C6 sugars to ethanol whereas C5 sugars are not
fermented to ethanol by any natural microorganism in sufficiently high concentrations. A Dutch
company, Royal DSM, has developed the combined fermentation of C6 and C5 sugars from wheat
straw on an industrial scale. The combined fermentation results in a 40% increase in ethanol yield
per ton of straw, which can result in significant cost cuts in the production of bio-ethanol from
cellulosic feedstock. So, the company succeeded in producing industrial yeast strains that are
capable of co-fermenting glucose and certain C5 sugars.
Enzymes and micro-organisms converting straw

kn.nu/wwf3c1f2a (youtu.be)
3.3 Chemical conversion techniques

Definition
Chemical processes (e.g., hydrolysis, transesterification, hydrogenation, oxidation, pulping) are
processes where chemical change in the substrate occurs.
Example 1: Biodiesel production

Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl
(methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,
vegetable oil animal fat with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters). The triglycerid (oil or fat) is
chemically changed as one can see in the reation equation.

Chemical conversion from oil or fat to biodiesel. Triglycerid is the fat or oil, the ester is the biodiesel.
Glycerol is a by product.
Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and
waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with
petrodiesel in any proportions. Blends of 20% biodiesel and lower can be used in diesel equipment
with no, or only minor modifications.
The European Union is the greatest producer of biodiesel, with France and Germany being the top
producers.
3.4 Thermochemical conversion techniques

Definition
Thermochemical (e.g., pyrolysis, gasification, hydrothermal upgrading, combustion) processes occur
where feedstock undergoes extreme conditions (high temperature and/or pressure, with or without a
catalytic mean).
Example 1: Lignincellulose pretreatment

Lignocellulose is the most abundantly available raw biobased material on the earth. Typical example
of lignocellulosic feed stock are wood or straw as already explained in the previous paragraph. It is
composed of carbohydrate polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose), and an aromatic polymer (lignin).
These carbohydrate polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and
they are tightly bound to lignin in the plant cell wall.

A barrier to the production of ethanol or other compounds from biomass is that the sugars necessary
for fermentation are trapped inside the lignocellulose. Lignocellulose has evolved to resist
degradation and to confer hydrolytic stability and structural robustness to the cell walls of the plants.
This robustness or "recalcitrance" is attributable to the crosslinking between the polysaccharides
(cellulose and hemicellulose) and the lignin. To extract the fermentable sugars, one must first
disconnect the celluloses from the lignin.
Pretreatment is a crucial process step in the biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to
fermentable sugars and finally to products like e.g. lactic acid or ethanol. Pretreatment, crucial for
delignification, has been recognised as one of the most rate limiting and expensive processing steps.
Thermochemical pretreatments steps are for example (from: Harmsen et al., 2013):
Dilute or weak acid hydrolysis is one of the most effective pretreatment methods for
lignocellulosic biomass. Acid (sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide, carbonic acid) is added to the
raw material and the mixture is held at elevated temperature (T > 160) for short period of time.
Hydrolysis of hemicellulose then occurs. Hemicellulose removal increases porosity and
improves enzymatic digestibility.
Alkaline hydrolysis. The major effect of alkaline pretreatment is the removal of lignin from
biomass, thereby improving the reactivity of the remaining polysaccharides, and
decrystallisation of cellulose. As opposed to the acid-catalysed methods, the general principle
behind alkaline pretreatment methods is the removal of lignin whereas cellulose and part of
the hemicelluloses remain in the solid fraction.

A complete process overview from lignocellulosic biomass to bio-ethanol is illustrated in the figure
above.
Example 2: Fast pyrolysis
Fast pyrolysis is a process in which organic materials are rapidly heated to 450 - 600 C in the
absence of air. Under these conditions, organic vapors, pyrolysis gases and charcoal are produced.
The vapors are condensed to bio-oil. Thsi pyrolysis oil can be used in several applications to produce
heat, electricity and cooling.
Biomass particles at room temperature and hot sand particles are introduced near the bottom of the
cone where the solids are mixed and transported upwards by the rotating action of the cone. In this
type of reactor, rapid heating and a short gas phase residence time can be realized.
Process flow diagram of fast pyrolysis
Pyrolysis by BTG in Hengelo in cooperation with Friesland Campina

kn.nu/ww99cc9ec (youtu.be)
3.5 Biobased products

In chapter 1.3.1 the value pyramid was introduced. On the left hand side you find diferent biobased
products. On the right hand side the category to which these products belong.

(Adapted from: WTC BBE, Zachariasse, 2013)
In this paragraph each category of products is described and illustrated. Since products from that
category Nutrition are well-known, this category is skipped.
Examples HEALTH
The use of natural products with therapeutic properties (farma) is as ancient as human civilisation.
Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by the World Health Organisation (WHO), 11%
are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are synthetic drugs obtained from natural
precursors. Precursors are compounds needing one of more conversion steps to become an acitve
medicine. Examples of important drugs obtained from plants are digoxin from Digitalis spp., quinine
and quinidine from Cinchona spp., vincristrine and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus, atropine
from Atropa belladona and morphine and codeine from Papaver somniferum.
Another group of high added value products are the personal care products enriche
d with plants extracts. Examples are: perfumes, creams, shampoos,
tooth pastes, lotions etc.
Examples CHEMICALS & MATERIALS

Chemical industries utilize large amounts of fossil materials, both as a basis for "basic" carbon
chemical compounds and as a source of energy for all version processes. Currently chemical
industries processed crude oil into a few base fractions; crude oil is correct into naphta and this is

converted into a few intermediate platform chemicals form which all the major bulk chemicals are
derived. In a biobased economy biomass is new resource of chemicals adnd materials. The main
feedstocks are: fatty acids (mostly from seed oils), amino acids (from proteins), and sugars ( mainly
starch, sucrose, cellulose and hemi-cellulose).
These two videos give an illustration of biobased chemicals and materials.
Avantium's Revolutionary Plastic

kn.nu/ww642312f (youtu.be)
HempFlax maakt auto-onderdelen voor Mercedes

kn.nu/ww23bff04 (youtu.be)
In the following article the possibilities for The Netherlands to produce chemicals from biological
resources is explained.
Nederland is sterk in grondstoffen voor de biobased chemische industrie

kn.nu/ww33b6af1 (agriholland.nl)
Examples ENERGY
Biogas is produced by anaerobic fermentation as explained in Chapter 3.2. biogas can be converted
into electric power using combined heat and power (CHP, WKK in dutch) installations. Another
possibility is injection into the gas grid. Before being allowed entrance to the gas grid, biogas must
meet natural gas specifications. Purification (H2S removal), dehydration and partial shall removal of
carbon dioxide is needed to call biogas green gas.
The production of biofuels is another typical example of the use of biomass as energy. In the United
States and Brazil bio-ethanol feedstocks are primarily maize and sugar cane. In Europe oil rape seed
is the most important feedstock for biodiesel.

The top of the illustration the conversion of sugars or starch derived from sugar beet or corn is
shown. Sugars can be converted by yeasts to ethanol. Ethanol and ETBE (Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether)
can be blended with gazoline. Blending with ETBE, improves the combustion characteristics of petrol,
and ETBE is also more compatible with pipelines and engines than ethanol.
The other route shows the conversion of vegetable oil to methylesters which is a biodiesel blend. See
paragraph 3.3 for details about this process.
3.6 Learning
1. The conversion of starch from maize to ethanol by micro-organisms is a typical example of a:

A. Mechanical/physical conversion technique
B. Biochemical conversion technique
C. Chemical conversion technique
D. Thermochemical conversion technique
2. What is the purpose of mechanically seperating manure?

A. To produce a product with a similar composition as an artificial fertiliser
B. To improve the environment
C. To facilitate the export of manure
D. To kill pathogens
3. A characteristic of a thermo-chemical conversion is:

A. High temperature and/or use of micro-organisms
B. Low temperature and/or pressure
C. Low temperature and use of micro-organisms
D. High temperature and/or pressure
4. Which process conversion technique does not affect the chemical strucure of the biomass
molecules?
A. Mechanical/physical conversion technique
B. Biochemical conversion technique
C. Chemical conversion technique
D. Thermochemical conversion technique

3.6.2 Assignment
Assignment 1 Techniques
Read the articles in the following links.
1. Describe the applied technique.
2. Mention which type(s) of technique is used (separation, biochemical, chemical, thermochemical)
3. What are the end products?
4. Is this biobased technique in research phase or in full scale implementation phase?
5. Which hurdles are still to take?
Proeffabriek voor bioplastic uit gft in Venlo

kn.nu/ww2176747 (technischweekblad.nl)
Boer kan zelf kunstmest maken

kn.nu/ww43d4ff2 (resource.wageningenur.nl)
Torrefactie: biomassa omzetten in groene steenkool

kn.nu/ww20a2ca7 (edepot.wur.nl)
'Wij halen brandstof uit plantenafval dat onbruikbaar leek'

kn.nu/ww1e90c5f (volkskrant.nl)
Assignment 2
In this assignment we will have a closer look at algae. Use the Internet for information.
The end product is presented on 1 A4 max.
Describe:
1. Minimal 5 products that can be derived from algae.
2. Minimal 2 techniques to extract compounds from algae.
3. Minimal 3 production methods to grow algae.
4. Give your own opinion about the future for algae.
Mention that sources (Internet links or book references) you have used to write your assignment.
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. A

4. Transition to a biobased society (partly work in progress)
4.1 Logistics
The purpose of logistics in biobased supply chains is to provide the right amounts of biomass of the
right quality at the right time to the right place. To meet the requirements of the industrial bioproducts
market (biofuels, bioenergy, biochemical and biomaterials) by delivering a qualitative steady, reliable
and year round supply of biomass, is a huge challenge. The relatively high moisture content and the
low bulk density of biomass coupled with a seasonal supply, in small quantities, spread over a large
number of locations, makes it even more complex to meet all these requirements. Logistical planning
is necessary for overcoming challenges of storage, handling and transportation. Besides this all the
logistical activities must be done as cheaply as possible to limit overall costs of producing industrial
bioproducts. Because of its low bulk density biomass must be densified to reduce transportation
costs. Also other pre-processing activities may be necessary to transform biomass into more suitable
forms for specific conversion technologies.
Reduced to its basic components, the industrial bioproducts value chain begins with harvesting or
collecting a feedstock, which is then transported and brought together at a central location for
processing into one or more bioproducts. This processing may involve both pre-processing and one
or more stages of primary processing and secondary processing, resulting in one or more
bioproducts, including energy / fuel, materials and chemicals:
An expanded bioproducts value chain generally consists of the following parts: cultivation, harvesting,
pre-processing, storage, processing and biorefinery, market distribution, product utilization and
recycling and local and long distance transport between the different links in the chain. A schematic
representation of these activities is as follows:
Each link has its own characteristics that affect the logistic activities in the supply chain. Below the
main characteristics that have direct implications for logistics are mentioned shortly.
Cultivation and harvesting
Cultivated biomass has to be transported to a more centralized location, because the supply of this
primary biomass is coming from several regionally dispersed areas. Due to the fact that cultivated
biomass can be harvested only in certain periods of the year, a buffering in storage facilities is
necessary.
Pre-processing and storage
Advantages of pre-processing of biomass can be a high material density, favourable dosing and flow
properties, low moisture level, better stability during storage, less dust during handling and
standardization of quality. Examples of pre-processing that have a qualitative and logistical cost

advantage to the supply chain include drying, reducing and/or compressing of biomass. Transport of
dry biomass e.g. is much cheaper and a higher bulk density due to chipping the biomass also leads
to lower handling and transport costs.
Storage of biomass is important for buffering due to a seasonal supply and a continuous demand.
Central or decentral storage depends on the characteristics of the biomass and the requirements of
the user of biomass.
Transport
Transport of biomass can be distinguished in local and long distance transport. For long distance
transport normally pre-processing activities has to be done at the initial supply locations. Multimodal
logistical networks make use of a combination of transport modes to deliver the biomass at the right
place.
Processing and biorefinery
The optimal use of biomass for bioproducts has led to complex networks of supply chains instead of
pure biomass chains. Residues for instance can be used at several places in the chain. This has
implications for the logistics of the flow of biomass.
Central or decentral processing of biomass is also an important question that has to be solved. The
answer depends not only on the characteristic of biomass, but also on the market requirements of the
bioproducts. An actual issue for example is the question how to process manure, central or decentral
at the farms.
Market distribution
The location of the market of our bioproducts determines the place where we produce, from where
we get the biomass and what kind of transport we have to use.
Product utilization and recycling
Recycling can take place at all links in the chain. Logistics plays an important role in the coordination
of all these different flows in the supply chain.
Summarised we can say that the design of an effective and efficient biomass supply chain results in
a large amount of logistic questions. Important questions are for example:
What kind of biomass has to be used and from what sources?

Where must pre-processing activities take place?
What kind/type of pre-processing is most suitable?
Where do we have to store the biomass or the pre-processed biomass?
What kind of storage is most suitable?
How much storage capacity is needed?
Where can we dry the biomass?
Which combination of transport modes is the most optimal one?
Where do we locate the conversion/processing plant? Central or decentral?
What is the most optimal scale of the processing plant?
What are the costs of all the components of the logistical chain?
Which streams can be recycled?
Answering these questions starts with a detailed analysis of the biomass chain. Simulation and
optimisation models can be used to support the design decision.

In the opinion of the scientific and technological commission for the biobased economy a transition to
a biobased economy will result in a redesign of cultivation, harvesting and production of biomass
(WTC, 2011. Naar groene chemie en groene materialen; Hoofdstuk 5. Beschikbaarheid en logistiek
van biomassa. Rapport Wetenschappelijke en Technologische Commissie voor de Biobased
Economy, 79-89). This means that the redesign of the agricultural chains will:
change the forms of cooperation;

lead to new business models;
lead to cooperatives or even vertical integration;
lead to a redistribution of added value and
lead to a geographical shifts.
4.2 Business models

4.3 Legislation
4.4 Green washing
4.5 Learning
Learning for Logistics
1. What are in general the most important logistic costs?

2. Focused factories (a factory that supplies its products internationally to a wide market and
focuses on a limited segment of the product assortment) have an impact on the important
trade-off between cost and delivery lead time. Make a list of the advantages and
disadvantages of focused factories.
3. Give four arguments for processing manure centrally and four arguments for processing
manure decentral at farmers level.
4. Why are pre-processing activities mostly executed in the area of origin?
5. What are the most important cost trade-offs in the biobased supply chain? Give an example.
6. Mention which aspects have to be researched to get sustainable, economically profitable
logistic biomass chains.
7. What are the most important differences between traditional food supply chains and biobased
supply chains?
8. Mention the most important logistical challenges in designing a biobased supply chain.
9. Firstly read this article: (
http://www.knnadvies.nl/user_files/downloads/13/Artikel%20LC%2022112013.pdf)
10. Draw the supply chain
11. What are the logistic challenges in this chain?

5. Further reading & references
5.1 Further reading
Strategie voor een groene samenleving, Biomaterialen drijfveer voor de

biobased economy
kn.nu/ww148ec55 (http)
Naar groene chemie en groene materialen, WTC BBE

kn.nu/ww55187e4 (edepot.wur.nl)
The Biobased Economy ,Biofuels, Materials and Chemicals in the Post-oil Era, Hans Langeveld en
Marieke Meeusen, 2012. Beschikbaar in bibliotheken of aan te schaffen.
Groene groei okt 2014 beschikbaar
5.2 References
Annevelink. E. De logistiek van biomassa voor de biobased economy; startnotitie, ISBN-nummer 978-
94-6173-609-3, 2013
Cherubini et al. Toward a comon classification approach for biorefinery systems. Biofuels, Biopord.
Bioref 3:534-546 2009
Harmsen, P. et al. pretreatment of lignocellulose for biotechnological production of lactic acid, WUR
report 1384, 2013
Langeveld et al. The Biobased Economy Biofuels, Materials and Chemicals in the Post-oil Era,
2012
McCormick, K. & Kautto, N The Bioeconomy in Europe: An Overview Sustainability 2013, 5, 2589-
2608
Ros et al. Sustainability of biomass in a bio-based economy, PBL Publication number: 500143001,
2012
Internet sources used :

http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/wat-is-biobased-economy/over-bbe/
http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/climate
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/ocr_gateway/carbon_chemistry/crude_oilrev1.sht
ml
http://5thgradedecker.wikispaces.com/Fossil+Fuels+Research
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basics/
http://www.peakoil.nl/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groningen_gas_field
R. Weijermars & E. Madsen Can the Dutch Gas Bubble defy King Hubberts Peak? first break volume
29, April 2011

http://www.postpeakliving.com/peak-oil-primer
http://deepresource.wordpress.com/2012/02/18/rembrandt-koppelaar-on-world-energy-consumption/
http://pantanova.nl/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/pantanova_many_uses.jpg
http://www.forfarmers.eu/en/sustainability/projects/duckweed_as_cattle_feed.aspx
http://www.bio-economy.net/applications/applications_biorefinery.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/phosphate-recovery/p&k217/steen.htm
http://e360.yale.edu/feature/phosphate_a_critical_resource_misused_and_now_running_out/2423/
http://www.wri.org/blog/2013/12/world%E2%80%99s-36-most-water-stressed-countries
http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/PBL-2012-Sustainability-of-biomass-in-a-BBE-
500143001_0.pdf
http://www.betaprocess.eu/the-value-pyramid.php
http://www.slideshare.net/harmenwillemse1/nta-8080-certification-of-sustainable-biomass
http://www.intechopen.com/source/html/41611/media/image1.png
http://www.wageningenur.nl/en/Expertise-Services/Collaboration-and-partnerships/Plant-
Breeding/About-us.htm
http://www.intechopen.com/books/biomass-now-sustainable-growth-and-use/microbial-biomass-in-
batch-and-continuous-system
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs._fuel
http://www.energyfool.com/site/sites/default/files/site-images/biodiesel.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
http://www.innovativeindustry.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/bigstock_Biodiesel_Pump.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignocellulosic_biomass
http://www.btgworld.com/nl/rtd/technologies/fast-pyrolysis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_World_food_price_crisis
http://www.globalproblems-globalsolutions-
files.org/unf_website/PDF/criteria_sustainable_biomass_prod.pdf
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041010100001549
5.3 Author & improvements

The wikiwijs arrangement Introduction to the biobased economy was developed for and with help of
the Centre of Biobased Economy (CBBE) and the Groene Kennis Cooperatie (GKC) by Ir. Annemarie
van Leeuwen. In her daily life she is active as teacher and researcher at the CAH Vilentum, Dronten.
Please feel free to communicate your remarks, comments and questions to:
m.klaassen@cahvilentum.nl

Over dit lesmateriaal
Colofon
Project informatie en samenwerkingsverbanden
Dit project is tot stand gekomen door een samenwerking binnen het Centre of
Biobased Economy (getrokken door Wageningen UR, HAS Hogeschool, INHolland
Delft, VanHaLL Larenstein en CAH Vilentum). Om de ontwikkeling naar een sterke
biobased economy verder door te zetten bundelen onderwijs en bedrijfsleven hun
krachten binnen het Centre fo Biobased Economy (CBBE) om professionals op te
leiden. Het CBBE doet dat door:
- Kennisoverdracht en onderwijsontwikkeling
- Versterking toepassingsgericht onderzoek
- Stimulering van innovatieprojecten
Dit initiatief is mede mogelijk gemaakt door het ministerie van Economische Zaken.
Het doel van deze wikiwijs module is om een zo groot mogelijk aantal studenten te
bereiken.
Meer informatie
Deze oplage is voor een ieder openbaar te gebruiken. U mag het Document
kopiren en verspreiden in elk medium, alleen voor niet-commercile doeleinden,
onder het voorbehoud dat deze Licentie, de auteursrechtelijke kennisgevingen en
de licentiekennisgeving die aangeeft dat deze Licentie van toepassing is op het
Document weergegeven worden in alle kopien, en dat u geen enkele andere
voorwaarde toevoegt aan de voorwaarden van deze Licentie. U mag geen
technische maatregelen nemen die het lezen of verder kopiren van de exemplaren
die u maakt of verspreidt belemmeren of controleren.
Auteur Michiel Klaassen

Laatst gewijzigd 12 July 2016 om 10:58
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Aanvullende informatie over dit lesmateriaal
Van dit lesmateriaal is de volgende aanvullende informatie beschikbaar:
Leerniveau HBO - Bachelor;

Leerinhoud en doelen Economie; Procestechnologie;
Eindgebruiker leerling/student
Moeilijkheidsgraad gemiddeld
Bronnen
Bron Type
Centre of Biobased Economy Link
http://www.cbbe.nl
First introduction video Video

https://youtu.be/XX6911pS0Kg
Second introduction video Video

https://youtu.be/2xvXkOMRTs4
Global warming Video

https://youtu.be/oJAbATJCugs
https://youtu.be/LAoy0kwK7e0 Video
https://youtu.be/LAoy0kwK7e0
DSM-POET and local economical development in Iowa Video

https://youtu.be/GlaAoGDQNPk
https://vimeo.com/blocnl/biobasedbackbone Link
https://vimeo.com/blocnl/biobasedbackbone
Agro en chemie: ondernemen in de biobased economy Link

http://www.agro-chemie.nl/
https://youtu.be/zCRKvDyyHmI Video
https://youtu.be/zCRKvDyyHmI
Interactive system diagram Link

http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/circular-
economy/interactive-system-diagram
Hemp production and valor...ts can be made from hemp? Video

https://youtu.be/m-7wrT1Upvw
Explanation of photosynthesis Video

https://youtu.be/g78utcLQrJ4
Fosfaat: tekort aan wat nooit opraakt? Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HqOfcUufyzQ
Biomassa: wensen en grenzen Link

http://infographics.pbl.nl/biomassa/#

Bron Type
Routekaart Link
http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/routekaart/
Explanation of the struct...of the basic biomolecules Video

https://youtu.be/PYH63o10iTE
Grassa: a grass refinery initiative Video

https://youtu.be/I5VyfNKjUek
Manure, a valuable resource Link

http://edepot.wur.nl/294017
Enzymes and micro-organisms converting straw Video

https://youtu.be/niZls2dpHjM
Pyrolysis by BTG in Henge...on with Friesland Campina Video

https://youtu.be/MDmW2BKaSPY
Avantium's Revolutionary Plastic Video

https://youtu.be/O4l3noNaXIE
HempFlax maakt auto-onderdelen voor Mercedes Video

https://youtu.be/xLzi_99dC6o
Nederland is sterk in gro...based chemische industrie Link

http://www.agriholland.nl/nieuws/artikel.html?id=163177
Proeffabriek voor bioplastic uit gft in Venlo Link

http://www.technischweekblad.nl/de-ultieme-kringloop.345076.lynkx
Boer kan zelf kunstmest maken Link

http://resource.wageningenur.nl/nl/show/Boer-kan-zelf-kunstmest-maken.htm
Torrefactie: biomassa om...tten in groene steenkool Link

'Wij halen brandstof uit ...val dat onbruikbaar leek' Link

http://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/2844/Archief/archief/article/detail/3210352/2012/03/01/Wij-
halen-brandstof-uit-plantenafval-dat-onbruikbaar-leek.dhtml
Strategie voor een groene... voor de biobased economy Link

http://http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/5803-Visie-op-
WTC-binnenwerk-WEB.pdf
Naar groene chemie en groene materialen, WTC BBE Link


Introduction To The Biobased Economy

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Introduction to the Biobased Economy

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Dit lesmateriaal is gemaakt met Wikiwijs Maken van Kennisnet.

3. Conversion processes and products

4. Transition to a biobased society (partly work in progress)

5. Further reading & references

Over dit lesmateriaal

Pagina 1 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Knowledge transfer and development of educational materials

The CBBE is represented by Wageningen UR | Avans | CAH Vilentum | HAS Hogeschool |

Centre of Biobased Economy

Pagina 2 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

An illustration of the biobased economy

Pagina 3 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Second introduction video

1.1 Drivers of a biobased economy

Pagina 4 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Pagina 6 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Duckweed production in the Achterhoek: an example of a local biobased initiative

DSM-POET and local economical development in Iowa

1.1.4 Fourth driver: Development of new entrepeneurship between agriculture en chemistry

Pagina 8 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

For more initiatives:

Pagina 9 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

1.2 Biobased economy: part of a transition to a sustainable

Interactive system diagram

1.2.2 Blue Economy

Pagina 10 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

1.3 The basic principles of a biobased economy

1.3.1 Three principles

Pagina 11 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Hemp production and valorisation: which products can be made from

Pagina 12 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Example grass refinery

Pagina 13 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

1.4 Conflicting interests

Pagina 14 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Pagina 15 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

3. The production of energy from biomass is characterized by:

Assignment 1 Value Pyramid

Make this assignment with your selected plant or biomass stream.

In relation to principle 2: Use every part of the biomass

Business case HarvestaGG

Pagina 16 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Pagina 17 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

2.1 Growing biomass

(Adapted from Langeveld et al, 2012)

Pagina 18 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Cereal yield, measured as kilograms per hectare of harvested land in 2010-2014

2.2 Agricultural challenges

2.2.1 Dependency on fossil fuels

Pagina 19 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Pagina 20 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

PowerPoint about the N-cycle

2.2.2 Resources of fosfor will be more and more difficult to mine

Pagina 21 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Fosfaat: tekort aan wat nooit opraakt?

PowerPoint about the P-cycle

2.2.3 Organic matter in soils

Pagina 22 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Pagina 23 Introduction to the Biobased Economy

Biomassa: wensen en grenzen

2.4 Biomass types