TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .

177

Women Belonging in the Social Worlds of Graduate Mathematics

Abbe H. Herzig1

University at Albany, State University of New York

Abstract: The participation of women in post-graduate mathematics still lags substantially

behind that of men. Drawing upon sociocultural theories of learning, I argue that success in
graduate school necessitates learning mathematical content, participating in mathematical
practices, and developing a sense of belonging in mathematics. Using an institutional
ethnography approach, I interviewed 12 women graduate students from three mathematics
departments in the U.S. to document their experiences within the social relations of graduate
mathematics. They described both intrinsic and extrinsic obstacles to belonging, including a
tension between their desire to belong and their needs to distance themselves from what they
perceived to be the mathematical culture. These womens stories are interpreted in terms of the
ways they are multiply marked as deviant (Damarin, 2000)as women, as mathematically
talented, and as women in mathematics; for women of color or mothers, these markings are even
more complex.
Keywords: belonging, graduate students, institutional ethnography, women

1. Introduction

Despite increasing attention over recent decades, womens participation in advanced

mathematics in the U.S. still lags substantially behind that of men. In the U.S. in 2006, women
earned 41% of bachelors degrees and 43% of masters degrees, comprised 32% of first-year, full-
time graduate students (30% of total full-time students) in doctorate-granting mathematics
departments, earned 32% of PhDs (among U.S. citizens, women earned only 27% of PhDs),
received 22% of new doctoral positions in PhD granting departments, and comprised 12% of
full-time tenured or tenure track faculty (25% of non-tenure-track faculty) at doctoral granting

1
8 Winter Haven
West Sand Lake, NY 12196
aherzig@albany.edu
phone: (518) 727-4755
fax: (518) 308-0285

The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast, ISSN 1551-3440, Vol. 7, nos.2&3, pp.177- 208
2010Montana Council of Teachers of Mathematics & Information Age Publishing
 Herzig

institutions (National Science Foundation, 2008; Phipps, Maxwell, & Rose, 2007). Admittedly,
these statistics give only an approximate picture of how women fare as they progress along the
path from college through work in the academic world, as these statistics represent different
cohorts of individuals at one fixed point in time, but the statistical picture is compelling
nonetheless, implying that the persistence of women in mathematics is a problem throughout and
after graduate school.
Of course, there is more to womens experiences in graduate mathematics than even the
numbers show. "The question is not only one of retention in doctoral study but the more subtle
one of whether women have a graduate experience that is of as high a quality as that of men
(Etzkowitz, Kemelgor, Neuschatz, & Uzzi, 1992, p. 158). In this paper, I use an institutional
ethnography approach (Smith, 2005; Campbell & Gregor, 2004) to examine the nature of
womens experiences in graduate mathematics. It is not the goal here to compare womens
experiences with those of men; indeed, many of the obstacles and issues women face likely
affect men as well. However, particularly in the context of recent public concern about the small
numbers of women persisting in mathematics and the sciences, this analysis was undertaken to
add depth to our insights about womens experiences in mathematics and the reasons for their
relatively slow progress into advanced positions in the field.
1.1 Learning Graduate Mathematics
Theories of situated learning posit that learning happens through participation in social
practices, and that learning is intertwined with, and inseparable from that participation (Boaler,
2002; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 1994; Wenger, 1998). For mathematics graduate students,
learning happens as they participate in the communities of practice found in their programs and
departments. Etienne Wenger (1998) describes three dimensions that define a community of
practice: a joint enterprise, a shared repertoire, and mutual engagement. The joint enterprise is
comprised of the activities in which the members of the community engage together. Although
the enterprise may be circumscribed by forces that are beyond participants immediate control,
they mutually construct and define the enterprise as they pursue it. In doctoral mathematics, the
joint enterprise is learning to become mathematicians, as the students interact with each other
and with faculty to appropriate and develop mathematical knowledge of all sorts. A shared
repertoire is similar to what Tomas Gerholm (1990) calls tacit knowledge, the often unspoken
norms and practices by which the discipline operates. For doctoral study in mathematics, the
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .179

shared repertoire includes all the practices that are inherent in enrollment in graduate school,
such as studying for courses and exams, finding a research topic, and working on a dissertation.
Both the joint enterprise and shared repertoire are constructed and negotiated by participants as
they mutually engage in the activities of their community. These three dimensions of the
community of practice of graduate school entail students appropriation of mathematical
knowledge (entering and constructing the joint enterprise), practices (entering and constructing
the shared repertoire), and a sense of belonging within the discipline (engaging in mutual ways
with the other community members) (Boaler, 2002; Boaler, Wiliam, & Zevenbergen, 2000;
Herzig, 2004a). Students who have limited access to any of the three dimensions of learning of
mathematicsacquiring knowledge, practices, and a sense of belongingwill be inhibited in
their opportunities to learn and engage with mathematics, and will be less likely to persist in
mathematics. Each of these dimensions is affected by students interactions with other members
of the communitythe students and faculty. Those relationships, in turn, are formed by and
contribute to the departmental and program structure, policies, and culture.
Beyond the communities of practice of graduate school itself, graduate students are also
working to engage with the practices of mathematicians. Mathematics doctoral programs in the
U.S. are primarily structured around providing disciplinary training in the core areas of
mathematical scholarship (Bass, 2003; National Research Council, 1992). Although there are
some notable exceptions, the first several years of doctoral education in mathematics typically
follow a transmission model of teaching (Rogoff, 1994), in which faculty lecture, students take
notes and study extensively outside of class, with most interactions between the two taking place
as faculty grade assignments and exams (National Research Council, 1992). Consequently,
many graduate students have few opportunities to participate in many of the activities of
professional mathematicians. To the extent that a graduate program sequesters prospective
mathematicians from the genuine practices of mathematicians, it limits their opportunities to
learn to work as mathematicians (Herzig, 2002; Lave & Wenger, 1991). Hyman Bass (2003)
argues that these programs need to do a better job of preparing students for all aspects of work
within the profession of mathematics, including serious professional development for teaching,
uses of technology, exposition, developing and pursuing a research program, participation in the
local and broader mathematical communities, and development of a cultural awareness in
students of the significance of their discipline in the larger worlds of science and society and of
 Herzig

the expectation that they will serve as emissaries of their discipline in the outside world (p.
775). While there has long been an emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge, Basss argument
represents a more recent emphasis on graduate students need to learn the practices of the
profession. However, little attention has been paid to students development of a sense that they
have a place within the mathematical community.

1.2 Belonging in Mathematics

Building students sense of belongingness in mathematics has been proposed as a critical
feature of an equitable K-12 education (Allexsaht-Snider & Hart, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1997;
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000; Tate, 1995). Martha Allexsaht-Snider and
Laurie Hart (2001) argue that when schooling facilitates all students sense of belongingness and
engagement with mathematics, then we are more likely to achieve the goal of mathematics for
all so often cited as a goal in reform and policy documents, and define belonging as the extent
to which each student senses that she or he belongs as an important and active participant in
mathematics (p. 97). A similar construct has been proposed at the doctoral level, with several
authors arguing that students involvement or integration into the communities of their
departments is important for their persistence (Girves & Wemmerus, 1988; Golde, 1996; Herzig,
2002, 2004a; Lovitts, 2001; National Research Council, 1992; National Science Foundation,
1998; Tinto, 1993). In particular, Vincent Tinto (1993) proposes that doctoral student
persistence is a function of both social and academic integration within the communities of the
local department or program. This extends Allexsaht-Snider and Harts (2001) definition to
define belonging for a graduate student as her sense that she is an important and active
participant in both the academic and social communities of her department and program (Herzig,
2006). In interviews with 18 graduate students in one mathematics doctoral program in the U.S.,
students who had multiple avenues to develop a sense of belonging within mathematics (for
example, through family members who were mathematicians, or involvement in mathematics
since a young age) were found to be more likely to persist through the Ph.D. (Herzig, 2002). It
seems, then, that developing an identity as a mathematician, a sense that I belong here, is one
critical component in the persistence of doctoral students.
1.3 Obstacles to Belonging for Women
Many students face obstacles in graduate mathematics, including harsh weed-out policies
and competition (Herzig, 2006; Hollenshead, Younce, & Wenzel, 1994; Stage & Maple, 1996),
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .181

pedagogy that fails to communicate the passion or depth of mathematics (Burton, 1999; Herzig,
2002; Stage & Maple, 1996), and limited or negative relationships with advisors and other
faculty (Bair & Haworth, 1999; Etzkowitz, Kemelgor, & Uzzi, 2000; Girves & Wemmerus,
1988; Golde, 1996; Herzig, 2004b).
Women and people of color face additional obstacles. Women in science have
experienced discrimination in finding and working with mentors and been excluded from the
informal social networks of their laboratories or departments, treated as invisible, or otherwise
had their contributions marginalized (Becker, 1990; Committee on the Participation of Women,
2003; Etzkowitz et al., 1992; Etzkowitz et al., 2000; Sonnert & Holton, 1995; Stage & Maple,
1996). In mathematics in particular, women have reported blatantly sexist behavior, including
unwanted sexual advances from faculty, tolerance of public sexist comments, and professors who
openly state that women are not as smart, dedicated, or talented as men (Committee on the
Participation of Women, 2003).
Students in several programs have described the importance of having critical mass of
women or students of color (Cooper, 2000; Manzo, 1994). Graduate women in mathematics,
computer science and physics have reported feeling isolated or alienated in their male-dominated
departments, and have described ways that they feel that they do not fit in (Becker, 1990;
Etzkowitz et al., 2000; Herzig, 2004b; Hollenshead et al., 1994). Women in mathematics in the
U.S. have few female role models to guide them; in the fall of 2006, while 30% of full-time
graduate students were women, only 12% of full-time doctoral faculty were women (Phipps et
al., 2007).
Male science students have enhanced relationships with faculty compared with women,
which provide men with increased opportunities to develop a sense of belonging. Henry
Etzkowitz et al. (2000) argue that this feeling of acceptance is a prerequisite for independent and
autonomous work. Denied the same degree of relationships with faculty, female students in
science have a more difficult time acting independently. Further, womens socialization may
lead them to look for interaction and reinforcement, rather than to be autonomous and
independent learners (Etzkowitz et al., 2000; Fennema & Peterson, 1985). This pattern of
socialization can work against them in the eyes of their advisors, especially in a disciplinary
culture like that found in mathematics, where work is expected to be individualistic and
independent. Consequently, women graduate students in science and mathematics have been
 Herzig

stereotyped as less capable and uncompetitive, and as a result they often are not taken seriously
by faculty (Becker, 1990; Committee on the Participation of Women, 2003; Etzkowitz et al.,
2000; Stage & Maple, 1996). In this way, obstacles to developing feelings of belongingness are
circular: women have more limited opportunities to develop a sense of belonging, which makes
it more difficult for them to behave independently. The perception that they are dependent
results in negative judgments of their abilities by faculty, which limits their further opportunities
and makes it even more difficult for them to come to feel that they belong in mathematics.
A community of practice imposes certain cultural practices and implicit expectations on
students (Lave and Wenger, 1991). The isolation, sexism, lack of role models, and stereotyped
understandings of womens interactions in graduate school can combine to demonstrate to
women ways that they do not belong in the male-dominated cultures of their departments and
disciplines (Etzkowitz et al., 2000; Herzig, 2006; Hollenshead et al., 1994). In this sense, the
communities of practice of graduate school and of mathematics may set expectations which
some students are unable or unwilling to meet. It is therefore possible that people who persist in
mathematics are those who are able or willing to adapt themselves to those cultural practices;
that is, they learn, or are self-selected, to work within the existing structure, to play by the
existing rules (Stage & Maple, 1996). In a study comparing the careers of women and men
scientists, Sonnert and Holton (1995) found
little evidence that women in science follow or believe in a radically different
epistemology or methodology that some feminist theorists of science have suggested. It
may, of course, be proposed that women (and men) with alternative methodological and
epistemological approaches do not flourish or survive in the science pipeline for very
long, so that the scientists who are reasonably successful under the current system of
science are predisposed to it, or at least have learned to accept it. (p. 156)

Individuals whose talents, values, skills, or interests make it difficult or undesirable for them to
adapt to that structure may not be able to successfully negotiate the educational and professional
systems that are necessary to allow them to do mathematics. In this study, I examine the social
and cultural practices that are implicit in graduate mathematics education, and how those
practices impact the experiences of women trying to become mathematicians.
1.4 An Institutional Ethnography Approach
Institutional ethnography is a method of investigation that explores how social settings
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .183

(in this case, mathematics graduate programs in the U.S.) are organized, and the web of social
relationships that are the basis of those settings, through individuals experiences. This approach
attempt[s] to uncover, explore, and describe how peoples everyday lives may be organized
without their explicit awareness but still with their active involvement (Campbell, & Gregor,
2004, p. 43). The focus of an institutional ethnography is to learn to think, hear, and talk about
the setting as various participants know it, but . . . also attend to . . . how a setting is organized
(Campbell & Gregor, p. 50). In this study, I attempt to use womens stories to reveal the social
relations of mathematics graduate study, and how those relations organize womens experiences
and opportunities within mathematics.
Institutional ethnography begins by locating a standpoint in an institutional order that
provides the guiding perspective from which that order will be explored. It begins with
some issues, concerns, or problems that are real for people and that are situated in their
relationships to an institutional order. Their concerns are explicated by the researcher in
talking with them and thus set the direction of inquiry. (Smith, 2005, p 32).
In this study, I begin in the local actualities of the everyday world, with the concerns and
perspectives of people located distinctively in the institutional process (Smith, 2005, p. 24),
with the perceptions of women graduate students. From their perspectives, I examine how their
experiences are situated in the institutional order of graduate study in mathematics, with a focus
on the opportunities and obstacles they face to developing a sense of belonging in mathematics.
The importance of belonging and the obstacles women face in developing a sense of
belonging in graduate mathematics form the problematic (Campbell & Gregor, 2004) of the
present study. I investigate this problematic through interviews with 12 women graduate
students in mathematics in the U.S. As these womens experiences and stories unfold, we see
the ways that the social order of graduate mathematics leads them to both seek and resist
belonging in mathematics.
2. Method
This study is based on interviews with 12 women graduate students in mathematics, four
enrolled in each of three PhD-granting mathematics departments at large, public universities in
the U.S. These interviews were conducted as parts of larger and different studies, in which
women and men graduate students and faculty were interviewed about their experiences in
mathematics and beliefs about mathematics and graduate mathematics education. Two of the
 Herzig

three departments were among the 25 U.S. mathematics departments with the highest percentage
of PhDs being earned by women over the period 1996-2002 (Jackson, 2004).
The women included in this analysis were selected as a purposeful sample from the larger
samples from which they were drawn, using maximum variation sampling (Patton, 1990). They
were selected order to represent as broad as possible a range of experiences and identities within
and beyond mathematics. In this way, the relatively small sample size can be turned . . . into a
strength by applying the following logic: Any common patterns that emerge from great variation
are of particular interest and value if capturing the core experiences and central, shared aspects of
impacts of a program (Patton, 1990, p. 172). Some participants were in their first year of
graduate study at the time of their interviews, while others had been enrolled in graduate school
for more than 6 years. They had received their undergraduate training at a range of institutions
from many parts of the U.S., both public and private, both large and small. In all, their stories
reflect their experiences in 15 mathematics departments as both undergraduate and graduate
students. Most had entered graduate school directly after completing their undergraduate
training, although several had either attended other graduate schools or had worked for between
one and more than 10 years before entering their current graduate program. They ranged in age
from their early 20s through their early 40s. Four of the women were African American and the
remaining eight were White. Half of the women were married, two had young children, and two
others discussed their plans to have children soon. One woman disclosed that she was a lesbian.
Although all 12 women had entered the graduate program either intending to complete a PhD or
considering the PhD as an option, by the time of their interviews, two of them had decided leave
their programs after completing Masters degrees (one of the two had already left the program by
the time of her interview); as of this writing, 4 of the 10 other women had completed the PhD,
and 6 were progressing within their programs.
The structure of the interviews was largely the same at all three institutions. Participants
were recruited by email, and asked to participate in an interview about their experiences in
mathematics. All volunteers were given outlines of interview topics in advance of their
interviews, and were encouraged to add things they thought were relevant and delete things they
did not wish to discuss (after Burton, 1999; see Appendix I). Interviews covered participants
mathematical autobiographies, their reasons for attending graduate school in mathematics,
their interests and goals in mathematics, and their mathematical experiences both in and out of
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .185

school. The interviews were open-ended, progressing as unstructured conversations about

participants experiences, allowing them the opportunity to discuss the web of feelings,
attitudes, and values that give meaning to activities and events (Anderson & Jack, 1991, p. 12)
and to give them the space and the permission to explore some of the deeper, more conflicted
parts of their stories (p. 13). Participants were encouraged to guide the conversation to those
aspects of their experiences that they thought were most relevant. Consequently, not all
interviews covered exactly the same topics.
To protect the womens anonymity, interviews were conducted in a private room on each
campus outside of the Department of Mathematics. All interviews were tape recorded and the
tapes were transcribed. Interviews ranged in length from thirty minutes to two and a half hours.
Transcripts of the interviews were analyzed inductively. Transcripts were read and re-
read, and initial codes were developed to reflect what these women talked about concerning
issues of belonging within mathematics, including obstacles they experienced. As coding
progressed, new codes were developed and applied, and other codes were deleted or combined.
Once the coding scheme reached a point at which it seemed to capture all relevant parts of the
womens stories, an independent coder coded two interviews to check for reliability. There was
a strong degree of agreement between the two coders, and any discrepancies were negotiated,
resulting in several additions and clarifications to the coding scheme. Finally, all of the
interviews were re-coded. The codes provide the organization for the results that follow.
Because of the small number of women interviewed and the ways that each interview was
unique, statistical information about their responses is not provided. The narrative that follows
weaves together issues that were common among the womens stories about belonging in
mathematics, using the words of each of the women; discrepancies and contradictions are noted
when they arose. Participant quotes have been edited for readability, and to obscure any
personally-identifying information. All names are pseudonyms. In order to protect participants
anonymity, only limited information is provided about individual women.
3. Womens Experiences of Developing a Sense of Belonging
Through these open-ended interviews, the participants discussed three general themes
concerning their experiences developing a sense of belonging in the social worlds of
mathematics graduate study: the importance of having and being role models, the challenges they
felt fitting in, and their unwillingness or inability to focus on mathematics to the exclusion of
 Herzig

all else. Each of these themes is explored in subsequent sections.

3.1 Having and being role models
Most of the women had people they identified as role models or mentors, including
undergraduate or graduate professors, and for many, more advanced graduate students or recent
graduates. Most of them looked to, or looked for, successful women mathematicians and
graduate students who could help them see that they, too, could build a satisfying life in
mathematics. For some, the small numbers of women mathematicians they had encountered as
undergraduates or in graduate school left them feeling that there were not people around to
whom they could relate.

If there was a good female role model that I felt like I could relate to that would really
push me a lot better. . . . A female professor pushing me intellectually seems to be more
what would actually drive me.

Seeing successful women in mathematicsparticularly women who were mothers

helped them believe that they could succeed as well. Some women really appreciated role
models who demonstrated the possibility of balancing family responsibilities with work as an
academic. When I asked if there was anyone she would consider a mentor to her, one woman
replied,

I look at balancing life and math. . . . The women in the department definitely because
theyve got their family and had kids. . . . So I look to them as people who are good at
balancing. . . . I guess anybody who got a PhD would be somebody I look to, and they
still have a life. Cuz I dont want to study all the time. . . . The faculty here, they didnt
have kids until they were faculty themselves. Even Audrey, she had her first child during
her postdoc. So [I feel I need] role models for having children in grad school and being a
woman.

Each of the four Black women I interviewed (in two different departments) had heard
about the three African American women who had earned PhDs from the Department of
Mathematics at the University of Maryland in 2000 (Argetsinger, 2000)2. They each spoke of
ways that those womens examples were important to them, as a way of proving that they too
could achieve this.
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .187

I read in the paper of the three Black women that [the University of Maryland] had
graduated in the PhD program. I thought that was phenomenal. I was like, Wow, if
they can do it, I can probably do it too.

One woman explained that, while she felt her (white male) advisor was readily available
to talk with her whenever she needed, she generally chose not to talk with him, because she did
not feel that he could relate to her experience as an African American female.

Talking to African American females in mathematics is more personal. They understand.

A lot of times before I could even get it out of my mouth, [they would know that], this is
the experience youre having. Dr. Smith wont know that. Cuz hes a man. Hes older.
Hes Caucasian. He just wont know that. . . . I dont have time for generic [advice]. I
can read it out of a book. . . . Thats not to say anything bad about him, its just who he
is. He wouldnt know.

One surprising issue that arose was the desire and expectation that some of these women
felt to serve as role models for other women. This sentiment was expressed particularly
eloquently by one Black woman, who felt motivated to achieve a PhD not just for herself, but for
others who she felt she represented.

A PhD carries more weight for me as a black woman than it does for my [classmates]. I
feel that getting a PhD is not about me. . . . For me, getting a PhD, thats for me, thats
for my culture, my ethnicity, thats for [my undergrad college].

This woman was very proud to work toward a PhD in mathematics for all that it might do to
reflect positively on the preparation she had received at the historically black college she had
attended, to which she felt intensely loyal. Another woman described her admiration for another
graduate student whom had set a personal goal to become a role model for other young women
in mathematics.

It would be cool to have a lot more female role models in Math. One of my friends who
was here last year and who had transferred out of this program . . . She wanted a role
model but she also felt she wanted a PhD in order to be a role model for other women and
that was her driving force. Which I thought was kind of neat.

For some, this meant that they felt obligated to prove that women could achieve in
 Herzig

mathematics to the same extent as men.

When I was in college, I got pressure to go to grad school because I was a woman. . . .
The problem with women not going to grad school and here you are good at math and
you should go to grad school and not be a gender traitor or something like that . . . . To
not go to grad school would have been lightweight, and just support the theory that
women are lightweights when it comes to math.

Serving as a role model for other women, or for men about what women can achieve, was a
double-edged sword for these women, placing substantial pressure on them to work to a higher
standard than the male students in order to disaffirm stereotypes and prove what women could
do.

The women I know that are looked at as knowledgeable people have to really, really
prove themselves in order for them to gain the respect of peers and faculty. . . . Ive seen
examples [like] a male professor could not really handle women in the class, basically
just dismiss them as incapable.

If you ask a question and it reveals your ignorance of the subject that youre studying,
then youre the girl who doesnt know what goes on. Thats different from being
somebody who doesnt know whats going on.

Having role models, and being role models for others, helped these women identify
others with whom they could affiliate in mathematics, and supported their beliefs that they could
succeed. As I will discuss later, these affiliations helped these women construct a mathematical
community in which they felt they belonged, countering some of the isolation they otherwise felt
in their programs. However, these affiliations also carried burdens within the social relations
that organize their graduate programs, as they felt pressure to prove their worth and invalidate
negative stereotypes of mathematical women.
3.2 Fitting In
As one woman described above, being some women felt that they stood out as different
from the other students. There were a number of ways in which these women spoke about their
challenges in feeling that they belonged in mathematics and in graduate school. For some
women, being in a program with mostly men made them feel intense competition, and was
sometimes intimidating. Most of the women graduate students described ways in which they felt
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .189

uncomfortable being in an environment with so few women.

I sometimes walk into a room, look around, realize Im the only woman in the room,
again, and it has an effect . . . . It makes me feel like on some level most of the people I
interact with are missing one particular thing in common with me and I find that
discouraging. . . . There are still sometimes times when it feels uncomfortable that there
arent more people like me.

One woman described how she felt that it was unacceptable to show femininity.

The math department [in graduate school] was not a very comfortable place for women. .
. . I remember wearing a skirt and having people tease me endlessly about it. . . . Oh,
youre all dressed up today. Hey, did you know youre wearing a skirt today? And I
felt like to be female, to show my femininity, was not acceptable.

The African American women felt doubly isolated, both as women in a male-dominated
discipline and as Blacks in a largely White discipline.

I guess being in a room full of White people me acknowledging my Blackness, not that
I'm always thinking about it but it's more aware than if I were in a room full of Black
people. I'm just aware that there's no one else in the room who looks like me. And that
kind of makes me, not nervous but it's kind of like, That's strange, there should be
someone else in here.

Each of the four African American women had attended an historically black college as an
undergraduate, and they described ways in which the transition from a primarily Black institution
to a primarily White institution entailed an adjustment for them. They felt that they stood out in
some situations, and felt invisible in others. These adjustments were described as a combination
of cultural difference, having moved from one part of the country to another, where humor,
dietary habits, social expectations, and other habits and customs were different; and sometimes
intolerance, describing some interactions with faculty that were blatantly racist.

When we were registering to start classes. . . . [T]hree of the other [African American]
students had a couple different advisors who said, The five of you are here under
Affirmative Action so you probably should start with undergrad courses first so you can
catch up with everybody else. . . . Another professor [told me], Graduate school isn't
 Herzig

for everybody. Maybe you should consider something else. But we had all gone there
to visit at the same time and none of these comments were said at that time. There were
three African American students there when we were going to visit but by the time we
got there they were gone and they didn't let us talk to them, which should have been a
heads-up that maybe somethings wrong.

The African American women also described interactions with professors who stiffened up
and were much less forthcoming with help and advice with African American students than with
White students, or advised them to drop classes when they were struggling, rather than offering
to help them learn. They also described their struggles to earn the respect of the undergraduate
students they taught.

I think my color has something to do with it too, when I go in to teach the students, I
guess they think I don't know as much as I do. They kind of try to second guess me. I
can tell they would oppose me more than they would a White male or somebody like that,
just because I'm a woman.

Another topic that some of the women discussed is the stereotype of mathematicians or
mathematics students as being nerds or uncool. Mathematicians and mathematics students
have commonly been stereotyped as lacking in social skills (Damarin, 2000; Campbell, 1995).
Nel Noddings (1996) argues that
There seems to be something about [mathematics] or the way it is taught that attracts a
significant number of young people with underdeveloped social skills. . . . If this
impression of students who excel at math is inaccurate, researchers ought to produce
evidence to dispel the notion, and teachers should help students to reject it. If it is true,
math researchers and teachers should work even harder to make the math crowd more
socially adept. Because that group so often tends to be exclusive, girls and minority
youngsters may wonder whether they could ever be a part of it. But when the group is
examined from a social perspective, many talented young people may question whether
they want to be a part of it. (p. 611; italics in original)
One woman spoke at length of the lack of social skills among many of the graduate
students in the department, calling them a big collection of freaks. Another woman disliked
the way that she was stereotyped as a mathematics student, and felt that this was one reason why
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .191

younger students get disaffected from mathematics.

I think mathematics definitely has this stereotype which I really cant stand that its dorky
and I get made fun of by my non-mathematician friends a lot. . . . If somehow that could
be changed, this is where I think that role models would come in. If people could look up
to people who they thought were similar to them. . . . Especially in lower mathematics, [a
lot of people] think math isnt cool and its not interesting . . . and they dont see
themselves doing it because of the stereotype. I they had role models that they felt were
more like them, werent dorky, then they would draw in a broader range of people.
Instead of continuing this type of personality is mathematicians so everybody after that is
only those types of personalities can become mathematicians.

Overall, these women did not feel that they fit in in mathematics. They felt
uncomfortable in classes and other settings in which there were few women; the isolation was
even more extreme for Black women or for women who were mothers. They felt distanced from
mathematics by stereotypes of mathematical people as lacking in social skills. In each of these
ways, these women faced explicit obstacles and clear messages about ways that they did not
belong in mathematics.
3.3 Being unwilling or unable to become engrossed exclusively in mathematics
Most of the women interviewed majored in mathematics in college because they realized
that they were good at it, that it came naturally to them, or that mathematics was fun, but many
of them explained that mathematics was only one of several interests they might have pursued.
They chose graduate studies in mathematics for a range of reasons, including the desire to teach,
a passion for learning more mathematics, and even nothing better to do, many of them
emphasizing the happenstance that led them there. This advanced graduate student, who is now
an assistant professor of mathematics, summarized the feeling of many, emphasizing that while
she was good in mathematics, it was only one of many things she was good at.

It was just something to do and something that I thought I would actually like doing. I
dont think I had this burning drive to go to math grad school but I realized I could and I
thought I would like it, and I didnt have anything else to do.

All of the women reported having some times when they experienced doubts about
continuing with their graduate studies, wondering whether it was worth the sacrifices to their
 Herzig

personal lives that persistence would require. Like this first year student, who was also the
mother of a young child, the women described some of the things they were giving up to pursue
the PhD.

My friends are starting to work, starting to have their lives. They tell me they went to
this concert, this show or play, and I want to go and do that stuff too. I just still have that
drive to get that PhD . . . . I know its hard, but I feel like in the long run it will be worth
it.

The womens longing for a life outside of mathematics was balanced by what many of
them described as sheer stubbornness that allowed them to persist in the program, despite the
stress of exams, intense demands of coursework and teaching, and frustrations with research.
Many women acknowledged that they had to have a love for mathematics in order to find the
motivation to continue. However, the women also reported that they were not as focused on
mathematics as they perceived the other students around them to be, as this first-year student
explained:

I thought it was kind of strange that my classmates would talk about different math books
like they would novelists like Toni Morrison or Faulkner. Thats who I would talk about
if I were talking about books [I had read]. I wouldnt talk about Rotman or math authors.
I had to get used to that.

The woman who made the following statement had entered graduate school to earn a
Ph.D., but at the time of her interview was preparing to leave after completing her Masters
degree:

When you enter grad school you realize that there are people who are really, really
interested in math. I kind of figured that I had enough interest in it to do it, but then you
realize that there are people that spend their extra time doing it. Thats what the program
is made for, I feel, for people like that.

While these women generally felt they had the determination, will to work hard, and
perseverance required to complete the PhD, they also placed limits around their commitment to
mathematics, and they clearly identified themselves as being more than just mathematics
students. They described their desire not to be totally identified with mathematics, and
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .193

emphasized that they belonged not only to mathematics, but were well-rounded individuals with
other interests and obligations.
Their stories highlight a tension between being mathematics students and their need to fit
in, through which their desire to be more than only mathematics students was confronted with
a social order in which they felt that total devotion was required of them. For some, this
disconnect between the way they perceived that others were fully absorbed in mathematics and
their own sense of themselves as more well-rounded led them to question whether they fit in in
the social and academic worlds of graduate school, and presented an intrinsic obstacle their
development of a sense of belonging in their graduate programs.
Suzanne Damarin (2000) compares people with mathematical ability to other marked
categories such as women, people of color, criminals, people of disability, or homosexuals, and
identifies these characteristics of marked categories:
1. Members of marked categories are ridiculed and maligned, and descriptions of marked
categories are used to harass, tease, and discipline members of the larger society.
2. Members of marked categories are portrayed as incompetent in dealing with daily life.
3. In institutions designed to meet the needs of all, the needs of members of marked
categories are deferred, compared with the needs of the unmarked.
4. Members of marked categories are feared as powerful even as they are marked as
powerless.
5. Marking serves to define communities of the marked.
6. Membership in multiple marked categories places individuals in the margins of each
marked community.
7. The study of a marked category leads to the construction and study of the complementary
class of people.
8. The unmarked category is generally larger than the marked category; even when this is
not the case, the marked category is not recognized as the majority. (Damarin, 2000, pp.
72-74)
Damarin then presents an analysis of discourses surrounding mathematical ability, and
concludes,

From leading journals of pubic intellectual discussion, from the analyses of sociologists
of science, from the work of (genetic) scientists themselves, from the pages of daily
 Herzig

papers, and from practices of students and adults within the wall[s] of our schools, there
emerges and coalesces a discourse of mathematics ability as marking a form of deviance
and the mathematically able as a category marked by the signs of this deviance. (p. 78)

If students in advanced mathematics are indeed marked as deviant because of their

mathematical talent, women students are marked within this group, and may suffer the double
stigma of not being real mathematicians because of their gender, and not being real women
because of their work in mathematics. Given the common perceptions of mathematics students
as being white, male, childless, without interests outside of mathematics, and socially-inept, it
may be that members of various groups recognize tangible ways in which they do not fit in with
this group, and do not wish to fit in. Thus for some students who already feel marginalized in
some communities, belonging in mathematics may not be an entirely good thing: while
belonging facilitates persistence and success in mathematics, it also marks a student as deviant,
as socially inept. Women who choose to pursue mathematics must be willing to endure these
multiple constructions of themselves as deviants, both as women and as mathematically
competent. The women in this study described ways that they worked to distance themselves
from some of these common constructions of mathematical deviance, which, paradoxically, led
them to resist belonging in mathematics.
These women all struggled in various ways to balance their lives, obligations, and
identities in and out of graduate school. These issues of balance took different forms depending
on the womens life circumstances, but they generally described the conflicts they experienced in
building a well-rounded life that included both graduate school and other commitments and
interests.
Most of the women appreciated the flexibility of life as a graduate student, where they
were mostly responsible to themselves for managing their own time. Of course, this flexibility
can backfire, as it also meant that there were times when they could fall far behind in their
studies. Several of them felt that they were progressing through graduate school more slowly
than the norm or than their advisors expected, because of decisions they had made not to bury
myself in my mathematical life to the exclusion of all else. One fourth-year student lamented
how competitive she perceived graduate school to be; she hated the emphasis she heard
repeatedly on how long it took various students to earn their degrees and the pressure that
imposed on her.
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .195

None of them objected the hard work, and they acknowledged the richness of their
learning that came from immersing themselves in mathematics, balanced with the opportunities
to learn to teach. This woman described how the satisfaction of learning and focusing on her
own progress worked against these frustrations:

Im learning all this stuff. If I work hard enough I can learn it. And I have. I do feel like
I belong. Even though I struggle and sometimes say I dont.

This woman had had very difficult struggles in her family life, including health challenges,
which interfered with her ability to engage fully in her studies for some periods of time and made
it difficult for her to engage in the social and academic worlds of her program. However, she
persisted, has progressed in her program, and hopes to finish soon. Like many of the women,
balancing their lives as graduate students with their other responsibilities was a significant
challenge, and she expressed her frustration at not being able to devote herself fully to either her
family life or studies.
Earlier, I discussed the womens perceptions that other graduate students were totally
absorbed in mathematics. The women I interviewed struggled to find a place for their non-
mathematical selves in their lives, insisting on having a life outside of graduate school, refusing
to let mathematics become all that there was in their lives. They spoke about the need to take
care of themselves and to have other interests, including time for rest and exercise, family and
friends, participating in church communities, taking courses in other subject areas, playing
music, volunteer work, and datingall the things that make up the lives of a varied group of
people. Some of the women who were mothers described ways that their professors and advisors
supported their need to meet family responsibilities. But others also felt a sense of disapproval
from their advisors and professors for having outside obligations. This fourth-year student was
studying a world language in order to connect herself more strongly to her ethnic heritage, and
was committed to volunteer work she did in her community:

Sometimes I feel like Im disapproved of for having a life outside of math. This whole
idea that, why should I be wasting time doing anything else when I could be doing math?
No wonder youre failing the qual. That type of thing. That really bothers me. I should
be allowed to have a life outside of math. This whole attitude that I think a lot of
mathematicians have that if you do math, you do it because you love and its all you want
 Herzig

to do every day, all day. Well no, thats not actually true for me. I like to do it
sometimes but I like other things.

In addition to describing these outside activities as essential parts of their lives that they
valued and enjoyed, these activities represented explicit strategies to find time away from school,
to help them escape or get a break from thinking and talking about mathematics. Some spoke
of the need to manage frustration and stress by getting away from campus for a while, or felt it
was critical to have friends or partners who are not in mathematics, so that they could escape
from mathematics for a time and talk about other things. They had other explicit strategies for
getting time away from their studies, including never studying on a Saturday night, volunteer
work, teaching exercise classes, or positions in church governance. Many of these women
highly valued time spent with their extended families and church communities, and they were
often frustrated by how difficult it was to find the time to do this, as even a Saturday afternoon
off could leave them feeling hopelessly behind in their studies. For example, this third-year
student had gone through some difficult challenges in her personal life. She cried as she said, I
just feel that I want to do everything and I just get frustrated that Im mortal and I cant.
Paradoxically, she went on to describe school as an escape from those stresses.

I think schools a nice escape from it. As long as Im not talking with my officemates
who are my friends, it really doesnt come up so much, which is nice.

This African American woman was the mother of a young child, and described how
important it was to her, when she came to visit her graduate school before deciding to enroll
there, that

It seemed like everybody here has outside lives. Theyre not so consumed in doing their
mathematical work. They actually have families. A lot of people here are couples and
married, have children, and by me having a child and a husband I felt it was more suited
toward me.

Probably like most working mothers, the graduate students who were mothers experienced a
double-bind when it came to balancing motherhood with graduate school. Their family
responsibilities left them feeling that they did not have sufficient time to devote to their
schoolwork, like this mother of two young children:
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .197

I always envisioned getting your PhD is like preparing for an Olympic sport. You really
have to throw 110% of yourself into that. And I have other obligations. I cant give
110% of myself to this goal.

Conversely, when devoting time to schoolwork, they felt pressure, stress, and guilt over not
spending more time with their children, like this mother:

I dont get to see her that much. It makes me sad because shes a child and she needs her
mother, but in the long run it will be more helpful to her . . . This is how I look at it. I
dont remember what happened to me before I was 5 so hopefully she wont either. But
we give her lots of love.

While she imagined that other graduate students might have time in the evenings to themselves,
the little time she had away from her schoolwork was devoted to caring for her daughter, so she
had little time for herself, social engagements, or anything outside of her studies and her
daughter. The need to work as a teaching assistant added to this pressure.
Graduate study is a greedy institution (Coser, 1974; cited in Grant, Kennelly, & Ward,
2000), and as such demands undivided loyalty and total commitment from participants and the
relinquishing of competing commitments (Grant et al., 2000, p. 63). These women described an
unwillingness to devote themselves to mathematics 110 percent, and ambivalence about
whether or not they wanted to belong in mathematics, which represents an intrinsic obstacle to
belonging in mathematics.
At least two of the women were considering having children soon, and understood how
difficult it might be to balance the demands of a family and school. They each had seen other
students who were parents, and they observed the challenges involved in parenting while in
graduate school, including the financial pressures of having a child on the limited income of a
graduate student. One fourth-year student, who was beginning to work on her dissertation, said:

We plan to have children soon, and how are we going to save money and buy all the
things a baby needs? . . . I couldnt imagine doing this with kids. . . . I couldnt imagine
doing it with a family, I think it would be so difficult.

One of the graduate students who was a mother repeated the advice that she had once heard:

Choose the right advisor. If your advisor accepts that your kid is your first priority and
 Herzig

your degree is your second priority, youre going to have a much easier life than if your
advisor doesnt acknowledge the existence of your family.

Her advisor fully accepted her obligations as a parent, inviting her to bring her child along to
meetings or re-scheduling an exam when she could not find childcare. At the same time, the
department insisted that she be enrolled in a full-time load of 9 credits in order to receive
financial support. Several mothers described how this course load, coupled with teaching
responsibilities, posed a significant challenge to them as parents.
Parenthood is another greedy institution, particularly for women (Coser, 1974; cited in
Grant et al., 2000). The conflict between the two greedy institutions of motherhood and graduate
school can be substantial. Of course, while some fathers are involved in child care and male
students may also experience conflicts between school and parenting, women experience the
additional pressure about the concurrent timing of graduate school and their childbearing years.
Graduate school is not structured to accommodate childbearing and childrearing demands, and
family responsibilities affect women graduate students more strongly than men (Lovitts, 2001;
Nerad & Cerny, 1993; Sonnert & Holton, 1995). Women graduate students in science who
marry or have children have been viewed as not serious about their studies, or as unreliable and
not worth the investment; men who marry or have families do not face the same biases
(Etzkowitz et al., 2000). In this sense, women who are both mothers and graduate students are
assumed to have conflicting loyalties, and are marked as not serious students. In mathematics in
particular, some women have reported having left graduate mathematics altogether due to the
perceived incompatibility of the life of a doctoral student in mathematics and a personal life
outside of mathematics (Stage & Maple, 1996). The women interviewed in the present study
describe the high costs of considering parenting for those women who chose to remain, and the
high cost of graduate study for those who are parents.
Students are members of a range of communities of practice, including school, family,
and other communities. For graduate students who are also parents, or who have other
commitments or interests outside of school, the conflicting demands of time, energy, and
attention can serve to make it more difficult for them to become integrated in the mathematical
communities of graduate school. Of course, many of these obstacles may affect both women and
men; what is noteworthy about these womens experienceseven if not unique to themare the
intentional choices they described to distance themselves from mathematics, despite their passion
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .199

and dedication to their studies.

4. Conclusion
The need to belong is perhaps among the most fundamental human needs (Flinders,
2002). Carol Lee Flinders (2002) searched extensive anthropological and archeological records,
and provided an historical analysis to argue that prior to humankinds mastery of agriculture ten
thousand years ago, what she calls the values of belongingsuch values as cooperation,
intuition, balance, deliberateness, mutuality, affinity for alternative ways of knowing, and
inclusivenesswere fundamental to the organization of many cultures around the globe. For
foraging peoples, there was no motivation to compete, to exclude, or to acquire; instead, the
values of belonging were the foundation of social organization. But, with the advent of
agriculture, a new culture of acquisition and competition began to develop, and social divisions
based on status and domination evolved. Cooperation and belonging became a lower-order
priority, as the notion of privilege itself became privileged;
As I argued earlier, success in graduate school necessitates learning mathematical
content, participating in mathematical practices, and coming to belong in mathematics (Boaler,
2000; Herzig, 2004a). It has been argued that students integration into the academic and social
communities of their departments and programs is critical for their persistence in graduate study;
further supporting the importance of developing a sense of belonging in graduate mathematics.
While graduate mathematical education has long emphasized the teaching of mathematical
knowledge, and increased calls have recently been made to train graduate students in a range of
mathematical practices (Bass, 2003), students coming to feel that they belong in mathematics
has been largely unexamined.
I documented some obstacles to belonging faced by female graduate students in
particular. Many of these obstacles are not surprising: difficulty in identifying role models; the
burden of having to prove their worth and the worth of all women in mathematics; conflicting
demands of family and school obligations, particularly the demands of childbearing and
childrearing; and the isolation of life in a (mostly White) male-dominated discipline. These
obstacles may help explain, at least in part, the small numbers of women entering graduate
school and completing the PhD in mathematics.
Damarin (2000) argues that membership in the deviant category provides the deviant
with a community with which to affiliate; being identified and marked as mathematically able
 Herzig

allows the mathematics graduate students to form a community among themselves.

Unfortunately, women are members of (at least) two marked categories, and the double marking
is not simply additive; that is, it is not the case that they simply belong to a separate marked
category of mathematically able women. Instead, they are constructed as deviant separately
within each marked category. First, they are marked as women, but among women, their
mathematical ability defines them as deviant. Second, given common stereotypes of
mathematics as a male domain, mathematical women are marked among mathematicians as not
really one of them. For women of color, the marking is three-fold and even more complex,
leading them to be distanced from each of those communities to which they might otherwise
belong. Women graduate students who are parents also suffer the multiple markings of being
mathematically talented, being women, and being parents, and need to develop strategies to cope
with these conflicting labels and their demands. Consequently, mathematical women do not
have access to the mainstream community of the mathematically able, as their multiple markings
marginalize them from this community.
Instead, women who elect to pursue mathematics are sometimes members of smaller
communities which respect and reward mathematical abilities, partly countering the discourses
that label their mathematical abilities as deviant (Damarin, 2000). Students in several doctoral
programs have reported the importance of having a critical mass of women or students of color
(Cooper, 2000; Manzo, 1994). The importance of role models and the presence of other women
students to the women I interviewed may represent their attempts to build communities that
affirm them as women and as mathematics students, since they do not have access to other
mathematical communities that might serve this purpose. Without these smaller communities,
women are left without a sense that they belong somewhere, anywhere within the world of
mathematics.
Graduate mathematics educators need to question whether it is necessary to give oneself
over to mathematics entirely, or if it is possible to do quality work in mathematics without this
total devotion. In the famous remarks made by former Harvard President Lawrence Summers,
he claimed that

the most prestigious activities in our society expect of people who are going to rise to
leadership positions near total commitments to their work. They expect a large number of
hours in the office, they expect a flexibility of schedules to respond to contingency, they
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .201

expect a continuity of effort through the life cycle, and they expect-and this is harder to
measure-but they expect that the mind is always working on the problems that are in the
job, even when the job is not taking place (Summers, 2006).

Despite these expectations, it may not actually be the case that this near total commitment to
their work is necessary to enable productive contributions to scholarship. As these women
described, when they are recognized and respected as complete human beings with interests and
commitments outside of school, their opportunities to pursue mathematics are enhanced. At least
some of these women might make valuable contributions to mathematics, and might be
mathematically successful in other ways, even without devoting themselves to mathematics 110
percent. At American University, where women of color were particularly successful, a
commitment was made to accommodating the busy professional and personal lives of the
women, many of whom are working mothers (Manzo, 1994, p. 40); students and graduates of
that program reported that such flexibility was a critical factor in their persistence. Leaders in
graduate mathematics education need to consider whether graduate programs might be re-
conceived to accommodate the full and busy lives of students with a more diverse set of
commitments and identities.
The institutional ethnographic approach used in this study used the reported experiences
of 12 women to illuminate aspects of the institutional and social relations of graduate
mathematics that present the women with an important and difficult tension. On the one hand,
they described the myriad ways that they were socially isolated from other students around them
and consequently had to struggle to find ways in which they could belong in mathematics. On
the other hand, they described ways in which stereotypes of mathematics students and the
multiple constructions of themselves as deviant as women, as mathematicians, and for some, as
parents or people of color, led them to choose not to identify with mathematics.
Enhancing the diversity of mathematics graduate students requires a focused effort to
build avenues for women and people of color to connect with the communities within their
programs and departments, to develop communities, and to develop a sense that their
mathematical abilities, their gender, and other aspects of who they are, are not deviant. This
requires more than just bringing women and people of color into existing mathematics
communities, but also requires a re-consideration of prevailing stereotypes and conventions
among those involved in mathematics. As Noddings (1996) argued, mathematics educators need
 Herzig

to find ways to make the social world of mathematics more accessible to a broader range of
people. Only then can women and some other groups of students come to feel that they truly
belong in some part of the mathematical world.

Notes

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the 12 women whose stories are reflected here, for
their generosity in welcoming me into their mathematical worlds and taking the time to discuss
their stories with me. I would also like to thank Diane Gusa for her careful and thoughtful
assistance in the data analysis.

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (United
States) under Grant No. 0346556. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

1. These three women were the first African American women to earn the PhD in Mathematics
from the University of Maryland, and were half of the only six African American women who
earned PhDs in the mathematical sciences nationally in that year. Their ground-breaking
accomplishments were covered in the national media (e.g. Artsinger, 2000).
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .203

References
Allexsaht-Snider, Martha & Hart, Laurie E. (2001). "Mathematics for All": How do we get
there? Theory into Practice, 40(2), 93-101.
Anderson, Kathryn., & Jack, Dana C. (1991). Learning to listen: Interview techniques and
analyses. In Sherna Berger Gluck & Daphne Patai (Eds.), Women's Words: The Feminist
Practice of Oral History. New York: Routledge.
Argetsinger, Amy. (December 22, 2000). Black Women beginning to count in mathematics. The
Washington Post, p. B01.
Bair, Carolyn Richert & Haworth, Jennifer Grant (1999, November 20, 1999). Doctoral Student
Attrition and Persistence: A Meta-Synthesis of Research. Paper presented at the The
Annual Meeting of the Asssociation for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE), San
Antonio, TX.
Bass, Hyman (2003). The Carnegie Initiative on the Doctorate: The case of mathematics. Notices
of the American Mathematical Society, 50(7), 767-776.
Becker, Joanne Rossi (1990). Graduate education in the mathematical sciences: Factors
influencing women and men. In Leone Burton (Ed.), Gender and Mathematics: An
International Perspective (pp. 119-130). London: Cassell Educational Limited.
Boaler, Jo (2000). Introduction: Intricacies of knowledge, practice, and theory. In Jo Boaler
(Ed.), Multiple Perspectives on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp. 1-17).
Westport, CT: Ablex.
Boaler, Jo (2002). The development of disciplinary relationships: Knowledge, practice, and
identity in mathematics classrooms. For the Learning of Mathematics, 22(1), 42-47.
Boaler, Jo, Wiliam, Dylan & Zevenbergen, Robin (2000). The construction of identity in
secondary mathematics education. In J.F. Matos & M. Santos (Eds.), Proceedings of the
Mathematics and Society Conference, Montechoro, Portugal: Investigao em Educao
da Faculdade de Cincias Universidade de Lisboa. pp. 192-202.
Burton, Leone (1999). The practices of mathematicians: What do they tell us about coming to
know mathematics? Educational Studies in Mathematics, 37, 121-143.
Campbell, Marie & Gregor, Frances (2004). Mapping Social Relations: A Primer in Doing
Institutional Ethnography. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
Campbell, Patricia B. (1995). Redefining the girl problem in mathematics. In Walter G.
 Herzig

Secada, Elizabeth Fennema & Lisa Bird Adajian (Eds.), New directions for equity in
mathematics education (pp. 225-241). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Committee on the Participation of Women (2003, January). Improving the Persistence of Women
in Graduate Mathematics, Symposium presented at the Annual Joint Meeting of the
American Mathematical Society and the Mathematical Association of America.
Baltimore, MD.
Cooper, Duane A. (2000). Changing the faces of mathematics PhDs: What we are learning at the
University of Maryland. In Marilyn E. Strutchens, Martin L. Johnson & William F. Tate
(Eds.), Changing the Faces of Mathematics: Perspectives on African Americans (pp. 179-
192). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Damarin, Suzanne K. (2000). The mathematically able as a marked category. Gender and
Education, 12(1), 69-85.
Etzkowitz, Henry, Kemelgor, Carol, Neuschatz, Michael, & Uzzi, Brian (1992). Athena
unbound: Barriers to women in academic science and engineering. Science and Public
Policy, 19(3), 157-179.
Etzkowitz, Henry, Kemelgor, Carol, & Uzzi, Brian (2000). Athena unbound: The advancement
of women in science and technology (Vol. 19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fennema, Elizabeth & Peterson, Penelope (1985). Autonomous learning behavior: A possible
explanation of gender-related differences in mathematics. In Louise C. Wilkinson & Cora
B. Marrett (Eds.), Gender Influences in Classroom Interaction (pp. 17-35). Madison:
University of Wisconsin.
Flinders, Carol Lee (2002). The Values of Belonging: Rediscovering Balance, Mutuality,
Intuition, and Wholeness in a Competitive World. San Francisco: HarperCollins.
Gerholm, Tomas (1990). On tacit knowledge in academia. European Journal of Education,
25(3), 263-271.
Girves, Jean E. & Wemmerus, Virginia (1988). Developing models of graduate student degree
progress. Journal of Higher Education, 59(2), 163-189.
Golde, Christine M. (1996). How Departmental Contextual Factors Shape Doctoral Student
Attrition. Unpublished Dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford.
Grant, Linda, Kennelly, Ivy, & Ward, Kathryn B. (2000). Revisiting the gender, marriage, and
parenthood puzzle in scientific careers. Women's Studies Quarterly, 28(1 & 2), 62-85.
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .205

Herzig, Abbe H. (2002). Where have all the students gone? Participation of doctoral students in
authentic mathematical activity as a necessary condition for persistence toward the Ph.D.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 50(2), 177-212.
Herzig, Abbe H. (2004a). Becoming mathematicians: Women and students of color choosing
and leaving doctoral mathematics. Review of Educational Research, 74(2), 171-214.
Herzig, Abbe H. (2004b). Slaughtering this beautiful math: Graduate women choosing and
leaving mathematics. Gender and Education, 16(3), 379-395.
Herzig, Abbe H. (2006). I just didnt see that I had a place in the old white guys club: How
can women and students of color come to belong in graduate mathematics? In Jill M.
Byzinstinsky & Sharon R. Bird (Eds.). Removing Barriers: Women in Academic
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press. pp. 254-270.
Hollenshead, Carol, Younce, Patricia Soellner, & Wenzel, Stacy A. (1994). Women graduate
students in mathematics and physics: Reflections on success. Journal of Women and
Minorities in Science and Engineering, 1, 63-88.
Jackson, Allyn (2004). Has the women-in-mathematics problem been solved? Notices of the
American Mathematical Society, 51(7), 776-783.
Ladson-Billings, Gloria (1997). It doesn't add up: African American students mathematics
achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28(6), 697-708.
Lave, Jean & Wenger, Etienne (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lovitts, Barbara E. (2001). Leaving the Ivory Tower: The Causes and Consequences of
Departure from Doctoral Study. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Manzo, Kathleen Kennedy (1994). American University: Success is in the numbers, African
American women excel in math Ph.D. program. Black Issues in Higher Education, 11,
40-43.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
National Research Council. (1992). Educating Mathematical Scientists: Doctoral Study and the
Postdoctoral experience in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Science Foundation. (1998). Summary of Workshop on Graduate Student Attrition (No.
 Herzig

NSF 99-314). Arlington VA: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource
Studies.
National Science Foundation. (2008). Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, Volume 2 (NSB-
08-01A). Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.
Nerad, Maresi & Cerny, Joseph (1993). From facts to action: Expanding the graduate division's
educational role. New Directions for Institutional Research(80), 27-39.
Noddings, Nel (1996). Equity and mathematics: Not a simple issue. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education, 27(5), 609-615.
Patton, Michael Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods (2nd ed). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Phillps, Polly, Maxwell, James W. and Rose, Colleen A. (2007). 2006 Annual Survey of the
mathematical sciences in the United States (Third report). Notices of the American
Mathematical Society, 54(10), 1333-1344.
Rogoff, Barbara (1994). Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners. Mind,
Culture, and Activity, 1(4), 209-229.
Smith, Dorothy (2005). Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People. Lanham, MD:
AltaMira Press.
Sonnert, Gerhard & Holton, Gerhard (1995). Who Succeeds in Science? The Gender Dimension.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Stage, Francis K. & Maple, Sue A. (1996). Incompatible goals: Narratives of graduate women in
the mathematics pipeline. American Educational Research Journal, 33(1), 23-51.
Summers, Lawrence (2005). http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html.
Tate, William F. (1995). Returning to the root: A culturally relevant approach to mathematics
pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 166-173.
Tinto, Vincent (1993). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition
(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wenger, Etienne (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
 TMME, vol7, nos.2&3, p .207

Appendix I
Graduate Student Interview Outline

The questions below are intended to give a direction to our discussion, but are not requirements
for how it will develop. Feel free to delete anything from the list that you do not wish to discuss,
and to add anything else that you feel might be relevant.

About your interests in mathematics:

When did you first become interested in math? How did that interest develop?
Have there been any people who have been influential to you in mathematics?
What experiences have you had with mathematics, either in or out of school? How did those
experiences affect you?
Do you feel successful in mathematics?
Why did you decide to come to graduate school? Why at [name of university]?
What did you initially hope to do with the degree?

About your experiences in graduate school:

Which aspects of graduate school met your expectations? Which didn't? Why?
What have you enjoyed most about your experience here? What have you enjoyed least?
What are the most important things you have learned? How did you learn those things?
What relationships do you have with other students? With faculty?
How have you learned (or are you learning) to do mathematical research, and to work as a
mathematician?
Are you involved in the department or the broader mathematical community outside of class?
What does it take to succeed in graduate school?

About your current goals in mathematics:

What are your current goals in mathematics?
Did you ever have doubts about continuing? When did you first start having doubts? Why?
Which factors have been the most helpful in helping you to stay in the program, and to
succeed to this point?
 Herzig

If you left the program, plan to leave, or are thinking of leaving without finishing:
At what point in your program were you when left or will you be when you leave?
If you could change anything about the math department or program here to make it a better
experience for you, what would you change? Are there things the faculty could have
done to have made you more likely to stay?
Do you have any second thoughts?
What will you do/are you doing after graduate school?