Matter and the changes that it can undergo is one of the fundamental focuses of

chemistry.

The common definition of matter is anything that has both mass and occupied space.
Matter is therefore used loosely as a general term for the substance or substance mix
that makes up all observable physical objects.

Matter can be described with chemical composition and physical states (i.e. solid,
liquid, gas).
Chemical reactions convert intramolecular bond arrangement of matter.
With changes in temperature or pressure matter may also change between
physical states.

In chemistry, a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical

composition and characteristic properties.
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of
atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its
nucleus. Elements are divided into metals, metalloids, and non-metals.
When two or more distinct elements are chemically combined, with the atoms
held together by chemical bonds, the result is termed a chemical compound.
When two or more substances are mixed together, the result is called a mixture.
Mixtures are the most common form of matter.

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 The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded
by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide
with no neutron).

The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force.

An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral,

otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an ion.

Electrons are arranged in different shells around the nucleus.

The innermost shell is filled first.
Each succeeding shell can only hold a certain number of electrons: the
innermost shell can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second shell a
maximum of eight, and so on.

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 The atom is the smallest particle with all the chemical properties of an element.

It is the number of protons, and the resulting electron configuration, that determines
the chemical nature of an element.

Each element in its free, uncombined state has a unique number of electrons.

Chemistry is controlled by the interactions of electrons from various atoms.

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 Carbon-12 is an isotope of carbon whose symbol is 126 , or 12C.

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 The Periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organised on
the basis of their atomic numbers and recurring chemical properties.

The rows of the tables are called periods, and the columns are called groups.

The elements highlighted on the table will be discussed in this course, from a range of
angles.

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 The octet rule states that atoms are most stable when they have a full shell of
electrons in the outermost electron shell.

Please note, the first shell can only hold two electrons.

All atoms need to achieve 8 electrons in the outer shell, except the noble gases group
(Group 0).

In order to do these, atoms have two choices: i.e. to lose/gain electrons or to share
electrons

Chemical reactions take place because atoms need to achieve a more stable
electronic configuration. Chemical reactions therefore involve the re-distribution of
the electrons in the outer shell

Caution: there are many exceptions to the octet rule, but we will not delve deeper
into this topic.

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 An intramolecular force is an electrostatic force of attraction between two atoms or
ions.

In intramolecular forces, atoms can either transfer or share their valence electrons.

Some online resources on this topic are on Blackboard > CENV1025 > Chemistry >
Resources > intermolecular bonding and intramolecular force

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 Metallic bonding: the bonds between metal atoms are very different from other
forms of bonding each metal atom contributes its outer electrons to a common
pool. This sea of electrons explains a key property of metals their ability to conduct
electricity.

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 Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons and become charged.
Atoms in groups IA and IIA will lose (e.g. donate their electrons)
Atoms in groups VIA and VIIA will gain (e.g. accept electrons)

Ionic bonding
One atom lose electron(s) to become cation
The other atom gain electron(s) to become anion
Ions are attracted by their opposing charges
Electrical neutrality maintained
Most important bonding in rocks and minerals

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 A pair of dipoles is a separation of positive and negative charges equal magnitude
but opposite sign, separated by small distance.

Permanent dipoles occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different
electronegativity.

In this case one atom attracts electrons more than the other, becoming more
negative, while the other atom becomes more positive.

A molecule with permanent dipoles is called a polar molecule.

The intermolecular force between polar molecules is called permanent dipole-

permanent dipole interaction.

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 The physical properties of metals and ionic substances are dependent only on strong
intramolecular forces (metallic bonding and ionic bonding).

The physical properties of molecular covalent substances are determined by weaker

intermolecular forces.

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by

intramolecular chemical bonds. (Please note, noble gas atoms are often considered as
molecules despite being composed of a single non-bonded atom).
A molecule may be homo-nuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of a single chemical
element, such as O2
It may also be a chemical compound composed of more than one element, such as
H2O
No typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals and metallic lattices.

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion which act between
neighboring molecules.
They are weak compared to the intramolecular bonds, the forces which keep a
molecule together.
Intermolecular forces to a great extent govern the physical properties of the matter
interested, e.g. boiling point, melting point, viscosity.

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 Intermolecular forces include Van der Waals forces, permanent dipole-permanent
dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding. For this course, only hydrogen bonding is
required to understand.

Hydrogen bonding, a special intermolecular force

It is very strong compared to other intermolecular forces, which lead to the
relatively high boiling point of water.
In water, the hydrogen-oxygen covalent bond is very polar. Hydrogen has only
one electron, so when the oxygen atom in water pulls the bonded pair of
electrons towards itself, it leaves the hydrogen atoms nucleus of a single
proton more exposed.
The resulting + on the hydrogen atom is attracted to the - of the oxygen
atom to form a very strong intermolecular attraction.

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 Solutions are formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent e.g. when salt dissolves in
water.

There are attractive forces between the particles of solvent and solute.

The particles of the solute become surrounded by particles of solvent and break away
from the other particles in the solid.

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 The mole is a way of counting elementary particles and is similar to other multiple
counting units.

Everyone knows what a dozen of eggs means. The only real different between a
dozen and a mole is the incredibly large size of the number of particles in a mole.

The Avogadro constant so large that even all the sand grains around the whole
coastline of the British Isles do not make a mole.

Some online resources on this topic are on Blackboard > CENV1025 > Chemistry >
Resources > Mole and mass.

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