TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Smoking Cessation......................................................................................................................................................29
Monitoring for Microvascular Complications ................................................................................................................30
Summary of Ongoing Monitoring .................................................................................................................................30
Summary .........................................................................................................................................................................31
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS.....................................................................................................................................33
Self-Assessment QuestionsAnswers ...........................................................................................................................34
MODULE SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................................35
GLOSSARY..........................................................................................................................................................................39
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................................................................41
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes is a chronic illness that requires continual medical care and educated patient
participation and support to prevent acute complications and to reduce the risk of long-
term complications. Diabetes care is complex and requires that many issues, beyond
glycemic control, be addressed. Achieving and maintaining recommended blood glucose,
blood pressure, and cholesterol levels has been shown to reduce the complications
associated with diabetes. These three treatment areas are collectively referred to as the
ABCs of diabetes (A = A1C; B = blood pressure; C = cholesterol).
Module 2: The Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes provides you with a background on how
type 2 diabetes is diagnosed and introduces the healthcare professionals who work with
the patient to treat the disease. Throughout the module, case studies are used to describe
the perspectives of healthcare professionals and patients, and the challenges they face.
The initial event leading to the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes varies from patient to patient.
Some patients visit their physicians because they have symptoms. Others who are
asymptomatic may be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes when they visit their physicians for
other reasons, such as routine checkups or incidental illness While the presence of
certain symptoms may cause a physician to suspect a patient has diabetes, diagnostic
tests are required to confirm the diagnosis in all patients.
Type 2 diabetes is a serious and potentially devastating disease; care of the patient with
type 2 diabetes involves many clinical issues and often many comorbidities. Guidelines
have been developed by a number of organizations, including the following, based on
expert consensus and clinical practice to assist healthcare professionals and standardize
the care delivered:
This module discusses the diagnosis and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Specific topics
in this module include the following:
Chapter 1 describes how type 2 diabetes is diagnosed, using 2 patient case studies
Chapter 2 discusses who treats diabetes and how healthcare professionals work
with patients to manage type 2 diabetes to meet treatment goals
Throughout the text, medical terms are defined in the margin. The module concludes
with a summary, a glossary, and a bibliography.
approach for type 2 diabetes. Throughout this chapter, case studies are used to highlight mortality (mawr-TAL-i-tee):
how you may encounter this information as you meet with healthcare professionals. The death rate
basis for our discussion is the guidelines published by the ADA and AACE. However,
keep in mind that guidelines are developed to assist physicians, not to dictate all decision
making, and that physicians rely on their experience and clinical judgment in the
evaluation of a patient.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define the tests used to diagnose diabetes: A1C, fasting plasma glucose test,
oral glucose tolerance test, and casual plasma glucose test.
2. List the recommendations for screening in asymptomatic patients.
3. List the criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes.
4. Discuss risk factors for development of diabetes.
hyperglycemia
When symptomatic patients like Edward enter a physicians office, the physician will (hahy-per-glahy-SEE-mee-uh):
perform a complete medical examination, including a medical history and physical abnormally high blood glucose levels
examination. The patient will also undergo laboratory tests that can diagnose diabetes.
A1C: provides an estimate of the blood glucose levels over the previous 2 to 3 months;
A1C has become the standard test for the diagnosis of diabetes
fasting plasma glucose (FPG): Fasting plasma glucose (FPG): measured when the patient has not eaten for at least
test of blood glucose levels; 8 hours
measured when the patient has
not eaten for at least 8 hours
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): measures the patients glucose level 2 hours
oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT):
measures the 2-hour postload
after the patient drinks a solution that contains a high glucose concentration
glucose (PG) value; patient is
tested 2 hours after ingesting 75 g
of glucose
Measurement of A1C
A1C has been used for many years for monitoring blood glucose control in patients with
diabetes. Because the A1C test has several advantages over tests used to diagnose
diabetes, including convenience and worldwide standardization, it is now the preferred
test for diagnosis of diabetes. Data have shown that glycemic threshold levels (the values
at which diabetes is diagnosed) correlate well between the A1C, FPG, and 2-hour OGTT.
Hemoglobin (hemo = blood, globin = protein) is a protein found within red blood cells that
carries oxygen from the lungs to all body cells. The major type of hemoglobin is called
hemoglobin A, and some molecules of hemoglobin A can link with sugars, including
glycosylation glucose. This linking is called glycosylation (glyco = glucose, sylation = linking), and the
(glayh-KOS-uhl-ay-shun):
the chemical linkage of sugar combination of hemoglobin A and glucose produces glycosylated hemoglobin A, termed
molecules to proteins A1C. While all red blood cells contain some glucose, patients with diabetes have too
much glucose in their blood. This extra glucose attaches (glycosylates) to molecules of
hemoglobin. Figure 1 illustrates how A1C is formed.
The more glucose in a patients blood, the more glycosylated hemoglobin, or A1C, is
created in the red blood cells over the life span of the cells (approximately 120 days)
(see Figure 2). Since the reaction that causes the formation of A1C is irreversible, a single
A1C measurement provides an average of A1C content in red blood cells of all ages in a
given individual and can be used as a surrogate marker of the average blood glucose
levels over the previous 8 to12 weeks.
While A1C values are reported as the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated, daily
monitoring of blood glucose is reported as either mg/dL or mmol/L. A1C values can be
correlated to glucose values (estimated average glucose), as shown in the following table.
A1C testing has several advantages over FPG and OGTT testing, including that A1C:
Is more convenient, since neither fasting nor the requirements of an OGTT are
necessary
Data show good correlation between A1C, FPG, and 2-hour OGTT
Disadvantages to the use of A1C include that it is more costly than an FPG and it may
not be widely available in some regions of the world. Additionally, the A1C assay is less
sensitive for the diagnosis of diabetes compared with FPG. Assuming universal screening
of individuals who have not been diagnosed with diabetes, A1C would identify one-third
fewer individuals with diabetes compared with FPG. However, because A1C is more
convenient and practical to use, the loss in sensitivity may be offset by more widespread
screening, potentially leading to an increase in diagnoses. Some of the advantages to the
use of A1C to diagnose diabetes are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Selected Advantages to the Use of A1C for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
Lets take a closer look at the other tests that can be used to diagnose diabetes.
These tests provide direct measurements of the glucose in the blood.
impaired fasting glucose (IFG): Impaired fasting glucose (IFG): blood glucose levels that are higher than normal
fasting glucose levels higher than but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes; patients with impaired fasting glucose
normal but not high enough for a
diagnosis of diabetes; defined as are sometimes referred to as having prediabetes because they have a high risk of
glucose 100 mg/dL to 125 mg/dL developing type 2 diabetes in the future. Prediabetes is considered to be a risk factor
(5.6 mmol/L to 6.9 mmol/L)
for diabetes (and cardiovascular disease) and should not be considered a diagnosis
in its own right.
Diagnostic of diabetes
Measurement of OGTT
An OGTT measures the patients glucose level after he/she has fasted for at least 8 hours
and 2 hours after the patient drinks a solution that contains a high glucose concentration.
An OGTT is commonly used to screen for gestational diabetes mellitus in pregnant
women. Similar to the FPG, the results of the OGTT tests can be classified as:
impaired glucose tolerance (IGT): Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT): blood glucose levels that are higher than normal
glucose levels measured during an
oral glucose tolerance test that are
but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes; patients with impaired glucose
higher than normal but not high tolerance are sometimes referred to as having prediabetes because they have a high
enough for a diagnosis of diabetes; risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future. is considered to be a risk factor for
defined as glucose 140 mg/dL to
199 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L to 11 mmol/L)
diabetes (and cardiovascular disease) and should not be considered a diagnosis in
its own right.
Diagnostic of diabetes
Because Edwards initial A1C was above normal, she repeated the test at his
second visit. When the result of the second test was 7.4%, she diagnosed Edward
with type 2 diabetes.
Both the AACE and the ADA guidelines recommend screening for diabetes in certain
high-risk adult patient populations (see Table 3 for the ADA guidelines). The ADA also
recommends screening for type 2 diabetes in asymptomatic children aged 10 or older who
are overweight and have 2 additional risk factors. Additional risk factors for children
insulin (IN-suh-lin): hormone include: family history of diabetes, race/ethnicity, signs of insulin resistance or presence
secreted by the beta-cells of the
pancreas that is the key regulator of
of a condition associated with insulin resistance, and maternal history of diabetes or
the metabolism of glucose and gestational diabetes during the childs gestation.
processes necessary for metabolism
of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins;
opposes the action of glucagon
Other clinical conditions associated with insulin resistance (e.g., severe triglycerides
obesity, acanthosis nigricans) (trahy-GLIS-uh-rahydz):
lipid molecules containing 3 fatty
History of cardiovascular disease (CVD) acids bound to glycerol; the
primary fat in the diet and the primary
In the absence of the above criteria, testing for diabetes should begin at age molecule used for fuel storage
45 years
polycystic ovary syndrome
If results are normal, testing should be repeated at least at 3-year intervals, (POL-ee-sis-tik): a health problem
with consideration of more-frequent testing depending on initial results that can affect a womans menstrual
cycle, fertility, hormones, insulin
(e.g., those with prediabetes should be tested yearly) and risk status production, heart, blood vessels, and
appearance; may be characterized
* At-risk BMI may be lower in some ethnic groups. by high levels of male hormones
(androgens), abnormal menstrual
cycle, and small cysts in ovaries
The following table lists glucose test values that are consistent with a diagnosis
of diabetes.
a diagnosis of diabetes.
SUMMARY
The following table summarizes the information presented in this chapter on the diagnosis of diabetes.
Diagnosis of Diabetes
Diagnosis in Symptomatic Patients
Some patients with diabetes are diagnosed by their physicians only after they develop symptoms of the disease
(e.g., polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia)
At diagnosis, patients with diabetes may already be experiencing some of the long-term complications of diabetes
long-term complications of diabetes include macrovascular disease (e.g., coronary artery disease) and
microvascular disease (e.g., retinopathy)
When symptomatic patients enter a physicians office, the physician will perform a complete medical examination,
including a medical history and physical examination; the patient will also undergo laboratory tests that can
diagnose diabetes
Diagnostic Tests for Diabetes
Laboratory tests are required to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes. Tests that are used to confirm the diagnosis
of diabetes include:
A1C: measured regardless of fasting status
; provides an estimate of the patients glucose levels over the preceding 2 to 3 months
Casual plasma glucose: glucose is measured regardless of whether the patient has eaten or is fasting
Fasting plasma glucose: glucose is measured when the patient has not eaten for at last 8 hours
OGGT: glucose is measured in a patient who has fasted for at least 8 hours and 2 hours after the patient
drinks a solution containing a high glucose concentration
Unless the patient has clear symptoms (e.g., hyperglycemic crisis) a second laboratory test should be conducted
to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes
Screening in Asymptomatic Adults
Some patients may be diagnosed when they are asymptomatic (e.g., during screening of a high-risk patient, or
incidentally when the patient visits the doctor for treatment of another ailment)
The ADA recommends screening for diabetes in certain high-risk populations, including individuals who are
overweight and have one or more additional risk factors. Additional risks factors include: lead a sedentary lifestyle;
have a family history of diabetes; individuals of certain race/ethnicity; individuals with hypertension, dyslipidemia,
prediabetes (i.e., A1C between 5.7% and 6.4%, IGT, or IFG on previous testing), PCOS with BMI 30 mg/kg2, or
another condition associated with insulin resistance; and women who have a history of gestational diabetes or have
delivered a baby weighing >9 lb
(cont.)
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
There may be more than one correct answer to each question.
_____ A. polyphagia.
_____ B. polymeria.
_____ C. polyuria.
_____ D. polydipsia.
2. A(n) _____________ test is taken without regard to the timing and content of the last meal.
4. When evaluating an FPG test, the range consistent with impaired fasting glucose is:
______________________________________________________________________________________________
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONSANSWERS
1. A, C, D
2. C
4. B
5. 6.5%
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the components of a comprehensive diabetes examination.
2. List the healthcare professionals involved in the care of patients with type 2 diabetes
and describe their roles.
3. Summarize the ABCs of diabetes.
4. State the normal ranges and goals for patients with type 2 diabetes for A1C, blood
pressure, and lipids.
5. Define self-monitored blood glucose.
6. State key results from studies that emphasize the importance of glucose, blood
pressure, and lipid control.
7. Describe research that supports additional treatment considerations regarding
early diagnosis of diabetes and treatment of nephropathy.
HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS
Both the ADA and AACE recommend that patients receive medical treatment from
a coordinated, multidisciplinary medical team. The following case study illustrates this
team of healthcare professionals. In some cases, primary care physicians, such as
general practitioners (GPs), family practitioners (FPs), and internists, provide the bulk of
routine care for patients with diabetes, including performing eye exams and foot exams.
The following table describes some of the primary care healthcare professionals who may
care for patients with diabetes.
ONGOING EVALUATION
After patients like Edward and Maria are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, a lifetime of
monitoring and managing health issues begins. Type 2 diabetes is a chronic illness
that requires continual medical care and patient self-management to prevent acute
complications and to reduce the risk of long-term complications This includes:
Blood glucose monitoring: A1C and self-monitored blood glucose (SMBG); used to
determine the effectiveness of current therapy and to guide changes in medication,
diet, and other aspects of care
Blood pressure and cholesterol monitoring (cardiovascular disease [CVD] risk factors)
Screening for additional CVD risk factors (e.g., smoking, family history of premature
coronary disease, microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria)
A1C Testing
The standard measure used to test glucose control is the A1C test, which, as noted
previously, can provide an estimate of blood glucose control for the previous 2 to
3 months.
ADA: <7.0%. The ADA guidelines note that, for selected individual patients, providers
might reasonably suggest even lower A1C goals than the general goal of <7%, if this
hypoglycemia can be achieved without significant hypoglycemia or other adverse effects of
(hahy-poh-glahy-SEE-mee-uh):
abnormally low concentrations of
treatment. Such patients might include those with short duration of diabetes, long life
glucose in the circulating blood expectancy, and no significant cardiovascular disease. Conversely, less stringent A1C
goals (e.g., <8%) may be appropriate for patients with a history of severe
hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy, advanced microvascular or macrovascular
complications, extensive comorbid conditions, and those with long-standing diabetes in
whom the general goal is difficult to attain.
AACE: 6.5%. The AACE notes that no randomized controlled trials have established
optimum glycemic targets and while some organizations recommend target A1C
goals of <6.5%, others recommend target A1C levels of <7%. All organizations have
recognized the risks of intensive treatment to achieve target glucose levels may
outweigh the benefits of tight glucose control in some patients, including those with
a history of frequent severe hypoglycemia; those with hypoglycemia unawareness;
and those with long-standing diabetes, particularly if they have significant
comorbidities or are of advanced age.
The frequency of SMBG in patients with type 2 diabetes depends in part on whether they
are using insulin or only oral medications. In general, less frequent SMBG testing is
needed in patients with type 2 diabetes who are treated only with oral medications
because glucose levels tend to fluctuate less. Patients should talk with their healthcare
professionals to determine the frequency and timing of SMBG, since SMBG should be
based on the needs and goals of the individual patient.
Both the ADA and the AACE recommend a target blood pressure of <130/80 mm Hg. The
ADA recommends measuring blood pressure at every routine diabetes visit and notes that
based on patient characteristics and response to therapy, higher or lower systolic BP
goals may be appropriate.
The ADA also recommends that patients receive a fasting lipid profile at least annually. lipid (LIP-id): fat; found almost
exclusively in foods of animal
The following table lists the recommended lipid goals for patients with type 2 diabetes. origin and continuously synthesized
in the body
Table 8. ADA-Recommended Lipid Goals for Patients With Diabetes
Smoking Cessation
Because of the large body of evidence linking smoking to cardiovascular disease, an
additional recommendation is that all patients should be advised not to smoke. Smoking
cessation counseling and other forms of treatment should be included as a routine
component of diabetes care.
Complication Tests
Retinopathy At diagnosis and then annually:
Comprehensive eye examination
Dilated eye examination to assess retina
Nephropathy Annual measurement of:
Protein in the urine (microalbuminuria is an early
sign of kidney disease)
Potassium levels
creatinine: (kree-AT-n-in): At least annually, measure serum creatinine and
a waste product filtered from the calculate the estimated glomerular filtration rate
blood and excreted in the urine
(GFR) using either Modification in Diet of Renal
glomerular filtration rate (GFR): Disease (MDRD) or Chronic Kidney Disease
amount of fluid filtered from the
kidney per unit of time; used to
Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD EPI) equations
measure kidney function
Neuropathy Extremity (especially lower extremity) examination
Modification in Diet of Renal at least annually, including skin condition, circulation,
Disease (MDRD) equation: and nerve function (fine touch, vibration, reflexes, etc.)
estimates glomerular filtration rate
adjusted for body surface area;
variables are serum creatinine, age,
gender, and race; this equation is Summary of Ongoing Monitoring
widely used by clinical laboratories
and research studies
SUMMARY
The following table summarizes the information presented in this chapter on the management of diabetes.
Management of Diabetes
Healthcare professionals
Primary care professionals who may treat the patient with diabetes include family practitioners, general
practitioners, internists, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and diabetes nurse educators
Pharmacists are experts on the pharmacologic management of diabetes; they may provide medication
information, instruction, or health advice
Specialists who may treat patients with diabetes include endocrinologists, cardiologists, nephrologists,
optometrists/ophthalmologists, podiatrists, registered dietitians, diabetes educators/counselors, and mental
health specialists
ABCs of diabetes
The ABCs of diabetes are:
A = A1C (general treatment goal of <7%)
B = Blood pressure (general treatment goal of <130/80 mg Hg)
C = Cholesterol (general treatment goal of LDL-C<100 mg/dL)
Achieving and maintaining the recommended goals can help delay or prevent the complications associated
with diabetes.
Ongoing evaluation
A1C: High percentages of A1C in the blood indicate suboptimal glucose control in patients with diabetes
Testing a patients blood for the A1C level provides a record of blood glucose control for the previous 2 to
3 months
Recommendations for A1C goals in patients with diabetes are:
ADA: <7%. For selected individual patients, even lower A1C goals may be reasonable if this can be
achieved without significant hypoglycemia or other adverse effects of treatment; conversely, less stringent
A1C goals may be appropriate for other patients, including those with a history of severe hypoglycemia or
those in whom the general goal is difficult to attain
AACE: 6.5%. Notes that randomized controlled studies have not determined an optimum blood glucose
level, and some organizations recommend A1C levels <6.5% while others, such as the ADA, recommend
levels <7%
Self-monitored blood glucose (SMBG): Patients test a drop of blood in a glucose meter that provides an
automated glucose level reading; SMBG provides real-time feedback to patients regarding glucose levels
(cont.)
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
There may be more than one correct answer to each question.
1. A(n) __________ is a physician specializing in diseases such as diabetes and thyroid disease.
_____ A. nephrologist
_____ B. podiatrist
_____ C. endocrinologist
_____ D. ophthalmologist
_____ A. The AACE notes that no randomized controlled trials have established optimum A1C targets.
_____ B. The ADA recommends a target A1C for patients with diabetes of 5% to 6%.
_____ C. The ADA acknowledges that the A1C target may vary for individual patients.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONSANSWERS
1. C
2. C
3. A, D
4. A, C
MODULE SUMMARY
1) Some patients who are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes initially present to their
physicians because they have symptoms. Symptoms that can lead a physician
to suspect diabetes include:
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Polyphagia
Unexplained weight loss
Unless a patient has clear symptoms, a second diagnostic test should be taken
to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes.
Some patients with diabetes remain asymptomatic for many years. For this reason,
in many patients, their diabetes is detected when they visit their physicians for other
reasons. Therefore, some organizations recommend routine diabetes screening,
especially in patients identified as high-risk based on:
Age
Race
Family history of diabetes
Overweight or obese
Sedentary lifestyle
History of cardiovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, or hypertension
A1C between 5.7% and 6.4% on previous testing
Previously identified IGT, IFG, metabolic syndrome, or other clinical conditions
associated with insulin resistance
Any of the 4 blood glucose tests may provide a diagnosis of diabetes. The levels
that are consistent with a diagnosis of diabetes for each of these tests are:
A1C: 6.5%
Casual plasma glucose: 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)
FPG: 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L)
OGTT: 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)
Patients with type 2 diabetes require continual monitoring of A1C and blood
glucose, as well as monitoring for complications of diabetes.
Since cardiovascular disease is the major cause of death in patients with diabetes,
blood pressure should be measured at every routine diabetes visit and lipid levels
should be monitored at least annually.
Patients should be advised not to smoke, and smoking cessation counseling and
other forms of treatment should be included as a routine component of diabetes care.
GLOSSARY
body mass index (BMI): calculated value used to describe an individuals weight relative to height; calculated using
the following formula: BMI = kg/m2
Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD EPI) equation: estimates glomerular filtration rate
based on the level of serum creatinine, age, sex, and race; is as accurate as the MDRD equation in patients with
GFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and more accurate than the MDRD equation in patients with GFR >60 mL/min/1.73 m2
creatinine (kree-AT-n-in): a waste product filtered from the blood and excreted in the urine
fasting plasma glucose (FPG): test of blood glucose levels; measured when the patient has not eaten for at least 8 hours
glomerular filtration rate (GFR): amount of fluid filtered from the kidney per unit of time; used to measure kidney function
impaired fasting glucose (IFG): fasting glucose levels higher than normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of
diabetes; defined as glucose 100 mg/dL to 125 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L to 6.9 mmol/L)
impaired glucose tolerance (IGT): glucose levels measured during an oral glucose tolerance test that are higher than
normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes; defined as glucose 140 mg/dL to 199 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L to
11 mmol/L)
insulin (IN-suh-lin): hormone secreted by the beta-cells of the pancreas that is the key regulator of the metabolism of
glucose and processes necessary for metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins; opposes the action of glucagon
lipid (LIP-id): fat; found almost exclusively in foods of animal origin and continuously synthesized in the body
low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (lip-oh-PROH-teen kuh-LES-tuh-rohl): bad cholesterol; transports most
cholesterol in the blood; when present in high amounts, deposits cholesterol in the walls of arteries, forming lipid plaques
macroalbuminuria (MAK-roh-al-byoo-muh-NYOOR-ee-uh): the leakage of large amounts of albumin into the urine;
defined as >200 mcg/min
microalbuminuria (MAHY-kroh-al-byoo-muh-NYOOR-ee-uh): the leakage of a small amount of albumin into the urine,
defined as 20 mcg/min to 200 mcg/min
Modification in Diet of Renal Disease (MDRD) equation: estimates glomerular filtration rate adjusted for body
surface area; variables are serum creatinine, age, gender, and race; this equation is widely used by clinical laboratories
and research studies
nephropathy (nuh-FROP-uh-thee): kidney damage that can arise as a complication of chronic hyperglycemia
neuropathy (nyoo-ROP-uh-thee): nerve damage, primarily peripheral neuropathy (in which the peripheral nerves in the
extremities are affected); can result in loss of sensation, which may result in serious infection, gangrene, and the need for
amputation
oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): measures the 2-hour postload glucose (PG) value; patient is tested 2 hours after
ingesting 75 g of glucose
polycystic ovary syndrome (POL-ee-sis-tik): a health problem that can affect a womans menstrual cycle, fertility,
hormones, insulin production, heart, blood vessels, and appearance; may be characterized by high levels of male
hormones (androgens), abnormal menstrual cycle, and small cysts in ovaries
retinopathy (ret-n-OP-uh-thee): damage to the retina of the eye; can lead to blindness
triglyceride (trahy-GLIS-uh-rahydz): lipid molecules containing 3 fatty acids bound to glycerol; the primary fat in the diet
and the primary molecule used for fuel storage
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