Introduction

What are Good Agricultural Practices?

A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and

regulations have been developed in recent years by the food industry and
producers organizations but also governments and NGOs, aiming to codify
agricultural practices at farm level for a range of commodities. Their
purpose varies from fulfilment of trade and government regulatory
requirements (in particular with regard to food safety and quality), to
more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets. The objective of
these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:

ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain

capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain
governance

improving natural resources use, workers health and working

conditions, and/or

creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in

developing countries.

Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental,

economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in
safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products" (FAO COAG 2003
GAP paper)

These four 'pillars' of GAP (economic viability, environmental

sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality) are
included in most private and public sector standards, but the scope which
they actually cover varies widely.

The concept of Good Agricultural Practices may serve as a reference tool

for deciding, at each step in the production process, on practices and/or
outcomes that are environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable.
The implementation of GAP should therefore contribute to Sustainable
Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD)

Potential benefits and challenges related to Good

Agricultural Practices

Potential benefits of GAP

Appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAP helps improve the

safety and quality of food and other agricultural products.
It may help reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and
international regulations, standards and guidelines (in particular of
the Codex Alimentarius Commission (html), World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE) (html) and the International Plant Protection

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 Convention IPPC (html)) regarding permitted pesticides, maximum
levels of contaminants (including pesticides, veterinary drugs,
radionuclide and mycotoxins) in food and non-food agricultural
products, as well as other chemical, microbiological and physical
contamination hazards.

Adoption of GAP helps promotes sustainable agriculture and

contributes to meeting national and international environment and
social development objectives.

Challenges related to GAP

In some cases GAP implementation and especially record keeping

and certification will increase production costs. In this respect, lack
of harmonization between existing GAP-related schemes and
availability of affordable certification systems has often led to
increased confusion and certification costs for farmers and
exporters.
Standards of GAP can be used to serve competing interests of
specific stakeholders in agri-food supply chains by modifying
supplier-buyer relations.

There is a high risk that small scale farmers will not be able to seize
export market opportunities unless they are adequately informed,
technically prepared and organised to meet this new challenge with
governments and public agencies playing a facilitating role.

Compliance with GAP standards does not always foster all the
environmental and social benefits which are claimed.

Awareness raising is needed of 'win-win' practices which lead to

improvements in terms of yield and production efficiencies as well
as environment and health and safety of workers. One such
approach is Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM).

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are specific methods which, when

applied to agriculture, produce results that are in harmony with the
values of the proponents of those practices. There are numerous
competing definitions of what methods constitute "Good Agricultural
Practices".
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations GAP
The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
uses Good Agricultural Practices as a collection of principles to apply
for on-farm production and post-production processes, resulting in safe
and healthy food and non-food agricultural products, while taking into
account economical, social and environmental sustainability. GAPs may
be applied to a wide range of farming systems and at different scales.
They are applied through sustainable agricultural methods, such as

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integrated pest management, integrated fertilizer management and
conservation agriculture. They rely on four principles: Economically and
efficiently produce sufficient (food security), safe (food safety) and
nutritious food (food quality);Sustain and enhance natural resources;
Maintain viable farming enterprises and contribute to sustainable
livelihoods; Meet cultural and social demands of society.
The concept of GAPs has changed in recent years because of a rapidly
changing agriculture, globalization of world trade, food crisis (mad cow
disease), nitrate pollution of water, appearance of pesticide resistance,
soil erosion...
GAPs applications are being developed by governments, NGOs and
private sector to meet farmers and transformers needs and specific
requirements. However, many think these applications are only rarely
made in a holistic or coordinated way.
They provide the opportunity to assess and decide on which farming
practices to follow at each step in the production process. For each
agricultural production system, they aim at allowing a comprehensive
management strategy, providing for the capability for tactical
adjustments in response to changes. The implementation of such a
management strategy requires knowing, understanding, planning,
measuring, monitoring, and record-keeping at each step of the
production process. Adoption of GAPs may result in higher production,
transformation and marketing costs, hence finally higher costs for the
consumer. To minimize production costs and maintain the quality of
agri-food
GAPs require maintaining a common database on integrated production
techniques for each of the major agro-ecological area (see ecoregion),
thus to collect, analyze and disseminate information of good practices
in relevant geographical contexts.

Basics of Good Agricultural Practices

The specific GAPs steps are outlined in detail in the Good Agricultural
Practices Self Audit Workbook developed by Cornell University. GAPs
principles can be summarized as follows: clean soil, clean water, clean
hands, and clean surfaces. Examples of applicable procedures are
listed below. These principles must be applied to each phase of
production (field selection, pre-plant field preparations, production,
harvest, and post-harvest) to be effective.

Clean soil involves taking steps to reduce the possibility of

introducing microbial contaminants into the soil, particularly via
manure and other animal excrements. GAPs address the need to
properly compost, apply and store manure. Additionally, the exclusion
of domesticated animals from production fields is essential in helping

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to reduce the possibility of faecal contamination. Taking steps to
minimize the presence of wild animals in fields is also important.

Clean water entails making sure all water used in washing, cooling
and processing is of drinkable quality. Packing ice should also be made
from drinkable water. Ground and surface water sources need to be
protected from runoff and animal contamination. Water used for
irrigation and foliar applications also needs to be free of human
pathogens. Regular water quality testing may be necessary,
particularly for surface water sources.

Clean hands applies to workers and the use of good personal

hygiene in the field and packing house. Providing washing facilities for
customers at U-Pick operations is also an important consideration.

Clean surfaces means ensuring that all packing bins, work

surfaces, storage areas, and transportation vehicles are properly
washed and sanitized on a regular, often daily, basis. Farm equipment
should also be routinely cleaned and sanitized. An essential aspect of
GAPs procedures is accurate record keeping. While keeping records is
an important part of any farm operation, it can become critical in cases
of food safety issues. When food-borne illnesses do occur, attempts are
made to trace the contamination back to the point of original. Growers
who document their GAPs procedures will be able to provide evidence
that their farm is an unlikely source of the outbreak.

Good Agricultural Practices for Selected Agricultural

Components

Soil

The physical and chemical properties and functions, organic matter and
biological activity of the soil are fundamental to sustaining agricultural
production and determine, in their complexity, soil fertility and
productivity. Appropriate soil management aims to maintain and
improve soil productivity by improving the availability and plant uptake
of water and nutrients through enhancing soil biological activity,
replenishing soil organic matter and soil moisture, and minimizing
losses of soil, nutrients, and agrochemicals through erosion, runoff and
leaching into surface or ground water. Though soil management is
generally undertaken at field/farm level, it affects the surrounding area
or catchment due to off-site impacts on runoff, sediments, nutrients
movement, and mobility of livestock and associated species including
predators, pests and biocontrol agents.

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Good practices related to soil include maintaining or improving soil
organic matter through the use of soil carbon-build up by appropriate
crop rotations, manure application, pasture management and other
land use practices, rational mechanical and/or conservation tillage
practices; maintaining soil cover to provide a conducive habitat for soil
biota, minimizing erosion losses by wind and/or water; and application
of organic and mineral fertilizers and other agro-chemicals in amounts
and timing and by methods appropriate to agronomic, environmental
and human health requirements.

Water

Agriculture carries a high responsibility for the management of water

resources in quantitative and qualitative terms. Careful management of
water resources and efficient use of water for rainfed crop and pasture
production, for irrigation where applicable, and for livestock, are
criteria for GAP. Efficient irrigation technologies and management will
minimize waste and will avoid excessive leaching and salinization.
Water tables should be managed to prevent excessive rise or fall.

Good practices related to water will include those that maximize water
infiltration and minimize unproductive efflux of surface waters from
watersheds; manage ground and soil water by proper use, or avoidance
of drainage where required; improve soil structure and increase soil
organic matter content; apply production inputs, including waste or
recycled products of organic, inorganic and synthetic nature by
practices that avoid contamination of water resources; adopt
techniques to monitor crop and soil water status, accurately schedule
irrigation, and prevent soil salinization by adopting water-saving
measures and re-cycling where possible; enhance the functioning of
the water cycle by establishing permanent cover, or maintaining or
restoring wetlands as needed; manage water tables to prevent
excessive extraction or accumulation; and provide adequate, safe,
clean watering points for livestock.

Crop and Fodder Production

Crop and fodder production involves the selection of annual and

perennial crops, their cultivars and varieties, to meet local consumer
and market needs according to their suitability to the site and their role
within the crop rotation for the management of soil fertility, pests and
diseases, and their response to available inputs. Perennial crops are
used to provide long-term production options and opportunities for
intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequences, including those
with pasture, to maximize the biological benefits of interactions
between species and to maintain productivity. Harvesting of all crop

5
and animal products removes their nutrient content from the site and
must ultimately be replaced to maintain long-term productivity.

Good practices related to crop and fodder production will include those
that select cultivars and varieties on an understanding of their
characteristics, including response to sowing or planting time,
productivity, quality, market acceptability and nutritional value,
disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic adaptability, and
response to fertilizers and agrochemicals; devise crop sequences to
optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the biological
benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and
herbicide options, provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and,
where appropriate, inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source
of nitrogen; apply fertilizers, organic and inorganic, in a balanced
fashion, with appropriate methods and equipment and at adequate
intervals to replace nutrients extracted by harvest or lost during
production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-
cycling crop and other organic residues; integrate livestock into crop
rotations and utilize the nutrient cycling provided by grazing or housed
livestock to benefit the fertility of the entire farm; rotate livestock on
pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of pasture; and adhere to safety
regulations and observe established safety standards for the operation
of equipment and machinery for crop and fodder production.

Crop Protection

ii) Maintenance of crop health is essential for successful farming for

both yield and quality of produce. This requires long-term strategies to
manage risks by the use of disease- and pest-resistant crops, crop and
pasture rotations, disease breaks for susceptible crops, and the
judicious use of agrochemicals to control weeds, pests, and diseases
following the principles of Integrated Pest Management. Any measure
for crop protection, but particularly those involving substances that are
harmful for humans or the environment, must only be carried out with
consideration for potential negative impacts and with full knowledge
and appropriate equipment.

Good practices related to crop protection will include those that use
resistant cultivars and varieties, crop sequences, associations, and
cultural practices that maximize biological prevention of pests and
diseases; maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance
status between pests and diseases and beneficial organisms of all
crops; adopt organic control practices where and when applicable;
apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available;
determine interventions following consideration of all possible methods
and their short- and long-term effects on farm productivity and

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environmental implications in order to minimize the use of
agrochemicals, in particular to promote integrated pest management
(IPM); store and use agrochemicals according to legal requirements of
registration for individual crops, rates, timings, and pre-harvest
intervals; ensure that agrochemicals are only applied by specially
trained and knowledgeable persons; ensure that equipment used for
the handling and application of agrochemicals complies with
established safety and maintenance standards; and maintain accurate
records of agrochemical use.

Harvest and On-farm Processing and Storage

xiii) Product quality also depends upon implementation of acceptable

protocols for harvesting, storage, and where appropriate, processing of
farm products. Harvesting must conform to regulations relating to pre-
harvest intervals for agrochemicals and withholding periods for
veterinary medicines. Food produce should be stored under appropriate
conditions of temperature and humidity in space designed and
reserved for that purpose. Operations involving animals, such as
shearing and slaughter, must adhere to animal health and welfare
standards.

xiv) Good practices related to harvest and on-farm processing and

storage will include those that harvest food products following relevant
pre-harvest intervals and withholding periods; provide for clean and
safe handling for on-farm processing of products. For washing, use
recommended detergents and clean water; store food products under
hygienic and appropriate environmental conditions; pack food produce
for transport from the farm in clean and appropriate containers; and
use methods of pre-slaughter handling and slaughter that are humane
and appropriate for each species, with attention to supervision, training
of staff and proper maintenance of equipment.

Energy and Waste Management

xv) Energy and waste management are also components of sustainable

production systems. Farms require fuel to drive machinery for cultural
operations, for processing, and for transport. The objective is to
perform operations in a timely fashion, reduce the drudgery of human
labour, improve efficiency, diversify energy sources, and reduce energy
use.

xvi) Good practices related to energy and waste management will

include those that establish input-output plans for farm energy,
nutrients, and agrochemicals to ensure efficient use and safe disposal;
adopt energy saving practices in building design, machinery size,

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maintenance, and use; investigate alternative energy sources to fossil
fuels (wind, solar, biofuels) and adopt them where feasible; recycle
organic wastes and inorganic materials, where possible; minimize non-
usable wastes and dispose of them responsibly; store fertilizers and
agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation; establish
emergency action procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from
accidents; and maintain accurate records of energy use, storage, and
disposal.

GAP for Growers

A farmer who practices Good Agricultural Practices implements

proactive food safety control measures to prevent crop contamination.
GAP guidelines can be grouped into four categories; health and
hygiene, water quality, soil supplements, and environmental hazards. A
brief discussion of each is discussed.

Health and Hygiene Growing fresh produce requires a significant

amount of hand contact during harvesting, sorting, and packing. A
worker who shows signs of diarrhea, vomiting, or sudden yellowing of
the skin or eyes may have a disease that can be transmitted through
food and should not handle fresh produce. Every food handler should
wash his or her hands before starting work, after breaks, and especially
after using the restroom. It may be difficult to provide the necessary
sanitary facilities, but clean, accessible, and appropriately stocked
restroom and hand washing stations are essential for preventing
product contamination.

Water qualityWater has a many pre- and post-harvest uses for

irrigation, pesticide application, washing harvested produce, cleaning
harvest containers, and for drinking and hand washing. Food safety
risks are greatest when surface water from ponds, streams, or rivers
comes into contact with the edible parts of fruits and vegetables.
Ground or well water is usually a safer choice, but it should be tested
regularly and wells should be inspected to make sure they are intact
and not located in areas that are subject to runoff during storms or
floods. Municipal water is the safest source because you can be sure it
has met government safety requirements. The choice of water to use
and the level of risk is determined by the timing and application
method. For instance, a safer source of water should be used as
harvest time approaches or when overhead irrigation is used since the
edible portions of the plant is likely to come into contact with the water
just before harvest. Water used after harvesting should be free of
human pathogens. If the safety of the water is in doubt, a sanitizer
should be added to the water.

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Soil supplementsHealthy soils contain abundant populations of
microorganism and most are harmless to people. In fact, they are
beneficial to crops because they break down organic matter into more
readily available plant nutrients. However, when animal manure is used
as a soil conditioner or a source of nutrients, contamination risks
increase. It should be assumed that all raw manure contains
microorganism that can make people sick. Therefore, proper manure
management and application techniques are essential. If raw manure is
applied to fields where fresh produce is grown, allow a minimum of 120
days between manure application and harvest. Working it into the soil
in the fall of the previous year is even better since long term exposure
to the elements greatly reduces pathogen levels. A better choice when
using animal manures is to follow established aerobic composting
techniques that will raise core temperatures to above 130 oF for at
least 5 days. Turn the pile several times to ensure even heat exposure
to all parts of the pile. It is also important to store raw and incompletely
composted manure as far away as possible from crop growing areas
and to prevent runoff after heavy rains or flooding.

Field and Packinghouse HazardsFarms and packing houses are by

no means sterile environments and there are ample opportunities for
contamination from harvest equipment and containers, harvest
implements, packing equipment, storage facilities, and during
transportation. Growers need to be aware of potential contamination
sources from adjacent properties such as junk yards, toxic waste sites,
and dairy or cattle operations and, to the extent possible, keep wild
animals away from the crop. Harvest containers and totes should be
cleaned before each use and stored so they are protected from sources
of contamination.

The voluntary recommendations described above are applicable to all

fresh produce growers. But growers who supply fresh produce to
grocery stores and restaurants are increasingly being asked to supply
documented evidence that GAP standards are being followed. An
inspection from an independent third party auditor is typically required
at some point during the harvest season.

There are resources available to those who have received certification

notices from their wholesale buyers. A new United States Department
of Agriculture audit service is available that is supported by funds from
the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. Currently under
development from Penn State Extension and the Department of Food
Science is a training program that will help growers understand farm
food safety risks and develop a food safety plan.

GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP)

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The methods of land use which can best achieve the objectives of
agronomic and environmental sustainability are described in several
different Codes of Practice designed by producers organizations (eg
COLEACP), importers and retailers consortia (e.g. BRC, FPC, CIMO,
EUREP) and Government bodies representing consumers (e.g. UK Food
Standards Agency). Many UK supermarkets have in addition their own
codes of practice which their suppliers must satisfy. American retailers
use a different standard called SQF 2000, which is based on HACCP.
More information can be found on the SGS website
The European Retailers Group (EUREP) is attempting to consolidate the
agronomic and environmental components of all these codes into one
universal set of rules or guidelines under the name EUREPGAP (=
EUREP Good Agricultural Practice). This is intended to present a clear
message to suppliers and reduce the confusion that flows from the
current multiplicity of codes. The EUREP website sets out the rules and
procedures which growers or traders must comply with in order to
qualify for EUREPGAP certification. COLEACP is also trying to develop a
harmonised framework taking the important parts of each code of
practice. It is not clear how long this process of consolidation will take.

FERTILIZER USE
Application of fertilizers, whether organic or inorganic, is usually
necessary for achieving economically viable returns but it is important
to determine application rates on the basis of soil analysis, cropping
history and actual requirements of the crop at each stage in its
development.For smallholders who also keep livestock, use of organic
manures - whether animal manure, green manure or mulch - is often
desirable as a way of saving costs, improving soil structure and
enabling farmers to access organic markets, but proper treatment of
the manure is necessary to ensure food safety and to avoid leaching of
nutrients into streams or groundwater.
Where chemical fertilizers are applied even greater care is needed to
match the amount and timing of applications to crop needs, food safety
and environmental protection.

INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT (ICM)

ICM is a system of crop production which conserves and enhances
natural resources while producing food on an economically viable and
sustainable foundation. It is based on a good understanding of the
interactions between biology, environment and land management
systems.
ICM is particularly appropriate for small farmers because it aims to
minimize dependence on purchased inputs and to make the fullest
possible use of indigenous technical knowledge and land use practices.

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KEY COMPONENTS AND OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED CROP
MANAGEMENT
Component Aim
Minimum tillage and soil Low-cost maintenance of soil
conservation techniques structure and fertility
Use of nitrogen-fixing plants, Improvement of soil fertility
green manures and agro-forestry
techniques
Biological methods of pest and Cheap and sustainable plant
disease control protection
Crop rotations Prevent build-up of pests, disease
and weeds
Productive use and disposal of Prevent damage to soil, water,
plant and animal residues human, plant and animal health
Maintenance and improvement of Avoid loss of biodiversity and
ecological diversity damage to habitat
Minimum use of purchased inputs Reduce production costs and
and non-renewable fuel environmental damage
resources

8 Plantation crops in North Eastern India: Constraints and

Strategies

Plantation crops are high-value crops of great economic importance

and provide huge employment opportunity, specially to the women
throughout the year. The sub-tropical climate of Northeastern India is
extremely favourable to the cultivation of many plantation crops.
Among the three important crops viz, tea, coffee and rubber, tea was
introduced in Assam and Tripura as an industrial crop during the middle
of nineteenth century, which has spread to other non-traditional states
in the region in recent years. Suitable land and climatic conditions
provide favourable environment for tea, coffee and rubber plantation in
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland, but it
is not fully exploited. At present 3.33 lakh ha area are under these
crops in the region, which is a major source of revenue to the economy
of the states. The data reveal that out of 14.6 per cent total
geographical area under cultivation in the region, the plantation crops
cover only 8.97 per cent, of which tea alone covers 7.5 per cent (2.79
lakh ha), rubber 1.20 per cent (4419 ha) and coffee only 0.27 per cent
(10.1 thousand ha). The share of tea is the largest, covering 85 per
cent of area under plantation crops. Historically, the cultivation of tea
being a corporate activity, the involvement of common farmers was
totally absent in the past, but in the changing environment, a marginal

11
presence is seen with a total area of 40.0 thousand ha in the small-
scale sector. The development of this emerging phenomenon of small-
scale tea cultivation in Assam attracted the non-traditional states to
introduce it as cash crop among the small farmers.
Assam is the largest producer of tea in India (about 53 per
cent of total production). Its share in the region is about 96.8 per
cent of area and 98 per cent of production. The productivity of tea is
about 1850 kilograms per ha.
Coffee was introduced in NE states during 1960s. The implementation
of the scheme of expansion of subsidy of Coffee Board Of India in 1979-
80 has helped in increasing its area. The Assam Plantation Crops
Development Corporation took initiatives to establish coffee and rubber
plantation.
Rubber occupies 44.72 thousand ha in NE India, which is about 8 per
cent of the total area at the all India level and produces 2.28 per cent
of total rubber production in the country. Though the entry of this crop
started on experimental basis during 1950s, but gained momentum
only after 1985 through the project "Accelerated Development of
Rubber Plantation". Presently Tripura alone grows 25.38 thousand ha of
rubber, which is 56.7 per cent of the total rubber area in the region.

Plantation Crop Based Farming System

The monoculture in small holdings is a nightmare during the year of

slump and epidemic of pest and diseases. Raising more than one crops
alongwith a particular plantation crop not only reduce the gestation
period but also ensure steady and higher farm income even in the
period of slump. Seasonal crops like vegetables in the formative years
of the plantation crops and permanent crops like orange, arecanut,
agar, tree beans, black pepper, gooseberry etc. could be grown in the
matured plantation to augment productivity and profitability.
Intercropping also stands as insurance against crop failure and price
slump.

Premium Organic Farming

The organically, grown products have been gaining popularity
worldwide and fetching premium price both at the domestic as well as
international market. Since the virgin soil in the hill areas is favourable
for tea cultivation, the natural production condition in the NE India
could be highly gainful in the production of user-friendly tea. On
account of high amount of organic matter and other plant nutrients in
these soils, the plantation crops can be grown organically with

12
minimum of agro-chemicals. The strategy to produce organic tea and
popularize among the consumers would pay high dividend. Such
innovation in value-addition of tea is potentially economically
remunerative and helps conserve the precious soil and water resource.
.

Research Needs
The identification of proper cropping system for plantation crops
requires more research initiatives. The companion crops along with
plantation crops as base crop, must have varying morphological frame
and rooting habit for minimum competition for space, light, moisture
and nutrients. Further, the selection of host crops is crucial or else it
attracts pests and diseases. The promotional activity in the sector
should take cognizance of local needs, knowledge network,
agroclimatic condition and market facilities in a multi-pronged manner.

Conclusion
Plantation crops are highly income generating if managed properly.
The cultivation of these crops was traditionally limited to corporate
sector. The corporate revenue however, did not percolate down to the
benefit of the society. Although, the region occupies a strategic position
as the highest producer of tea in the country, the social gains due to
the corporate agriculture is negligible. The changes are taking place in
the recent years, resulting in the emergence of small-scale cultivation
of tea. The implication of this development on the farm income has
been significant. There are, of course, several inherent problems of
small-scale cultivation of plantation crops like capital lock up due to
long gestation period, capital intensive nature of production system,
processing and marketing problems. The solution to these multi-
dimensional problems requires effective state intervention. The farmers
also face the problems such as quality deterioration of green leaves
due to delay in processing and locational disadvantage of tea
processing units. The capital infrastructure facilities such as processing
units need to be located in the site around the cluster of smaller
plantations and the production management by the cooperatives of the
user groups. A cluster of village model may be encouraged to grow
particular type of plantation crops, viz, tea, coffee or rubber so that
processing can be done in the central processing units. The location of
the central unit should accompanied by the infrastructure facilities like
electricity, water, road and marketing network. The ancillary
infrastructure such as regular supply of raw materials, inputs, agro-
chemicals and other requirements must be available. In view of
existence of customary laws and property ownership rights prevailing
in the tribal societies, such a socially acceptable arrangement could
substantially benefit the hill states.

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 Tea(CamelliasinensisL.O.Kuntze.)
Camelliaceae
Varieties
Pandian, Sundaram, Golconda, Jayaram, Evergreen, Athrey, Brookeland,
BSS 1, BSS 2, BSS 3, BSS 4, BSS 5, Biclonal seed stocks and Grafts.

Soil and climate

Tea requires well drained soil with high amount of organic matter and
pH 4.5 to 5.5. The performance of tea is excellent at elevations ranging
from 1000 - 2500 m.

Nursery
The nursery soil should be well drained and deep loam in nature with
pH of 4.5 to 4.8. The soil and sand used in the preparation of rooting
medium should be tested for pH and nematode infestation.

Pre-treatment of rooting medium

Treating with Aluminium sulphate can reduce soil pH. For this purpose
the nursery soil is formed into beds of one metre width and about 8 cm
height and of a convenient length. Then the beds are drenched with 2%
solution of Aluminium sulphate applied at 10 litres/2.5 sq.m of area.
Over this another layer of soil of 8 cm height is spread and again
drenched with equal quantity of water twice. Then the soil is allowed
to dry and the pH is checked before use in the nursery.

Preparation of sleeves
Polythene sleeves of 150 or 200 gauge and 10 cm width and 30 - 45
cm length may be used. Drainage holes may be provided at the
bottom. The lower 3/4 of the sleeves should be filled with 1:3 sand and
soil mixture and the top 1/4 with 1:1 sand and soil mixture and staked
in rows. Overhead shade is provided.

Selection of mother bush and its treatment

Healthy and vigorously growing high yielding bushes should be
selected. Apply to each selected bush with 40 g of young tea mixture
+ 60:90 NK mixture up to 5 years. The following mixture has to applied
before taking the cuttings.

0.5 % AlSO4 + 1 % MgSO4 (before 3 weeks)

2 % Zn SO4 (before 2 weeks)
1 % Urea (before 1 week)

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Preparation of cuttings Cuttings are taken on April - May and August
- September. Semi hard-wood cuttings are prepared with one leaf and
an internode with a slanting cut at the bottom.

Planting of cuttings
The sleeves are watered thoroughly and holes are made in the soil. The
cuttings are inserted in the hole and the soil around is pressed firmly to
avoid airspace followed by watering. Small polythene tents may be
provided which maintain high humidity and regulate the temperature
inside. Cuttings may take 10 - 12 weeks for rooting. After 90 days i.e.
when all the cuttings have rooted, the polythene tent may be removed
gradually over a period of 10 - 15 days.

Manuring of nursery
After the tent is removed the cuttings are sorted and staked. 30 g of
Nursery soluble mixture of the following composition dissolved in 10
litres of water may be applied over an area of 4 sq.m. This should be
done fortnightly.

Composition of the fertilizer

Ammonium phosphate (20:20) 35 parts by Wt

Potassium sulphate 15 parts by Wt
(or)
MOP 12 parts by
Wt
Magnesium sulphate 15 parts by Wt
Zinc sulphate 3 parts by Wt
Total 80 parts
by Wt

Hardening of the cuttings

Hardening of 4 - 6 months old young cuttings should be done by
removing shade gradually in stages over a period of 4 - 6 weeks
starting from a few hours exposure to sun every day initially and
extending the time of exposure gradually.

Methodsofplanting

Single Hedge System

In this method, the spacing adopted is 1.20 x 0.75 m accommodating
10,800 plants/ha.

15
Double Hedge System
In this method, the spacing adopted is 1.35 x 0.75 x 0.75 m
accommodating 13,200 plants/ha.

Season and planting

May - June or September - October
Sleeves should be opened lengthwise without injuring the roots and
planted in the pit and the soil is gently pressed.
Irrigation
Subsoil irrigation may be given for young tea seedlings during summer
months.

Manuring
Manuring should be done 2 months after planting. Phosphorous should
be applied at 80 - 100 kg/ha as Rock phosphate once in a year by
placement at 15 - 25 cm depth up to the first pruning and thereafter
once in two years. N : K ratio 2 : 3 should be adapted for the first 3
years and a ratio 1 : 1 thereafter.
Total weight
Qty/plant (g)
kg/ha/annum No. of
Year of
applicatio Ammoniu
application
N K ns m Urea
Sulphate
I year 180 270 5 13 27
II year 240 360 6 23 15
III year 300 450 6 29 18
IV year
300 300 6 33 19
onwards
Application of fertilizers should be done before the onset of monsoon.
Fertilizers should be broadcast around the drip circle avoiding contact
with the collar.

Aftercultivation
Perennial grasses (Forbicot weeds) can be controlled by spraying
Glyphosate 1.75 lit + Kaoline 2 lit + 2 kg of wetting agent in 450 lit. of
water followed by Gramoxone 500 ml in 200 lit of water to control dicot
weeds.

Training young tea

16
Centering
To induce more laterals, centering should be done 3 - 5 months after
planting. The main leader stem should be cut, leaving 8 - 10 matured
leaves.

Tipping
Tipping is done at a height of 35 cm from the second tipping at 60 cm
from ground level.

Pruning
Pruning is done to maintain convenient height of bush and to remove
dead and diseased branches.
Area to be pruned every year = Total extent of the garden
Pruning cycle
Pruning interval = (Elevation in feet / 1000) + 1

Pruning should be done in April - May or August - September.

Types of pruning

Rejuvenation pruning
The whole bush should be cut near the ground level less than 30 cm
with a view to rejuvenate the bushes.

Hard pruning
Hard/ formation pruning of young tea is done at 30 to 45 cm (12" to
18") for proper spread of bushes.

Medium pruning
To check the bush growing to an inconvenient height this type of
pruning is done in order to stimulate new wood and to maintain the
foliage at lower levels less than 60 cm.
Light pruning
Pruning depends on the previous history of the bush raising the height
of medium pruning by an inch or less to manageable heights for
plucking (less than 65 cm).

Skiffing
This is the lightest of all pruning methods. A removal of only the top 5
- 8 cm new growth is done so as to obtain a uniform level of pruning
surface (more than 65 cm).

Shade regulation
Pollarding of shade trees should be done prior to heavy rains at a

17
 height of 8 - 10 m from the ground level. Annually cut the erect
growing branches.

Plant protection

Scales
Scales can be controlled by spraying Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/lit. or
Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit or
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Thrips and Aphids

Thrips and Aphids can be controlled by spraying Phosalone 35 EC or
Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Mites
Mites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Sulphur
40 WP @ 2 g/l or Sulphur 80 WP @ 1 g/l.

Diseases
Blister blight
Blister blight can be controlled by adopting the following control
measures.

Spray 210 g Copper oxychloride and Nickel chloride per ha at 5 days

interval from June - September; 11 days intervals in October and
November.
Spray Hexagonazole 200 ml + Copper oxychloride 210 g 5 days
interval/ha (or)

Spray Copper oxychloride 210 g + 200 ml Propiconazole/ha 10 days

interval (or)

Spray Contaf 85 g / Tilt 80 g + 85 g Copper oxychloride at 7 days

interval starting from the onset of monsoon

Blister blight

Crop duration and harvest

18
 Banji bud Harvesting in tea

Plucking commences when the tea bush is 3 years old. The plucking of
extreme tip of the growing branch consists of an unopened bud together
with two leaves is popularly known as "Two leaves and a bud", while fine
plucking is anything less than this. In South India plucking continues
throughout the year at weekly intervals during March - May and at
intervals of 10 -14 days during the other months.

Rush period
During rush period harvesting is done at 7 to 10 days interval.

Lean period
During lean period harvesting is done at 10 15 days interval.

Yield
The yield of green leaves is 10 t/ha

Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell-Arg.)

Euphorbiaceae
Varieties
Tjir 1, PB 86, BD 5, BD 10, PR 17, GT 1, RRII 105, RRIM 600, PB 28/59,
PB 217, PB 235, RRIM 703, RRII 5, PCK-1, 2 and PB 260

Soil and climate

It requires deep and lateritic fertile soil with an acidic pH of 4.5 to 6.0
and highly deficient in available phosphorous. Tropical climate with
annual rainfall of 2000 4500 mm is suited for cultivation. Minimum
and maximum temperature should be ranged from 25 to 34C with 80
% relative humidity is ideal for cultivation. Regions prone to heavy
winds should be avoided.

Season
June July is optimum for cultivation

Method of propagation
Propagated by green budding, brown budding and crown budding.

19
Planting
In the cleared forest area, pits at 1 m x 1 m x 1 m are dug and filled up
with soil and compost. The spacing of 3 x 2 m or 5 x 5 m is adopted.

Seed at stake planting

Germinated seeds are sown in situ in the pits. Healthy ones are
retained and the others removed.

Manuring
For immature rubber trees at pre-tapping stage Apply 12 kg of
compost or FYM and 120 g of rock phosphate in each pit before
planting. Apply 10:10:4:1.5 NPK and Mg as per schedule given below:
Quantity per plant
Period of
Months after application 10:10:4 12:12:6
planting
3 September/October 225 g 190 kg
9 April/May 445 g 380 kg
15 September/October 450 g 380 kg
21 April/May 450 g 480 kg
27 September/October 550 g 480 kg
33 April/May 550 g 380 kg
39 September/October 450 g 380 kg

Apply 400 kg of mixture/ha in 2 doses, once in April/May and another in

September/October from the 5th year till the tree is ready for tapping.

Matured rubber trees under tapping

Apply NPK 12:6:6 mixture at the rate of 400 kg/ha every year in two
split doses. Add 10 kg commercial Magnesium sulphate for every 100
kg of the above mixture if there is magnesium deficiency.

After cultivation
Growing of cover crops, incorporation of cover crops and weeding are
important operations. Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopagonium
muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Desmodium evalifolium are
common cover crops.

Tapping
Trees attain tappable stage in about 7 years. First tapping in seedling
trees will commence when the trunk attains a girth of 55 cm at 50 cm
height from the ground. In budded trees the girth should be 50 cm at
125 cm height from the bud union.

20
 Ethrel treatment
Ethrel is recommended to increase latex yield of trees. It is applied at
5% a.i. concentration with a brush below the tapping cut to a width of 5
cm after light scraping of the outer bark. The first application may be
done after a drought period preferably after a few pre-monsoon
showers and subsequent applications may be done in September and
November. However, continuous application of Ethrel is not
recommended for periods of more than 3 years at a stretch.

Plant protection

Pests
Scale insect
When severe infestation is noticed, spray Organophosphorus insecticides
like malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit.

Mealy bug
Spray fish oil rosin-soap 25 g/lit. Release Austalian lady bird beetle,
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10/tree.

Termite (White ant)

Drench the soil at the base of affected plants with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2
ml/litre.

Cockchafer grub
Drench soil at the base of plants in the affected area with the solution of
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre.

Mites
Spray Sulphur 50 WP at 2 g/lit or spray Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lit.Diseases

Abnormal leaf fall

Prophylactic spraying on the foliage prior to the onset of South-West

monsoon with, Bordeaux mixture 1% at 4000 - 5000 lit/ha using high
volume sprayers.Oil based Copper oxychloride dispersed in diluent spray
oil employing either low volume air blast sprayers (Micron 420 or
Minimicron 77 or Shaw Duster Sprayer) from the ground or through aerial
application.For micron spraying on the tree spread, foliage intensity,
planting material used and age of plants, two rounds of spray using about
17 to 22 lit of fungicide oil mixture per ha per round (1:6 proportion) with

21
gap of 10 to 15 days or a single round of spray with about 30 - 37 lit of
fungicide oil mixture per ha (1:5 proportion) may be necessary.

Secondary leaf fall

The control measures suggested for abnormal leaf fall will check this
disease also.

Powderymildew
Dusting during the defoliation period commencing from the bud break in
about 10% of the trees, giving 3 to 5 rounds at weekly to fortnightly
intervals before 10.00 a.m. using 11 to 14 kg 325 mesh fine Sulphur dust
per round per ha. Sulphur dust can be mixed with talc in the proportion of
7:3. Wettable sulphur (1 kg in 4000 lit of water) is also effective in
nurseries and for young plants as a spray.

Bird's eye spot

Repeated sprayings with Bordeaux mixture 1% or Mancozeb or Copper
oxychloride 0.2%. Provide shade in nursery. Give balanced manuring to
increase tree vigour.

Leaf spot
Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb, or 0.1% Carbendazim at
fortnightly intervals.

Pinkdisease
Frequent tree to tree inspection should be done during July September
period for detecting the infected trees and application of Bordeaux paste
in the early stages upto 30 cm above and below the affected region. In
advanced cases apply Bordeaux paste and when it dries up scrape off the
superficial mycelium and damaged bark and apply Bordeaux paste once
again. Prune off and burn the dried up branches after disinfecting by
Bordeaux spraying.

Patch canker or Bark cankers

The affected region may be scraped to remove all the rooting bark and the
coagulated rubber and the wound washed well with Emisan solution.
(Emisan 10 g in 2 lit). When the fungicide dries up apply wound dressing
compound.

Dry rot, Stump rot, Collar rot or Charcoal rot

Clean up affected areas, by washing with Emisan solution. Scrape out the
fructifications. Affected bark and wood show black lines. Wash the wound
again with fungicide solution. When it dries up apply a wound dressing
compound. Avoid accumulation of rubber at the base of the trees. For root
infection see the treatment for brown root disease.

22
Brown root disease
Open up the root system. Completely killed and dried roots may be traced
and pruned. Partially affected and healthy roots washed with Emisan
solution. When the fungicide dries up, a thin coating with a wound
dressing compound may be given. Refill the soil and drench the base with
fungicide solution.

Yield
Rubber yield steeply increases year by year, reaching a peak after 14
years of planting. In South India, the annual yield of rubber is 375 kg/ha
from seedlings trees, whereas budded plants yield 800 - 1000 kg/ha.

COCONUT(Cocosnucifera)
Palmae

Varieties
1. East Coast Tall
2. West Coast Tall
3. VPM-3 (Selection from Andaman Ordinary Tall)
4. ALR (CN -1) (Selection from Arasampatty Tall)
5. COD (Dwarf for tender coconut purpose only)

Hybrids
Tall x Dwarf
(To be grown under well managed conditions)
1. VHC 2 - ECT X MYD
2. VHC 3 - ECT X MOD

Soil
Red sandy loam, laterite and alluvial soils are suitable. Heavy,
imperfectly drained soil is unsuitable.

Planting seasons
June - July, December - January
The planting can also be taken up in other seasons wherever irrigation
and drainage facilities are available.

Spacing
Adopt a spacing of 25' x 25' (7.5 x 7.5 m) with 175 plants/ha. For
planting in field border as a single row, adopt 20' spacing between
plants.

23
Planting
Dug pit size of 3 x 3' x 3'. In the pits, sprinkle Lindane 1.3 % D to
prevent white ant damage. Fill the pit to a height of two feet (60 cm)
with FYM, red earth and sand mixed in equal proportions. At the center
of the pit, remove the soil mixture and plant the seedling after
removing all the roots. Press the soil well around the seedling and
provide the seedling with shade by using plaited coconut leaves or
palmyrah leaves. Keep the pits free from weeds. Remove soil covering
the collar region. As the seedlings grow and form stem, fill up the pits
gradually by cutting the sides.

Water management
From 5th year onwards, adopt the following irrigation schedule based
on pan evaporation for drip irrigation and basin irrigation.
Western region of Tamil Nadu
Moderate
Normal Severe water
water
Months condition scarcity
scarcity
(for best yield) condition
condition
A. Drip
irrigation
February to May 65 lit / day 45 lit/ day 22 lit / day
January, August 55 lit / day 35 lit / day 18 lit/day
and
September
June and July, 45 lit / day 30 lit/ day 15 lit / day
October to
December
B.
Months Basin Normal Moderate Severe water
irrigation condition water scarcity
February to May 410 lit /best
(for 6 days scarcity
* condition
January, August yield)
410 lit /7 days*condition
and
A. Drip
September
irrigation
June and July, -
March 80410
lit / lit
day/9 days*55 lit / day 27 lit/day
October to
September
December
October 50 lit / day 35 lit/ day 18 lit /day
February
B. Basin
irrigation
March 410 lit / 5 24
September days*
October 410 lit /8
February days*
Eastern region of Tamil Nadu
Quantity of water to be applied in the basin.
Add 30 - 40 % of the above quantity of water (135 -165 litres/palm) to
meet the conveyance loss.For drip irrigation, open four pits size of 30 x
30 x 30 cm opposite to each other at one meter distance from the
trunk. Place 40 cm long PVC pipe (16 mm) in a slanting position in each
pit and place the drippers inside the tube and allow the water to drip
30 cm below the soil surface. Fill the pits with coir pith to prevent
evaporation. In the first year, irrigate on alternate days and from the
second year to the time of maturity irrigate twice in a week based on
the water requirement.

Basin system
Drought management and soil moisture conservation

Mulching with coconut husks/leaves/coir pith

Apply coconut husks with convex surface facing
upwards (100 Nos.) or dried coconut leaves (15 Nos) or coir pith up to a
height of 10 cm in the basin of 1.8 m radius around the palms as mulch
for soil moisture conservation particularly during summer season.

Burial of coconut husk or coir pith

Husk burial can be done in coconut basins or
in the interspaces to overcome drought and button shedding. Bury
husks @ 100 Nos. with concave surface facing upwards or 25 kg of coir
pith /palm in circular trenches, dug 30 cm width and 60 cm depth at
1.5 metres radius. The husk can be also buried in the trenches at a
distance of 3 m from the palm with a size of 45 cm deep and 150 cm
width in between two rows of coconut. The soaking of the coconut husk
or coir pith as the case may be preserves the monsoon rains.

Manuring
From 5 th year onwards, apply 50 kg of FYM or compost or green
manure. 1.3 kg urea (560 g N), 2.0 kg super phosphate (320 g P2O5)
and 2.0 kg muriate of potash (1200 g K2O) in two equal splits during
June July and December January. Apply manures and fertilizers in
circular basins of 1.8 m from the base of the palm, incorporate and
irrigate. During 2nd, 3rd and 4th year , and doses of the above
fertilizer schedule should be adopted respectively. Sufficient moisture
should be present at the time of manuring. Fertigation may be done at

25
monthly intervals with 75% of the recommended dose of the above
fertilizers. Phosphorous may be applied as super phosphate in the
basins and incorporated or as DAP through drip when good quality of
water is available.

TNAU Coconut tonic

For nut bearing coconut, root feed TNAU coconut tonic
@200ml/palm once in six months.

Bio-fertilizer recommendation
Mix 50 g of Azospirillum, 50 g of
Phosphobacteria ( or ) 100 g Azophos and 50 g of VAM in sufficient
quantity of compost or FYM and apply near feeding roots once in 6
months / palm starting from planting. Dont mix with chemical
fertilizers and pesticides

Organic recycling
Any one of the green manure crops like
sunnhemp, Calapagonium or Daincha may be sown and ploughed in
situ at the time of flowering as a substitute of compost to be applied.
Sow sunnhemp @ 50 g/palm in the basin and incorporate before
flowering. Coir pith compost/vermicompost made from coir pith/
coconut leaves/ other wastes from coconut grove can be applied.

Inter-cultural operation weed management

The inter-space in the coconut garden has
to be ploughed twice in a year in June - July and December - January.
Intercultural operation is essential to keep weed population under
check, to enhance the utilisation of the applied plant nutrients by the
coconut trees, to facilitate proper aeration to the roots of coconut, to
induce fresh root growth.

Weed management
For the broad-leaved weeds, pre-emergence
spraying of atrazine @1.0 kg a.i./ ha for the control of grasses and
sedges. Post emergence spraying of glyphosate @ 10 ml and 20 g
ammonium sulphate/litre of water.

Weed free coconut garden

26
Inter cropping
Inter/mixed crops may be selected based on the
climatic requirement of the inter/mixed crop, irrigation facilities and soil
type. The canopy size, age and spacing of the coconut are also to be
considered. Market suitability should be taken into consideration before
selecting an intercrop.
Below 7 years of age: Any suitable annual crop for particular soil
type and climatic condition may be raised as intercrops upto 5 years
after planting depending upon the canopy coverage. Groundnut,
sesamum, sunflower, tapioca, turmeric and banana can be grown.
Avoid crops like paddy and sugarcane etc.
7 20 years of age: Green manure crops and fodder crops (Napier
grass and guinea grass) alone can be grown.
Above 20 years of age (20 years of age has to be adjusted based on
the sunlight transmission of above 50% inside the canopy): The
following crops can be grown depending on the soil and climatic
suitability.
Annuals: Groundnut, bhendi, turmeric, tapioca, sweet potato,
sirukizhangu, elephant foot yam, ginger, pineapple Biennials: Banana
varieties Poovan and Monthan are suitable.Perennials: Cocoa*,
pepper*(Panniyur 1 or Panniyur 2 or Panniyur 5 or Karimunda),
nutmeg* and vanilla* *Suitable areas in Pollachi tract of western region
and Kanyakumari district. For vanilla, use disease free planting
material and maintain high vigilance to maintain a disease free crop.

Multiple cropping system

Coconut + banana + sirukizhangu + bhendi is
suitable system for the eastern region. Crops like banana, pepper,
cocoa, nutmeg, vanilla can be tried under multiple cropping system in
suitable areas in the western region. In all the systems, apply
recommended quantity of water and manures and fertilizers to the
intercrops separately.

Coconut mother palm selection and nursery management

The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut
palms is highly essential in a perennial crop like coconut.
The following points may be remembered.

27
Mother palm selection
Select seed gardens, which contain large proportion of high yielding
trees with uniformity in yielding ability. Trees growing closer to
households, cattle shed, compost pits and other favorable conditions
should be avoided.
High yielding mother palms giving not less than 100 nuts/palm/annum
should be chosen for collecting seednuts. Alternate bearers should be
avoided. The age of the palm chosen be middle age i.e., from 25 to 40
years. Even trees with 15 years age can be selected, if it is high
yielding and has stabilized yield.
The mother palm should have straight trunk, spherical or semi
spherical crown, high rate of leaf and spathe production, short and
stout petiole, more number of female flowers regular bearing habit,
non buckling bunches, high setting parentage, medium in nut size,
high copra outturn and free from pest and diseases. A good regular
bearing mother palm produces on an average one leaf and an
inflorescence in its axil every month. So, there will be twelve bunches
of varying stages of maturity at any one time. Avoid trees producing
habitually barren nuts.
Harvest seednuts during the months of February - August to get
maximum germination and good quality seedlings. Harvest the
bunches intended for seednut by lowering them to the ground using a
rope to avoid injury to seednuts
The seednuts should be round in shape and when tapped by finger
should produce metallic sound. Fully ripe nuts develop twelve months
after fertilization.
To get more quality seedlings, the seednuts of tall and hybrid are to be
air cured for one month followed by sand curing for two months. For
dwarf varieties, the air curing should be lesser than one month
followed by sand curing for two months.

Nursery management
Select nursery area in a well drained plot with coarse texture soil near
water source for irrigation. Nursery can be raised in the open space
with artificial shade or in the adult coconut garden.Plant seednuts in a
long and narrow bed at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm either horizontally or

28
 vertically in deep trenches with 20-25 cm depth. Five rows of nuts may
be planted in each bed accommodating 50 nuts per row.
Irrigate the nursery beds once in three days.Keep the nursery free of
weeds. To manage the weed problem in coconut nursery, growing
sunnhemp 2 times (each harvested at flowering stage) followed by one
hand weeding at 6th month was found to be very effective besides
yielding green manure for manuring the adult coconut palms.Provide
shade to the nursery by raising Sesbania or Leucaena on the sides of
beds. The seednuts start germination 6 8 weeks after planting and
germination continues upto six months. Select seedlings that
germinate before 5 months after planting. Remove those nuts which do
not germinate 5 months after sowing.
Regularly survey for pest and diseases.Select seedlings 9 to 12 months
after planting. Seedlings, which have germinated earlier, having good
girth at collar and early splitting of leaflets, should be selected for
planting. Do not select the so called Kakkamukku Pillai i.e., seednuts
which have just germinated. Eliminate the seedlings which are
deformed or having stunted growth.Remove the seedlings from the
nursery by lifting with spade. Do not pull out the seedlings by pulling
leaves or stem.Select quality seedlings with a minimum of 6 leaves and
girth of 10 cm at collar.

3. Pest and disease management

A. Pest management

Pests Management strategies

Rhinoceros beetle Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in
Oryctes rhinoceros the garden (which are likely to serve as
breeding ground) to maintain good
sanitation.

Collect and destroy the various bio-stages

of the beetle from the manure pits
(breeding ground of the pest) whenever
manure is lifted from the pits.

Incorporate the entomopathogen i.e,

fungus (Metarrhizium anisopliae) in manure
pits to check the perpetuation of the pest.

Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 l of water in

small mud pots and keep them in the
coconut gardens to attract and kill the
adults.

Treat the longitudinally split tender coconut

29

Black headed caterpillar
Opisina arenosella
stem and green petiole of fronds with fresh
toddy and keep them in the garden to
attract and trap the beetles.
Examine the crowns of tree at every
harvest and hook out and kill the adults.
For seedlings, apply 3 naphthalene
balls/palm weighing 3.5 g each at the base
of inter space in leaf sheath in the 3 inner
most leaves of the crown once in 45 days.
Set up light traps following the first rains in
summer and monsoon period to attract and
kill the adult beetles.
Field release of Baculovirus inoculated adult
rhinoceros beetle @ 15/ha reduces the leaf
and crown damage caused by this beetle.
Apply mixture of either neem seed powder
+ sand (1:2) @150 g/palm or neem seed
kernel powder + sand (1:2) @150 g per
palm in the base of the 3 inner most leaves
in the crown
Place Phorate 10 G 5 g in perforated
sachets in two inner most leaf axils for 2
times at 6 months intervals.
Set up Rhinolure pheromone trap @ 1/ 2 ha
to trap and kill the beetles.
The incidence of the pest is noticed from
the month of November to May and from
August to November after rainfall. The
coconut trees of all ages are attacked.
Release the larval (Bethylid, Braconid and
Ichneumonid) and pupal (Eulophid) on
(chalcid) parasitoids and predators
periodically from January, to check the build
up of the pest during summer.
Among the larval parasitoids, the bethylid
Goniozus nephantidis is the most effective
in controlling the pest. The optimum level
of release is 1:8 of host-parasitoid ratio. The
parasitoid should be released @3000/ha
30
 under the coconut trees when the pest is in
the 2nd or 3rd instar larval stage.
Parasitoids should not be released in the
crown region since they will be killed by
predators like spiders and reduviid bugs.

Remove and burn all affected

leaves/leaflets.

Spray Malathion 50 EC 0.05% (1mi/lit) to

cover the undersurface of the leaves
thoroughly in case of severe epidemic
outbreak of the pest in young palms.

Root feeding for the control of coconut

Black headed caterpillar: Select a fresh
and live root, cut sharply at an angle and
insert the root in the insecticidal solution
containing Monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml +
water 10 ml in a 7 x 10 cm polythene bag.
Secure the bag tightly to the root with a
cotton thread. Twenty four hours later,
check whether there is absorption. If there
is no absorption select another root. These
methods should not be resorted to as a
routine practice and it is suggested only for
cases of severe epidemic outbreak of the
pest and when the survival of the tree is
threatened.
Red palm weevil Remove and burn all wilting or damaged
Rhynchophorus palms in coconut gardens to prevent
ferrugineus further perpetuation of the pest.

Avoid injuries on stems of palms as the

wounds may serve as oviposition sites for
the weevil. Fill all holes in the stem with
cement.

Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If

needed, they should be cut about 120 cm
away from the stem.

Fill the crown and the axils of top most

three leaves with a mixture of fine sand and
neem seed powder or neem seed kernel
powder (2:1) or Lindane 1.3 D (1:1 by
volume) once in three months to prevent

31

Termites
Odontotermes obesus
Scale insect
Aspidiotus destructor
Mealy bugs
Pseudococcus longispinus
the attack of rhinoceros beetle damage in
which the red palm weevil lays eggs.
Plug all holes and inject Pyrocone E or
Carbaryl 1% or 10 ml of Monocrotophos into
the stem by drilling a hole above the points
of attack.
Setting up of attractant traps (mud pots)
containing sugarcane molasses 2 kg or
toddy 2 litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5
g + longitudinally split tender coconut
stem/logs of green petiole of leaves of 30
numbers in one acre to trap adult red palm
weevils in large numbers.
Install pheromone trap @1/2 ha
Root feeding: As under black headed
caterpillar
Locate termite mounds in or near the
coconut nursery or garden and destroy.
Swabbing with neem oil 5% once on the
base and upto 2 m height of the trunk for
effective control.
Spray Copper sulphate 1% or cashew nut
shell oil 80% or spray Chlorphyriphos @
3ml/lit of water, neem oil 5% or NSKE 20%
to preserve plaited coconut leaves from the
termite attack.
Pluck mature nuts and spray
Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/ha.
Do not harvest nuts for 45 days after
spraying.
Remove leaflets harbouring these insects
and destroy them
Spray any one of the following :
Malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit (or)
Dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/lit (or)
Methyl demeton 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)
32
 Phosphamidon 40 SL 1.25 ml/lit (or)

Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/lit (or)

Methomyl 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)

Neem oil 3% (or)

Leaf caterpillars Collect and destroy the immature stages of
Turnaca acuta the insects by conducting study (or neem
Nut caterpillar compaign) wherever possible and spray
Nut coreid bug carbary 50 WP 2 gm/lit

Root feeding with monocrotophos 36 WSC

@ 10 ml + 10 ml water at 45 days interval
for 3 times for control of leaf caterpillar.

Set up light trape to trap and collect adult

moths

Spray Dichlorvas 76 WSC 2 ml / lit.

Slug caterpillar Spray any one of the following:
Contheyla rotunda
Dichorvos 76 WSC 2 ml/lit

Bacillus thuringiensis 2 g/lit,

Triazophos 40 EC 5 ml

Methyl demeton 25 EC 4 ml/lit

Root feeding with monocrotophos 15 ml +

15 ml of water
Scolytid bark borer Stem injection through a stove wick soaked
beetles in 0.2% fenthion or 0.2% dichlorvos and
Xyleborus parvulus plugging the hole and repeating the
treatment using the same wick and hole a
month after.
Palm civet Poison baiting with ripe banana fruit
Vivera zibatha sandwiched with 0.5 g carbofuran 3 G
granules.

33
Rat Tree banding with inverted iron cones or
Rattus rattus wroughtoni Prosophis thorns. Baiting with bromodialone
0.005% at 10 g/tree at crown region twice
at an interval of 12 days.

Special problem: Coconut eriophyid mite (Aceria guerreronis)

Package of recommendations for the management of the coconut

eriophyid mite

Coconut eriophyid mite

Manurial and fertilizer recommendation (Soil

application/tree/year)

Urea 1.3 kg
Super phosphate 2.0 kg
Muriate of potash* 3.5 kg
* Increased quantity is recommended to increase the plant resistance to
the mite.
Neem cake application @ 5 kg
Organic manure (well rotten FYM) @ 50 kg

Micronutrients (Soil application / tree / year)

Borax 50 g
Gypsum 1.0 kg
Magnesium sulphate 500g
Grow sunnhemp as intercrop twice a year (Seed rate 30 kg/ha)

Spot application of ecofriendly Botanicals

Round Eco-friendly Botanical Quantity / tree

1. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water
2. Neem oil + Teepol 30 ml in one lit. of water
3. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water

Method of application

The botanicals should be applied in the sequence indicated above at

45 days interval using a one litre hand sprayer. Rocker or Pedal
sprayer can be used for spraying small trees.

34
 The spray should be applied at the crown region by a climber
covering only the top six bunches during non rainy season.

The bunches must be covered well by the spray fluid and

approximately one litre of spray fluid may be required per tree

Precautions and safety measures

Spraying should be avoided during windy season to prevent

contamination.
At the time of spraying, protective mask and clothing should be
used.

Wash face and hands cleanly with soap after spraying.

B. Disease management

Name of the Management

Disease
Basal stem rot Cultural Method
Ganoderma lucidum
Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf1) @ 200
g/palm + Trichoderma viride @ 200 g/palm/year

Apply 200g phosphobacteria and 200 g

Azotobactor mixed with 50 Kg of FYM/palm

Green manure crops must be raised and ploughed

in situ

Neem cake 5 kg/tree must be applied along with

fertilizers

o Chemical

Aureofungin-sol 2 g + 1 g Copper sulphate in 100

ml water or 2 ml of Tridemorph in 100 ml water
applied as root feeding. (The active absorbing root
of pencil thickness must be selected and a
slanting cut is made. The solution to be taken in a
polythene bag or bottle and the cut end of the
root should be dipped in the solution).

Forty litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture should be

applied as soil drench around the trunk in a radius
of 1.5 metre.
Bud rot The infected tissues from the crown region should be
Phytophthora removed and dressed with Bordeaux paste or 1%
palmivora Bordeaux mixture to be sprayed to reach the crown

35
 region as pre-monsoon spray.
Stem bleeding The bark of the trunk should be removed in the bleeding
disease Thielaviopsis area and Bordeaux paste should be applied.
paradoxa
Lethal leaf blight Spray 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.25 per cent
(LLB) Lasiodiplodia Copper oxychloride or 0.2 per cent Indofil M 45 (4 times
theobromae at monthly interval during February, March, April and
May).

a. Preparation of 1% Bordeaux mixture

A quantity of 400 g of copper sulphate should be dissolved in 20 litres of
water and 400 g of lime in another 20 litres of water separately. The
copper sulphate solution should be added to the lime solution constantly
stirring the mixture. Earthen or wooden vessels alone should be used and
metallic containers should not be used. To find out whether the mixture is
in correct proportion, a polished knife should be dipped in the mixture for
one minute and taken out. If there is reddish brown deposit of copper,
additional quantity of lime should be added till there is no deposit in the
knife.

b. Preparation of Bordeaux paste

Take 200 g of Copper sulphate and dissolve it in one litre of water and 200
g of lime in one litre of water separately. Both are mixed simultaneously in
a third vessel and the resultant mixture can be used as a paste.

4. Harvest and post harvest technology

Harvest 11-12 months old fully matured nuts at an interval of 30-45 days
depending on the yield level of the garden. For household use keep the
nuts in vertical direction. Dry copra either by sun drying or by using copra
dryers. Store the copra at 5-6 % moisture content. Store the copra in
polythene tar coated gunny bags.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN COCONUT

1. Rejuvenation of existing garden
The low yield in vast majority of gardens is due to thick population, lack of
manuring and irrigation. These gardens could be improved if the following
measures are taken.

Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmers holdings

where thick planting is adopted, many trees give an yield of less
than 20 nuts/palm/year. By cutting and removal of these trees, the
yield could be increased. Besides, there is saving in the cost of
cultivation and increase in net profit. After removal of low yielding
trees, the populations should be maintained at 175 palms/ha.

36
 Ensuring adequate manuring and irrigation: The yield can be
increased in the existing gardens when manuring + irrigation +
cultural practice is adopted as per recommendation.

2. Pencil point disorder (Micronutrient deficiency)

Because of micronutrient deficiency, the stem will taper towards its tip
with lesser number of leaves. The leaf size will be greatly reduced and the
leaves will be pale and yellow in colour. Along with the recommended
fertilizer dose, 225 g each of Borax, Zinc sulphate, Manganese sulphate,
Ferrous sulphate, Copper sulphate and 10 g of Ammonium molybdate may
be dissolved in 10 litres of water and poured in the basin of 1.8 m radius.
This disorder can be corrected if noticed early. Severely affected palms
may be removed and replanted with new seedlings.

3. Button shedding

Button shedding
Shedding of buttons and premature nuts may be due to any one of the
following reasons:
i. Excess acidity or alkalinity
ii. Lack of drainage
iii. Severe drought
iv. Genetic causes
v. Lack of nutrients
vi. Lack of pollination
vii. Hormone deficiency
viii. Pests
ix. Diseases
The following remedial measures are suggested.

37
a. Rectification of soil pH
Excess acidity or alkalinity of soil may cause button shedding. If the soil
pH is less than 5.5, it is an indication of excess acidity. This could be
rectified by adding lime. Increase in alkalinity is indicated by soil pH
higher than 8.0. This situation could be rectified by adding gypsum.

b. Providing adequate drainage facilities

Lack of drainage lead to suffocation of roots of coconut trees for want of
aeration. Shedding of buttons is noticed under such condition. Drainage
channels have to be dug along the contours to drain the excess water
during rainy season.

c. Management of young coconut gardens under waterlogged

conditions

A trench between two rows of young coconut palms should be dug

during onset of the monsoon rains. The size of the trench is 3 m
width, 30 45 cm depth to entire length of field. The soil excavated
from the trench should be placed along the rows of palms to make a
raised bed.
Form mound around the young palms to a radius of 1.2 m width with
height of 30 45 cm.

d. Genetic causes
In some trees button shedding may persist even after ensuring adequate
manuring, irrigation and crop pest and disease management. This is an
indication of inherent defect of the mother palm from which the seed
material was obtained. This underlines the need for proper choice of
superior mother palm for harvesting seed coconut to ensure uniformly
good yielding trees.

e. Lack of nutrition
Button shedding occurs due to inadequate or lack of manuring. The
recommended dose of manurial schedules and proper time of application
are important to minimise the button shedding. Apply extra 2 kg of
muriate of potash with 200 g of Borax/palm over and above the usual
dosage of fertilizer to correct the barren nuts in coconut for period of 3
years.

f. Lack of pollination
Button shedding also occurs due to lack of pollination. Setting up of
beehives @ 15 units/ha may increase the cross pollination in the garden.
Further the additional income obtained through honey, increases the net
profit per unit area.

38
g. Hormone deficiency
The fertilised female flowers i.e., buttons shed in some cases. By spraying
2, 4- D at 30 ppm or NAA 20 ppm (2,4-D 30 mg or NAA 20 mg per litre of
water) on the inflorescence one month after opening of the spathe, the
setting percentage could be increased.

h. Pests
Button shedding may happen due to the attack of bug. Spraying of
systemic insecticides like Methyldematon 0.025% (1ml/lit) or Dimethoate
0.03% (1ml/lit) may reduce the occurrence.

i. Diseases
Button shedding also occurs due to disease incidence such as basal stem
rot. Adoption of control measures suggested for the disease reduces not
only spread of the disease but also prevents shedding of buttons.

Coconut mother palm selection and nursery management

The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms is
highly essential in a perennial crop like coconut.
The following points may be remembered.

Arecanut(ArecacatechuL.)
Palmae
Varieties
Mangala, Sumangala, Subamangala, Mohitnagar, Srimangala and
Samruthi (Andaman) are mainly cultivated.

Soil and climate

Arecanut is capable of growing in a variety of soils. It thrives best in
well drained soils. Adequate protection from exposure to South-Western
sun is essential to avoid sun-scorch. Quick growing shade trees have
to be planted on the southern and western sides well in advance of
planting seedlings. It is sensitive to moisture deficit and should be
grown where adequate water facilities are available.

Season
June December is found to be the optimum.

Seeds and sowing

For raising seedlings seed nuts from pre-marked and pre-potent mother
palms of outstanding performance are selected and sown at a spacing
of 5 - 6 cm apart in sand beds under partial shade with their stalk end
pointing upwards. After the sprouts have produced two to three leaves,
they are transplanted to a polythene bag 30 x 10 cm filled with forest

39
soil and are allowed to grow for 12 to 18 months under partial shade.
The seedlings can also be transplanted in secondary nursery beds with
a spacing of 30 cm on either side. Periodical watering should be given.

Planting
Dwarf and compact seedlings with more number of leaves should be
selected. Seedlings of 1 - 2 years age are planted in pits of about 90
cm x 90 cm x 90 cm at a spacing of 2.75 m either way and covered
with soil to the collar level and pressed around. Provide shade during
summer months. Growing Banana or other crops in advance may also
provide shade.

Irrigation
Irrigation should be given as and when necessary.

Manuring
Apply to each bearing palm (5 years and above) 10 - 15 kg of FYM or
green leaf. 100 g N, 40 g P and 150 g K. To palms less than five years
old, half of the above dose is recommended. Manures are applied
during January - February after the North - East monsoon in a basin of
0.75-1.00 m radius around the tree to a depth of 20 - 30 cm.
N P K
Time of application
(kg/ha)
2
Trees less than 5 years 50 25
0
Trees more than 5 10 4
50
years old 0 0

Aftercultivation
Weeding is done twice or thrice a year by spade digging. Wherever the
land is sloppy, terracing has to be done to prevent soil erosion. Vanilla
can be grown as intercrop under optimum conditions.

Intercropping Vanilla in Arecanut

Plant protection

40
 Pests
Mites
Mites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/lit.

Spindle bug
The spindle bugs may be controlled by a drenching spray with
Lindane 1.3 D @ 2.5 g/lit of water.

Inflorescence caterpillars
Inflorescence caterpillars can be controlled by spraying Lindane 20
EC 2 ml/lit or WP @ 2.5 g/litre of water.

Diseases
Bud rot or Mahali disease
Infected tissues of the bud should be scooped off and treated with
10 % Bordeaux paste. Destruction and removal of seed palms and
also bunches affected by Mahali and drenching crowns of
surrounding healthy palms with 1 % Bordeaux mixture would help in
minimizing the incidence of the disease.

Foot rot or Anabe

Affected palms have to be isolated by digging trenches all round.
The severely affected palms should be cut and destroyed. The
stumps should be pulled out by digging and the drainage improved.
Root feeding with 125 ml of 1.5 % (15 ml/litre of water) Tridemorph
at 3 months interval.

Stem breaking
Wrap up of the green portion of the stem which is exposed to the
South-West sun to protect against sun-scorch.

Harvest
The bearing starts after 5 years of planting. Nuts are harvested
when they are three quarters ripe. The number of harvests will vary
from three to five in one year depending upon the season and place
of cultivation.

Yield
An average of about 1250 kg/ha can be obtained.

Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.)

Anacardiaceae

41
Varieties
VRI 1, VRI 2, VRI 3, VRI 4, vengurla 4, Vengurla 7 and BPP 8 (H2/16)
are the popular varieties

Soil and climate

It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well
as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable.

Season
June December is optimum for cultivation.

Propagation
Mainly propagated by soft wood grafting, air layering and epicotyl
grafting

Requirement of plants

About 200 plants/ha can be planted.

Preparation of field

Pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm size are dug and filled up with a mixture

of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Lindane 1.3 %.

Spacing
A spacing of 7 m either way is adopted

42
Manuring (per tree)
V year
Manures and I year II year III year IV year
onward
fertilizers old old old old
s
FYM or
10 20 20 30 50
compost (kg)
N (g) 70 140 210 280 500
P (g) 40 80 120 160 200
K (g) 60 120 180 240 300
Fertilizer application may be done during November - December in the
East Coast areas. Wherever possible the fertilizer can be applied in 2
equal split doses during June-July and October-November periods.

Intercropping
Plough the interspaces after the receipt of rain and raise either
groundnut or pulses or minor millets till the trees reach bearing age.

Training and pruning

Develop the trunk to a height of 1 m by removing low lying branches.
The dried twigs and branches should be removed every year.

Rejuvenation of old cashew orchard by top working

Old and senile cashew orchards with poor yielder are cut down leaving
a stump of 1 3 m height from the ground level. The emerging new
sprouts are used as rootstock for epicotyl grafting. Suitable scions are
collected and grafted on to the new sprouts.

Plant protection

Pests
Stemborer
1.Collection and destruction of affected shoots

2. Swabbing the bark of exposed roots and shoots with Carbaryl 50

WP 2 g/lit. Twice a year before the onset of South West Monsoon
(March April) and after cessation of monsoon (November) painting
of coal tar + kerosene mixture (1:2) or swabbing with a suspension
of Carbaryl 50 WP (4 g/lit) can be done up to one metre length in the
exposed trunk region after shaving the bark.
3. Root feeding with Monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + 10 ml of water
kept in a polythene bag on one side of the tree and keep the same
amount on the other side of the tree (Total 20 ml/tree) divided into
two equal halves will give protection when there is moderate
incidence.

43
4. Swab the trunk with Lindane 20 EC 1 ml/lit or Carbaryl 50 WP 500
g in 20 lit of water.

Tea mosquito bug

Tea mosquito bug can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @
2 ml/lit. The first spray can be done at the time of emergence of new
flushes, the second at floral formation and the third at fruit-set.

Shoot caterpillars
Shoot caterpillar can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @
2 ml/lit.

Root borer
Root borer can be controlled by pouring Monocrotophos 10 ml/tree
in the bore holes (Insecticide 5 ml + 5 ml water).

Leaf miner
1. Collect and destroy the damaged plant parts
2. Spray NSKE 5% two rounds, first at new flush formation, second
at flower formation

Diseases
Die back or Pink disease
Prune the affected shoots just below the affected portion and apply
Bordeaux paste. Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or any copper
fungicide like Blitox or Fytolan 0.25 % twice i.e. in May - June and
again in October as a prophylactic measure.

44
 Anthracnose
1. Remove the affected portions of plant/branches
2. Spray 1 % of Bordeaux mixture + Ferrous sulphate at the time of
flush initiation

Harvest
The peak picking months are March and May. Good nuts are grey
green, smooth and well filled. After picking, the nuts are separated
from the apple and dried in the sun for two to three days to bring
down the moisture content to 10 to 12 %. Properly dried nuts are
packed in alkathene bags. This will keep for 6 months.

Yield
About 3 - 4 kg/tree/year can be obtained.

Cocoa(TheobromacacaoL.)
Sterculiaceae
Varieties
Criollo, Forestero and Trinitario are most popular.

Forestero Trinitario

Soil and climate

Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture
retentivity with a pH of 6.6 - 7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally
cultivated at altitudes up to 1200 m with an annual rainfall of 150 cm
and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24C
to 25C. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and areca nut
gardens.

45
Season
June - July and September - October

N P K Seeds
Time of application
(kg/ha) and
1 3 years old trees 50 20 70
Trees more than 3 years
100 96 140
old
sowing
Cocoa is normally propagated by seed. Before sowing the seeds the
pulp adhering to the seeds has to be removed. Cocoa seeds are
individually sown in polybags soon after extraction. The bags are filled
with surface soil and sub-soil mixed with compost, leaf mould and
fertilizers. Nursery plants are ready for transplanting at 6 months of
age when they attain a height of 60 cm.
Planting
Seedlings are transplanted with a ball of earth in 45 cm x 45 cm x 45
cm pits at a spacing of 3 x 3 m either way. Periodical mulching with
leaves and watering should be done. Temporary shade has to be
provided.
Irrigation
Irrigation should be given as and when necessary. During summer
months irrigation should be given once in three days.

Manuring
Trees of 3 years of age and above are manured with 100 g N, 40 g P
and 140 g K per tree in two split doses during April - May and August -
September. Trees younger than three years may be applied with half of
this dose.

Aftercultivation
Weeding is done as and when necessary. The unproductive shoots,
dead, diseased twigs should be removed periodically. Banana is better
as a primary shade plant in the early years of plantation. For
permanent shades Jack, Silver Oak, etc. are planted.

1. Plant protection
Pests
Mealy bug
Mealy bug can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1
ml/lit or Dimethoate 2 ml/lit at fortnightly intervals. Release
Coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 tree.

46
2. Aphids
Aphids can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 35 EC 1 ml/lit at
monthly intervals.
3. Grey weevil
Grey weevil can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC
1ml/lit.
4. Hairy caterpillar
Hairy caterpillar can be controlled by dusting Lindane 1.3 D or spray
Lindane 20 EC @ 2ml/lit.
5. Diseases
Black pod disease
Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 % Mancozeb or Copper
oxychloride at 20 days interval.

Black pod disease

6. Dieback disease
The disease can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux mixture.
7. Charcoal disease
Charcoal disease can be controlled by spraying with 1 % Bordeaux
mixture.
8. Pink disease
Prune the affected branches and swab the cut ends regularly with 1
% Bordeaux mixture.
9. Harvest
Bearing starts from 4th year but economic yield starts from 6th year
onwards. The season of harvest is November - December and May -
June.
10. Yield
The yield ranges from 500 - 1000 kg of dry beans/ha

Betelvine(Piperbetel)
Piperaceae
Varieties
Karpurakodi, Kallarkodi, Revesi, Karpuri, SGM 1, Vellaikodi, Pachaikodi,
Sirugamani 1, Anthiyur kodi, Kanyur kodi and Bangla type are under
cultivation

47
 SGM 1 SGM (BV) 2
Soil and climate
Well drained fertile clay loams are suitable. It does not tolerate saline
and alkaline conditions. Betelvine require a cool humid with
considerable humidity and regular supply of moisture in the soil is
essential.

Seeds and sowing

The vines are propagated by terminal stem cutting or setts about 30 -
45 cm long. Setts obtained from the top portions of the vines are easy
to root and hence best for planting. On an average 1, 00,000 setts are
required for planting one hectare. Setts with vigorous apical buds and
nodal adventitious roots are selected and planted at the base of the
live supports, which are to be planted 4 to 5 months earlier.

Vines/hectare
Season Row
Single Double
November spacing - December
vine vine
and January
20 cm 50,000 1,00,000
February are optimum
for 30 cm (1 cultivation.
30,000 60,000
ft)
Preparati 45 cm on of field
22,500 45,000
The field is (11/2 ft) prepared to a
fine tilth and beds of 2 m wide are formed to a convenient length.
Provide drainage trenches of 0.5 m width by 0.5 m depth in between
two adjoining beds. Plant the seeds of the live supports i.e. Agathi
(Sesbania grandiflora) in long rows. About 750 banana suckers are
planted at the edges of the beds, which are used, for tying the vines on
the live support and for packing the betel leaf. When the Agathi plants
reach 4 m height, they are topped off for maintaining the height. The
crop is planted in two rows in beds of 180 cm width on Agathi plants
with a spacing of 45 cm between plants in the row.

Irrigation
Irrigate the field immediately after planting and afterwards once in a
week.

48
 After cultivation
Training of the live standards
Before the establishment of vines, the side branches of Agathi trees
upto a height of 2 m are removed for early creeping of the vines.

Training of the vines

Training is done by fixing the vine at intervals of 15 to 20 cm along the
standards loosely with the help of banana fibre. Training is done at
every 15 - 20 days interval depending upon the growth of vines.

Lowering of vines
Under normal cultivation, the vines grow to height of 3 m in one year
period. When they reach this height their vigour to produce normal size
leaf are reduced and they need rejuvenation by lowering during March -
April. After the vine is lowered, the tillers spring up from the nodes at
the bends of the coiled vines at the ground level and produce many
primary vines. Irrigation should be given after each lowering.
Manuring
Apply 150 kg N/ha/year through Neem cake (75 kg N) and Urea (75 kg
N) and 100 kg P2O5 through Super phosphate and 30 kg Muriate of
potash in three split doses first at 15 days after lifting the vines and
second and third dose at 40 - 45 days intervals. Apply on beds shade
dried neem leaf or Calotropis leaves at 2 t/ha and cover it with mud (2 t
in 2 split doses).
N P K
Time of application
(kg/ha)
10
Basal dressing 37.5 50
0
Top dressing @ 3 split 112.
0 0
doses 5

.
Variety
Tellaku (Kapoori Type)
Leaf is greenish yellow, ovate in shape, smooth with acute tip, juicy
and nonpungent. It produces large number of laterals/vine and hence
the yield is more when compared to other types. The vine bears 10-15
lateral shoots. Susceptible to foot rot disease. It yields on an average
80,000 panthas per hectare per year (approximately) 100 leaves make
one pantham.

Karapaku (Bangla Type)

49
It is moderately vigorous. The leaf is green to dark green, cordate in
shape, thick with broad lamina, coarse to touch and pungent. With very
few or no laterals/vine.

Propagation
This is usually propagated by terminal stem cuttings obtained from
sufficiently mature plantations. The length of the vines used for
planting is about 30 to 45 cm having 6 to 7 nodes.

Land Preparation
Apply farmyard manure 25 t/ha as basal dressing in the last ploughing.
The land is laid out into ridges and furrows 45cm apart and irrigation
channels formed at convenient places. Generally Agati is used as
supporting betelvines. The seeds of Agati are sown at the rate of 40 to
50 kg/ha during June-July along the ridges spaced at 100 cm. Irrigations
are given to the standards twice a week or even more frequently. Along
the border sow some seeds of Moringa or Pangara, Glyricidia as wind
breaks. Apply gypsum @2.5 t/ha and plough the field before sowing
live standards in saline and alkaline soils. Prepare the field into small
plots to facilitate good drainage to avoid the incidence of foot rot
disease.

Planting
The vines are planted during September-October in place where live
standards are raised in June-July. 50,000 sets (vine cuttings) are
required for planting a hectare. The vine sets are planted at 100 x 20
cm spacing. The seed vines of top 50 cms length must be collected
from vigorously growing, disease free gardens. Seed vines should be
treated with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture + 500 ppm streptomycin for 15-30
minutes. For seed vine treatment 2 kg copper sulphate, 2 kg lime, 400
lts of water and 200 g. of streptomycin (9%) per one acre are
required.For treatment of seed vines require for one acre, the following
composition is to be used.
Copper sulphate : 2 Kgs.
Quick lime : 2 Kgs.
Water : 400 lit.
streptomycin (9%) : 200 g
After seed vine treatment the remaining Bordeaux mixture can be
applied to the field.
Manures and Fertilizers
First Year

Black Alluvial Soils

200 kg N/ha in 4 split doses at monthly interval starting from 2nd
month of planting through organic (Neem cake) and inorganic manures

50
in 1:1 ratio, 100 kg P2O5/ha through single superphosphate and 100 kg
K2O/ha through Muriate of potash/sulphate of potash as basal dosage
during land preparation.

Red Soils
200 kg N/ha (100 kg N through FYM or oilcake, 100 kg N through
Ammonium sulphate),100 kg P2O5 through single super Phosphate and
100 kg K2O through muriate of potash.

Second Year
Manuring schedule of first year except FYM is to be followed.

Third Year
Manuring schedule of first year is to be followed.

Irrigation and drainage

Irrigation is given after planting betelvine cuttings, twice in a day for 3
days, once in a day for next 3 days and later once in two days for 3
times. Later light irrigation is to be given depending on the soil
conditions and season. Subsequent irrigations are to be given based on
the seasonal and soil conditions i.e. once in 2 days during summer and
5 to 6 days during winter. Proper drainage channels are to be provided
in the field for every 10-12 m row length and water should not be
allowed to stagnate at the base of plants.
Intercultivation
Weeding
Weeding should be done whenever necessary.

Propping
Train the vines to the standards at 20-30 days interval. Fix dry
bamboos wherever there is no standard.

Topping
Sesbania (Avisi) tops are pruned at 4m height. The pruning of sesbania
branches is a regular and continuous process. Less number of branches
are retained during winter to allow sufficient sunlight and more during
summer to protect the vine from hot sun and wind.

Tying with ropes

When the vines grow to the top of sesbania, the latter have to bear a
heavy burden, hence they are tied with strong coir and these ropes are
tied strongly to a thick bamboo poles to protect from strong gales
during April-May and cyclonic storms during October to November.

51
Wind breaks
The garden is protected from the strong gales, hot summers and cool
winters by sowing some seeds of Moringa/Pangara/Glyricidia or fencing
with banana leaves/coconut fronds/gunny sacs as wind breaks along
the border.

Lowering the vines

When the first year crop is completed, the vine grows beyond 3-3.5m
and picking leaves is difficult. Hence, the vines are lowered by forming
a ring (lower leaves of shoots are stripped and then coiled) and
fastened to live supports just above the ground level, leaving the apical
50cm of the vine. The top 50cm of the vines is erected and tied to live
support. This operation is called lowering of vine for rejuvenation.

Second year garden

At the time of lowering the vines, the coiled vines are to be sprayed
with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture solution and then tied to the sesbania
standard.

Crop rotation
Crop rotation with maize once in two years recorded the lowest foot rot
disease incidence. Crops like castor, brinjal, chillies, bhendi, tomato
should not be include in the rotation.

Harvesting
Generally betelvine is ready for harvest after 2-3 months of planting
and thereafter for every 25 to 30 days.
Average yield: First year 60,000 - 70,000 bundles/ha
Second year 80,000 1,00,000 bundles/ha
(1 Bundle: approximately 100 leaves)

Integrated crop Management module

Best plant population (50,000 sets vine cuttings)
+
252 200 kg N through Neem cake + Urea (1 : 1) (Neem cake as basal and
Urea in 4 splits at bimonthly interval) 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O as
basal.
+
Irrigation 100% replenishment of CPE
+
Application of Bordeaux mixture (4 drenches + 8 sprays)
+
Recommended insecticides if required.

52
 OIL PALM(Elaeis quineenis)
Palmae
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is the highest oil yielding plant among
perennial oil
yielding crops, producing palm oil and palm kernel oil. These are used
for culinary as well as industrial purposes. On an average, oil palm
produces 4-6 tonnes oil/ha. It can also contribute substantially to the
nutritional and energy requirements of the masses. Oil palm is a crop
for future and a source for diversification, import substitution, value
addition, health and nutrition, waste utilization, energy generation
(non-conventional energy) eco friendly and sustainable. Oil palm is a
native of West Africa, is now extensively grown in Malaysia, Nigeria,
Indonesia, Republic of Zaire and Ivory Coast. Increasing demand for
palm oil and also the technological developments for its extraction
have greatly changed the entire scenario of the palm industry. In India
about 80% of the area is located in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Climate
Oil palm is a humid tropical palm which thrives well where annual
temperature range is 29O-33OC (maximum) and 22O-24O C
(minimum) with an evenly distributed rainfall of 2,500-4,000 mm,
relative humidity more than 80%, and not less than 5 hr sunshine/day.
It can be grown up to 900m above mean sea-level.

Season
Planting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-July.

Soils
It can be grown on a variety of soils. But moist, deep, loamy and
alluvial soils rich in organic matter with good water permeability are
best-suited, for its cultivation. Highly alkaline, saline, waterlogged and
coastal sandy soils should be avoided. At least 1 m depth of soil is
necessary. The soil pH should be 5.5-8.0.

Varieties
There are three main types of oil palm. They are dura, pisifera and
tenera

Dura

53
With a thick shell (2-8mm) its fruits have low to medium mesocarp
content (35-
55%). This is not grown commercially.

Pisifera
It is a shell less, fruit bearing variety.

Tenera
This is a hybrid obtained by crossing Dura (Female) and Pisifera (Male).
It has a thin shell usually measuring 0.5 to 4 mm with medium to high
mesocarp content of about 60-241 90%. This is a widely cultivated
hybrid all over the world due to higher mesocarp content and resultant
oil output.

Seeds and Sowing

The seeds are subjected to a temperature of 40O C for 80 days for
stratification. Seeds are soaked in water for five days changing the
water daily. Thereafter the seeds spread out in shade for drying for two
hours. The dried seeds are kept in polythene bags in cool place in order
to maintain the moisture content. The poly bags (preferably black) of
400-500 guage measuring 40 x 35 cm are used. The bags are filled
with top soil and compost, arranged at a spacing of 45 cm2 and one
seed/bag is dibbled. The germination commences in about 10-12 days.
Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is essential.

Planting
Oil palm is planted in the main field in triangular system at a spacing of
9 x 9 m accommodating about 143 palms/ha in hexagonal system of
planting. Planting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-
July.

Manures and Fertilizers g/palm/year

Age N K2O
P2O5
First year 400 200 400

Second year 800 400 800

Third year 1200 600 1200

Fertilizers should be applied in two equal split doses (in June and
September) within 2 m diameter around the palm and forked in. Apply
50-100 g of Borax per tree every year. Application of potassium
fertilizer may be enhanced depending on the requirement of the palm.

54
Inter cultivation and Weed Control
The base of the palm is to be kept clean by weeding and pruning of
cover crops. Forconserving the moisture in the basins apply coconut
husk or paddy husk or saw dust, cut leaves or male inflorescence as
mulching.

Pruning
Maximum number of green leaves should be retained on the palm. As a
regular practice, all dead and diseased leaves should be pruned.
Severe pruning adversely affects 242 both growth and yield of palm.
Pruning should be done by giving clear cut to the petiole as close to the
stem as possible with the help of a sharp chisel.

Ablation
Ablation is the removal of male and female flowers produced in early
stages of plantation. This enables the plant to gain adequate stem
girth, vigour and develop adequate root system. Flowering starts 14-18
months after planting. Ablation can be started immediately after the
appearance of inflorescences on plams and extended upto two and a
half to 3 years depending upon plant growth and vigour. After this
stage, pollinating weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus has to be introduced
for better pollination since oil palm is a cross pollinated crop.

Irrigation
Oil palm requires sufficient irrigation, as it is a fast-growing crop with
high productivity and biomass production. Insufficient irrigation
reduces the rate of leaf production, affects the sex ratio and results in
inflorescence abortion and leaf production. For grown-up yielding palms
of 3 years age and above, a minimum of 200-250 litres water/day is a
must. However, in older plantations during hot summer, this amount
may be increased up to 300 litres. When water is not a constraint,
basin irrigation can be taken up. Required quantity of water can be
given at weekly intervals or once in 5 days depending on soil condition.
Irrigation channels must be prepared in such a way that the individual
palms are connected separately by sub-channels. For light soils,
frequent irrigation with less water should be given. In heavy soils
irrigation interval can be longer. If irrigation water is limited and land is
of undulated terrain, drip or microsprinkler irrigation can be
advantageous. When drip irrigation is given, care should be taken to
avoid clogging and for uniform discharge of water. Four drippers are
sufficient to discharge 200-250 litres water within 6-7 hr.

Intercrops

55
 Annuals like chillies, gourds and other vegetables can be profitably
grown as intercrops leaving an area of 2 m around the palm for the first
two years only. After the onset of flowering there should not be any
competition from other intercrops for the early stabilization of yields.

Harvest
First harvest 3 . -4 years after planting. A chisel is used for harvesting
bunches from young palms. When the palms become taller, a
harvesting hook has to be used. Under very good maintenance
especially with irrigation the yield could be 4-6 tonnes of oil per hectare
per year.The fresh fruit bunches harvested from the palm are to be
transported for oil extraction immediately preferably within 24 hours.

Pest of adult palms

The rhinoceros beetle

The rhinoceros beetle is primarily a serious pest of coconut palm, and in

recent years has attained the pest status in oilpalm also. The adult beetle
which bores through into the spear leaves, resulting in snapping of the
fronds at the feeding sites. In oil palm plantations failed female
inflorescences, dead palm trunks, persistent leaf axils and empty bunch
heaps, act as breeding sites for the pest.

The red palm weevil

Infestation by the red palm weevil Chynchophorus ferrungineus was
noticed in majority of oil palm plantations resulting in the death of the
palms. Damage is due to the feeding activity of the grubs, usually 12-87
per palm, which bore through and feed on the softer tissues of stem and
meristem. Palms infested by R.ferrugineus show gradual wilting and
drying of outer whorl of fronds. In some cases roofing of spear was also
noticed.

Biological control
In nature, the rhinoceros beetle is suppressed by entomophogens like
Baculovirus oryctusvirus and Metarhizium anisopliae. Release of
Baculovirusoryctes minimise the pest incidence.

Cultural control
i) Field sanitation and elimination of breeding sites like dead palm trunks,

56
empty bunch heaps etc., within the plantations are essential for the
management of both red palm weevil and rhinoceros beetle.
ii) When the infestation by rhinoceros beetle is very high, especially in
young plantations, Hand picking of the adult beetles using hooks is very
effective.
iii) For red palm weevils, use of attractants incorporating fermented
sugarcane juice, acetic acid, yeast etc., to collect and kill the adult weevils
is recommended.

Chemical control
i) For rhinoceros beetles, placing 3-4 napthalene balls in the youngest
spear axils at weekly intervals is recommended.
ii) For palms with advanced stage of infestation by red palm weevil, stem
injection of 5-8 ml of Monocrotophos is advised.

Fruit bunch covering against avian pests

Covering the bunches with different materials such as noirenets, reed
baskets, plaited coconut leaf baskets and senile oil palm leaf are effective
in preventing the fruit damage. But senile oil palm leaf covering is more
practical and economical as the material is readily available and involves
only the labour charges and cost of rope bits.

Rodent control

Among rats, the burrowing type is more serious which tunnel into the bole
of the seedlings. Different baits such as acute poison baits (Zinc
phosphide, Aluminium phosphide etc.) anticoagulants (warfarin, fumarin,
bromadiolone) and traps such as iron like traps, snap traps, deathfall trap,
boro trap etc. may be used as an integrated approach to minimise the
rodent damage to the crop.
Disease
Budrot
Higher disease incidence is noticed in young plantations. Rotting initiates
at the basal portion of the spear closure to the meristem and extends to
the whole spear. The spear could be easily pulled off. Cleaning the
affected tissues and drenching the crown with carbendazim 0.1 percent
cures the disease. The leaves emerging immediately after the application
of fungicides are shorter and successively emerging ones are normal.

Leaf spots

57
Leaf spots caused by Curvularia noticed on the inner whirl and young
leaves. The fungal spots enlarge with a yellow ring around spots. As these
spots enlarge the leaf will be scorched. Pestalotipsis fungal spots are
irregular with grey to brown centre. Numerous black dots, the acervuli of
the fungus, are seen on the lesions. Management: 1. Affected leaves must
be cut and burnt. 2. Spray Mancozeb @ 0.2%.

Collante

Collante is a symptom associated with inadequate soil moisture

conditions. Planting of seedlings in the field during dry weather also
induces collante symptoms in the affected seedlings, the leaves fail to
unfurl properly with a constriction developing in the central portion of the
leaf. The rains become prominent and the leaves rigid. In extreme cases
the leaf remains as a woody spike without separation of leaf lets. The
symptoms are not seen in fresh leaves, when adequate watering is done.

Harvesting
Proper and timely harvesting of fruit bunches is an important operation
which determines the quality of oil to a great extent. The yield is
expressed as fresh fruit bunches (FFB) in kg per hectare per year or as oil
per hectare per year. The bunches usually ripen in six months after
anthesis. Unripe fruits contain high water and carbohydrate and very little
oil. As the fruit ripens oil content increase to 80 - 85% in mesocarp. Over
ripe fruit contains more free fatty acids (FFA) due to decomposition and
thus increases the acidity. Usually the ripe fruits, attached to the bunches
contain 0.2 to 0.9% FFA and when it comes out of extraction plant the FFA
content is above 3%.Ripeness of the fruit is determined by the degree of
detachment of the fruit from bunches, change in colour and change in
texture of the fruit. Ripening of fruits start from top downwards and fruits
also get detached from tip downward in 11 - 20 days time. Ripeness is
faster in young palms than in older palms for the bunches of equal weight.
The criteria used in determining the degree of ripeness based on the fruit
detachment are as follows:

a) Fallen fruits: 10 detached or easily removable fruits for young palms

and 5 for adult palms,
b) Number of fruits detached after the bunch is cut; 5 or more fruits/kg of
bunch weight,
c) Quantity of detachment per bunch; fruit detachment on 25% of visible
surface of bunch. These criteria could be applied with flexibility.

Frequency of harvesting

Harvesting rounds should be made as frequent as possible to avoid over

ripening of bunches. A bunch which is almost ripe but not ready for

58
harvest for a particular harvesting round should not be over-ripe by next
round. In lean period of production, harvesting can be made less frequent
and it should be more frequent in peak periods. Harvesting rounds of 7 -
14 days are generally practiced. Other factors determining frequency are,
extraction capacity of the mill, transportation facilities, labour availability
and skill of the workers. In India, harvesting is usually carried out with a
chisel of 6 - 9 cm wide attached to a wooden pole or light hollow
aluminium pipe, Bunches are cut without damaging the petiole the leaf
that supports it. Use of narrow chisel is usually carried out till the palm
reaches two meters above the ground. For taller palms upto 4 meters, a
wider chisel of 14 cm is used. The curved knife is attached to a long
bamboo or aluminium pole with screws or steel wires to harvest from
taller palms. In uneven stands, an adjustable, telescopic type of pole is in
use.

Ideal stage of harvesting in Oil palm

Yield of Oilpalm
In well maintained garden the yield of oilpalm will be as furnished below:

Age of oil Yield

palm Ton/ha/year
3-4 years 5
4-5 years 12
5-6 years 25
6-25 years 30

59