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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS for AIPMT

I. FRICTION
When a body is in motion on a rough surface, or when an object Fig.(a) shows a book on a horizontal rough surface. Now if
r
moves through water (i.e., viscous medium), then velocity of the we apply external force Fext. , on the book, then the book
body decreases constantly even if no external force is applied on r
the body. This is due to friction. will remain stationary if Fext. is not too large. If we increase
So an opposing force which comes into existence, when two r
surfaces are in contact with each other and try to move relative Fext. then frictional force f also increase up to (fs )max (called
to one another, is called friction. maximum force of static friction or limiting friction) and
Frictional force acts along the common surface between the two r
(f s )max = msN. At any instant when Fext. is slightly greater
bodies in such a direction so as to oppose the relative movement
of the two bodies. than (fs )max then the book moves and accelerates to the
(a) The force of static friction fs between book and rough right.
surface is opposite to the applied external force Fext. The Fig.(b) when the book is in motion, the retarding frictional
r
force of static friction fs = Fext . force become less than, (fs )max
R=N Fig.(c) (fs )max is equal to mkN. When the book is in motion,
we call the retarding frictional force as the force of kinetic
fs Book Fext. friction fk.
Since fk< (fs )max , so it is clear that, we require more force to
(a)
r W start motion than to maintain it against friction.
(b) When Fext . exceeds the certain maximum value of static By experiment one can find that (fs )max and f k are
friction, the book starts accelerating and during motion proportional to normal force N acting on the book (by rough
Kinetic frictional force is present. surface) and depends on the roughness of the two surfaces
R=N Body just starts moving in contact.
Note :
Book (i) The force of static friction between any two surfaces in
fk Fext.
r
contact is opposite to Fext. and given by f s ms N and
(b)
W (fs )max = ms N (when the body just moves in the right
r
(c) A graph Fext . versus | f | shown in figure. It is clear that direction).
where N = W = weight of book and ms is called
fs, ,max > fk
coefficient of static friction, fs is called force of static
|f|
friction and (fs )max is called limiting friction or
maximum value of static friction.
(fs)max (ii) The force of kinetic friction is opposite to the direction
Body is Body starts with of motion and is given by fk = mkN
=msN at rest acceleration where mk is coefficient of kinetic friction.
(iii) The value of mk and ms depends on the nature of
fk=mk N surfaces and mk is always less then ms.
Friction on an inclined plane : Now we consider a book on an
O kinetic inclined plane & it just moves or slips, then by definition
static
region region
(c)
2
to do with rolling. Rolling friction occurs during rolling as well as
(f s) m
a x
R=N sliding operation.
ok
Bo
in q q mg cos q
s mg=W
mg q
Cause of rolling friction : When a body is kept on a surface of
( f s )max = m s R another body it causes a depression (an exaggerated view shown
Now from figure, f s,max = mg sin q and R = mg cosq in the figure). When the body moves, it has to overcome the
depression. This is the cause of rolling friction.
ms= tanq or q = tan1(ms)
where angle q is called the angle of friction or angle of repose Rolling friction will be zero only when both the bodies
incontact are rigid. Rolling friction is very small as compared to
Some facts about friction :
sliding friction. Work done by rolling friction is zero
(1) The force of kinetic friction is less than the force of static
friction and the force of rolling friction is less than force of II. THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM AND LAW OF
kinetic friction i.e., THERMODYNAMICS
fr < fk < fs or mrolling < mkinetic < mstatic Thermal Equilibrium
hence it is easy to roll the drum in comparison to sliding it. Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other
(2) Frictional force does not oppose the motion in all cases, if they have the same temperature.
infact in some cases the body moves due to it.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
B If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third object C then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium
A Fext with each other.
In the figure, book B moves to the right due to friction FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
between A and B. If book A is totally smooth (i.e., frictionless) First law of thermodynamics gives a relationship between
then book B does not move to the right. This is because of heat, work and internal energy.
no force applies on the book B in the right direction. (a) Heat : It is the energy which is transferred from a system to
Laws of limiting friction : surrounding or vice-versa due to temperature difference
(i) The force of friction is independent of area of surfaces between system and surroundings.
in contact and relative velocity between them (if it is (i) It is a macroscopic quantity.
not too high). (ii) It is path dependent i.e., it is not point function.
(ii) The force of friction depends on the nature of material (iii) If system liberates heat, then by sign convention it is
of surfaces in contact (i.e., force of adhesion). taken negative, If system absorbs heat, it is positive.
m depends upon n ature of the surface. It is (b) Work : It is the energy that is transmitted from one system
independent of the normal reaction. to another by a force moving its points of application. The
(iii) The force of friction is directly proportional to normal expression of work done on a gas or by a gas is
reaction i.e., F N or F = mn.
V2
While solving a problem having friction involved, follow W = dW =
the given methodology V1
PdV

where V1 is volume of gas in initial state and V2 in final state.

If Fapp < fl
(i) It is also macroscopic and path dependent function.
Body does not move and
Fapp = frictional force (ii) By sign convention it is +ive if system does work (i.e.,
expands against surrounding) and it is ive, if work is
Check If Fapp = fl done on system (i.e., contracts).
(a) Fapp Body is on the verge of movement (iii) In cyclic process the work done is equal to area under
(b) Limiting if the body is initially at rest the cycle and is negative if cycle is anti-clockwise and
friction (fl) Body moves with constant velocity +ive if cycle is clockwise (shown in fig.(a) and (b)).

Rolling Friction :
The name rolling friction is a misnomer. Rolling friction has nothing


3
(c) Internal energy : The internal energy of a gas is sum of (iv) In isochoric process W = 0 as V = constant
internal energy due to moleculer motion (called internal It means that heat given to system is used in increasing
kinetic energy UK) and internal energy due to molecular internal energy of the gas.
configuration (called internal potential energy UP.E.) (v) In adiabatic process heat given or taken by system from
i.e., U = UK + UP.E. (1) surrounding is zero i.e., dQ = 0
(i) In ideal gas, as there is no intermolecular attraction,
nR (P V - P V )
hence dU = -dW = - ( T1 - T2 ) = 1 1 2 2
g - 1 g -1
3n
U = UK = RT (2) It means that if system expands dW is +ive and dU is ive
2
(i.e., temperature decrease) and if system contracts dW is
(for n mole of ideal gas) ive and dU is +ive (i.e., temperature increase).
(ii) Internal energy is path independent i.e., point function.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
(iii) In cyclic process, there is no change in internal energy
(shown in fig.) (i) Isothermal process : If a thermodynamic system is perfectly
i.e., dU = Uf Ui = 0 conducting to surroundings and undergoes a physical
Uf = Ui change in such a way that temperature remains constant
throughout, then process is said to be isothermal process.
P

T = constant

(iv) Internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on V

temperature eq.(2). For isothermal process, the equation of state is
PV = nRT = constant, where n is no. of moles.
First law of thermodynamics is a generalisation of the
For ideal gas, since internal energy depends only on
law of conservation of energy that includes possible
temperature.
change in internal energy.
First law of thermodynamics If certain quantity of heat dQ is V2 V2 dV
dU = 0 dQ = dW = PdV = nRT
added to a system, a part of it is used in increasing the internal V1 V1 V
energy by dU and a part is use in performing external work done V2 V
or dQ = nRT log e = 2.303nRT log10 2
dW V1 V1
i.e., dQ = dU + dW dU = dQ - dW (ii) Adiabatic process : If system is completely isolated from
The quantity dU (i.e., dQ dW) is path independent but dQ and the surroundings so that no heat flows in or out of it, then
dW individually are not path independent. any change that the system undergoes is called an
adiabatic process.
Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics
P
(i) In isobaric process P is constant
V2
so dW = PdV = P(V2 - V1 )
V1

so dQ = dU + dW = n CP dT
(ii) In cyclic process heat given to the system is equal to work
done (area of cycle). V
(iii) In isothermal process temperature T is constant and work For ideal gas, dQ = 0
done is dU = mCVdT (for any process)
V2 V2 K

V2 V2
dW = PdV = nRT Log e
V1 V1
dW = V1
PdV =
V1 Vg
dV

Since, T = constant so for ideal gas dU = 0 (where PVg = K = constant)

V2 K 1 1 ( P V - PV )
Hence, dQ = dW = nRT Log e (for ideal gas) = g -1
- g -1 = 2 2 1 1
V1 1 - g V2 V1 1- g
4
where PVg = constant is applicable only in adiabatic process. 2. The fundamental note is called first harmonic, and is given
Adiabatic process is called isoentropic process (in these v
process entropy is constant). by n 0 = , where v = speed of wave.
2l
(iii) Isobaric process : A process taking place at constant
pressure is called an isobaric process. In this process 3. If the fundamental frequency be n 0 then 2 n 0 , 3 n 0 , 4 n 0 ...
dQ = n CpdT, dU = n CVdT and dW = P(V2V1) are respectively called second third, fourth ... harmonics
(iv) Isochoric process : A process taking place at constant respectively.
volume is called isochoric process. 4. If an instrument produces notes of frequencies
In this process, dQ = dU =n CVdT and dW = 0 n1 , n 2 , n 3 , n 4 .... where 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 ....., then n 2 is
(v) Cyclic process : In this process the inital state and final
called first overtone, n3 is called second overtone, n 4 is
state after traversing a cycle (shown in fig.) are same.
In cyclic process, dU = 0 = Uf Ui and dW = area of cycle called third overtone ... so on.
= area (abcd) 5. Harmonics are the integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency. If n0 be the fundamental frequency, then nn 0 is
the frequency of nth harmonic.
6. Overtones are the notes of frequency higher than the
fundamental frequency actually produced by the instrument.
7. In the strings all harmonics are produced.
Stationary Waves in an Organ Pipe :
In the open organ pipe all the harmonics are produced.
In an open organ pipe, the fundamental frequency or first
v
III. STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVES harmonic is n0 = , where v is velocity of sound and l is the
2l
When two progressive waves having the same amplitude, velocity
and time period but travelling in opposite directions length of air column [see fig. (a)]
superimpose, then stationary wave is produced. (a) (b)
Let two waves of same amplitude and frequency travel in opposite
direction at same speed, then
l l
y1 = A sin (wt kx) and
y2 = A sin (wt + kx)
By principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2 = (2A cos kx) sin wt ...(i) l 2l 2l 2l
y = A s sin t l= , l= l= , l=
2 1 2 2
It is clear that amplitude of stationary wave As vary with position (c)
(a) As = 0, when cos kx = 0 i.e., kx = p/2, 3p/2............
i.e., x = l/4, 3l/4...................[as k = 2p/l] l
These points are called nodes and spacing between two
nodes is l/2.
(b) As is maximum, when cos kx is max 3l 3L
i.e., kx = 0, p , 2p, 3p i.e., x = 0, ll/2, 2l/2.... l= ,l=
2 3
It is clear that antinode (where As is maximum) are also Similarly the frequency of second harmonic or first overtone is
equally spaced with spacing l/2.
(c) The distance between node and antinode is l/4 (see figure) 2v
[see fig (b)], n01 =
Antinode Node Antinode 2l
2A Similarly the frequency of third harmonic and second overtone is,
3v
segment 1 segment 2 segment 3
x [(see fig. (c)] n02 =
o 2l
4v 5v
l /2 Similarly n03 = , n04 = ..................
l /4 2l 2l
Keep in Memory In the closed organ pipe only the odd harmonics are produced. In
a closed organ pipe, the fundamental frequency (or first
1. When a string vibrates in one segment, the sound produced harmonic) is (see fig. a)
is called fundamental note. The string is said to vibrate in
fundamental mode.
 5

v V V
nc =
4l
I
(a) (b) (c)
q
I
l l l Ohmic conductor Non-linear conductor
or linear conductor or non-ohmic conductor
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Slope of V-I Curve of a conductor provides the resistance of the
l 3l 5l conductor
l= l= l=
4 4 4 V
Similarly the frequency of third harmonic or first overtone (IInd slope = tan q =
I
harmonic absent) is (see fig. b)
The SI unit of resistance R is volt/ampere = ohm (W)
3v Electrical Resistance
n c2 =
4l On application of potential difference across the ends of a
5v 7v conductor, the free es of the conductor starts drifting towards
Similarly n c3 = , n c4 = ........
4l 4l the positive end of the conductor. While drifting they make
collisions with the ions/atoms of the conductor & hence their
End Correction
motion is obstructed. The net hindrance offered by a conductor
It is observed that the antinode actually occurs a little above the
to the flow of free es or simply current is called electrical
open end. A correction is applied for this which is known as end
resistance.
correction and is denoted by e.
(i) For closed organ pipe : l is replaced by l+ e where It depends upon the size, geometry, temperature and nature of
e = 0.3D, D is the diameter of the tube. the conductor.
(ii) For open organ pipe: l is replaced by l + 2e where Resistivity : For a given conductor of uniform cross-section A
e = 0.3D and length l, the electrical resistance R is directly proportional to
In resonance tube, the velocity of sound in air given by length l and inversely proportional to cross-sectional area A
v = 2 ( l2 - l1 ) l rl RA
i.e., R or R = or =
where n = frequency of tuning fork, ll = 1st resonating length, A A l
l2 = 2nd resonating length. r is called specific resistance or electrical resistivity.
IV. OHMS LAW AND ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
m
When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a Also, r =
conductor, a current I is set up in the conductor. ne 2t
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm - m.
According to Ohms law Keeping the given physical conditions
such as temperature, mechanical strain etc. constant, the current 1
Conductivity(s) : It is the reciprocal of resistivity i.e. s = .
(I) produced in the conductor is directly proportional to the r
potential difference (V) applied across the conductor. The SI unit of conductivity is Ohm1m1 or mho/m.
i.e., I V or I = KV ... (1) Ohms law may also be expressed as, J = sE
where K is a constant of proportionality called the conductance of where J = current density and E = electric field strength
the given conductor.
ne 2 t
Alternatively, V I or V = RI ... (2) Conductivity, s = where n is free electron density, t is
m
where the constant R is called the electrical resistance or simply relaxation time and m is mass of electron.
resistance of the given conductor. (i) The value of r is very low for conductor, very high for
From above two eqs. it is clear that R = 1/K. insulators & alloys, and in between those of conductors &
If a substance follows Ohms law, then a linear relationship exists insulators for semiconductors.
between V & I as shown by figure 1. These substance are called (ii) Resistance is the property of object while resistivity is the
Ohmic substance. Some substances do not follow Ohms law, property of material.
these are called non-ohmic substance (shown by figure 2)
Diode valve, triode valve and electrolytes, thermistors are some
examples of non-ohmic conductors.
6
Materials and their resistivity For metallic conductors : If r1 and r2 be resistivity of a conductor
Material Resistivity (r) h (at 0c) at temperature t1 and t2, then
(in W m) r2 = r1 (1 + a D T)
where a = temperature coefficient of resistivity and
(i) Silver 1.6 108
where DT = t2 t1 = change in temperature
(ii) Copper 1.7 108
The value of a is positive for all metallic conductors.
(iii) Aluminium 2.8 108 \ r2 > r1
(iv) Tungsten 5.2 108 In other words, with rise in temperature, the positive ions of the
(v) Platinum 10.6 108 metal vibrate with higher amplitude and these obstruct the path of
(vi) Manganin 42 108 electrons more frequently. Due to this the mean path decreases
(vii) Carbon 35 106 and the relaxation time also decreases. This leads to increase in
(viii) Germanium .46 resistivity.
1 -1
(ix) Silicon 2300 Please note that the value of a for most of the metals is K
(x) Glass ~ 1013 273
For alloys : In case of alloys, the rate at which the resistance
(xi) Mica ~ 2 1015 changes with temperature is less as compared to pure metals.
COMMON DEFAULT For example, an alloy manganin has a resistance which is
30-40 times that of copper for the same dimensions.
l
Since R = r Rl Also the value of a for manganin is very small 0.00001C1. Due
A to the above properties manganin is used in preparing wires for
It is incorrect to think that if the length of a resistor is doubled its standard resistance (heaters), resistance boxes etc.
resistance will become twice. Please note that eureka and constantan are other alloys for which
If you look by an eye of physicist you will find that when l change, r is high. These are used to detect small temperature, protect
A will also change. This is discussed in the following article.
picture tube/ windings of generators, transformers etc.
Case of Reshaping a Resistor
For semiconductors : The resistivity of semi-conductors decreases
On reshaping, volume of a material is constant.
with rise in temperature. For semi conductor the value of a is
i.e., Initial volume = final volume
negative.
or, Ai li = Af lf ... (i)
where li, Ai are initial length and area of cross-section of resistor m
r= 2
and lf, Af are final length and area of cross-section of resistor. ne t
If initial resistance before reshaping is Ri and final resistance after With rise in temperature, the value of n increases. Please note that
reshaping is Rf then t decreases with rise in temperature. But the value of increase in
l n is dominating for the value of r in this case.
r i For electrolytes : The resistivity decreases with rise in
Ri Ai l A
= = i f ... (ii) temperature. This is because the viscosity of electrolyte decreases
Rf lf l f Ai with increase in temperature so that ions get more freedom to
r
Af move.
2 For insulators : The resistivity increases nearly exponentially
R i li
From eqs. (i) and (ii), = R l2 with decrease in temperature. Conductivity of insulators is almost
R f lf zero at 0 K.
This means that resistance is proportional to the square of the Superconductors : There are certain materials for which the
length during reshaping of a resistor wire. resistance becomes zero below a certain temperature. This
2 temperature is called the critical temperature. Below critical
R i Af 1 temperature the material offers no resistance to the flow of es.
Also from eqs. (i) and (ii), = R
R f Ai A2 The material in this case is called a superconductor. The reason
This means that resistance is inversely proportional to the square for super conductivity is that the electrons in superconductors
of the area of cross-section during reshaping of resistor. are not mutually independent but are mutually coherent. This
Since A = p r2 (for circular cross-section) coherent cloud of es makes no collision with the ions of super-
1 conductor and hence no resistance is offered to the flow of es
\R 4 For example, R = 0 for Hg at 4.2 K and R = 0 for Pb at 7.2 K. These
r substances are called superconductors at that critical temperature.
where r is radius of cross section. Super conductors ar e used (a) in making very strong
Effect of Temperature on Resistance and Resistivity electromagnets, (b) to produce very high speed computers
Resistance of a conductor is given by Rt = R0 (1 + aDt) (c) in transmission of electric power (d) in the study of high
Where a = temperature coefficient of resistance and Dt = change energy particle physics and material science.
in temperature