LANGUAGE STRUCTURE

Knowing what words mean

Users of words have to be knowledgeable on what words to use in whatever writing activity they
may have.

Words are fundamental units of language.

Words are never right or wrong, but effective use depends on how they are used in combination
with other words.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

LOCALISM
Refers to a word used and understand in a particular region or section. It can also be called
recognition or pronunciation.

Ex: rustler-cattle thief

Doggie/doggy- motherless calf

Flat- apartment

Colloquialism

Is a conversational word or phrase permissible and often indispensable to an easy informal style
of speaking and writing.

Ex: wise, agree, help, prone, break, clear, beggar,

end surrender, secret, mad, mean, fuss, sure, swap, etc.

Word contraction also falls under colloquial words.

Ex: Im, wont, were, havent, dont, doesnt.

Slang
Is a label for highly colloquial words. It is defined as a language comprising recently coined and
frequently short-lived terms which are unacceptable in formal English usage and are often
fanciful, bizarre, odd, or exhibiting fancy humor.

Examples: hass-house tummy-stomach doug-dog

Wee-wee-urinate heppy-happy broke-without money

Bum-vagabond classy-fine or excellent

Abstract words
Are words those that cannot be seen but can be felt. They do not express concrete ideas.

Examples: love, fear, pain, hunger

Concrete words
Are words that employ the use of the five senses to identify them.

Examples: table, people, house, building

General words
Are words that refer to a general referent or class or referents. These words convey a less clear
meaning to readers than specific words do.

Examples: plant, animal, people, flowers, teachers

Specific words
Are words that point to a particular class or referents.

Examples: girl-pilar

Insect-spider

Fountain pen-parker

Formal words
Are words that are used in formal writing.

Examples: erudite which means wise

Concur which means agree
Esoteric which means secret
Friend which means chum
Synonymous words
Are words having the same meaning.

Examples: pretty-small
Pretty-beautiful
Huge-big

Homonymous words
Are words having the same sound but different in meaning.

Examples: fare-fair rice-rise

Nose-knows right-write

Coarse-course
Omnibus words
Are words whose meaning are general or inclusive. These words are impediments to precise
writing because they do the work of what other words do. They can mean many things.

Examples: things, cute, nice, fine

Omnibus words may defeat the purpose of writing when used to represents ideas that cannot be
expressed accurately. These words are legitimate(lawful) or in conformity to accepted principles
or standards when used in the right manner.

Jargon or Technical words

Refer to words or specific language of a particular occupation or group.

Examples: Engineering Accounting Medical surgery

Slide rule ledger appendectomy
Plate debit ligation
t-square credit hydraulic pressure
Law
Suspect case culprit
Criminal software courtroom
Appeal balance court of appeals
Supreme court constitution bill of rights

Archaic words
Are old words rarely used except as preserved in religious and legal purposes.

Example: thou-you thee-you

Amongst-among thy-your

Obsolete words
Are words which are no longer in use.
Examples: by and by later
Whilom for a while in a minute

Hackneyed or trite words

Are words that are no longer fresh. They are worn out or old fashioned and have been overused
for years. These words no longer attract attention nor incite interest. They do not suggest
originality.

Examples: drastic slep brilliant performance

 Go down in history round of applause

You must be well-acquainted with diction in order to avoid faulty use of word with regards to
correctness, cleanliness, or effectiveness to attain precision in writing.

Antonyms
Are words with opposite meanings.

Examples: big-small fat-slim

Ugly-beautiful dull-bright

Stout-tall

Sentence structure and length

 To be able to come up with a good technical report or writing, natural word order, simp0le
sentence structure and short simple sentences should be observed.

Subject + verb + object or complement is the normal order of elements in English sentences.
Each element can be modified by adjectives or adverbs. Adjectives are usually positioned in front of the
terms they modify; adverbs normally appear before the verb they modify but it can also be placed after
the verb. Subject and verb should be positioned close together for clarity. To avoid monotony, departure
from usual patterns is also acceptable.

Different Words Order

Natural Order
Example: That computer was designed to facilitate work.

Natural order with modifiers(words and phrases)

Example: That newly bought computer was skillfully designed to facilitate the voluminous works of
the people.

Inverted Order
Example: Insufficient was the performance of that computer.

Periodic Order
Example: When these formulate have been done and the data have been collected, there will be a
defense by the Chemical Engineering Students.

You will observe that the order of the sentence 1 and 2 is usually preferred over the last two
orders. In example 3 and 4, the principle subject are not known until one has finally read the whole
sentences. The periodic and inverted order can be used only certain occasions. Most of the sentences,
especially in technical writing, should be in natural order.

Technical writing, the writer should consider the type of the sentences used. Generally, the simple
sentence structure is preferred over the other sentence structure like the compound, complex, and
compound-complex.

You would want to recall that a simple sentence contains only one clause. A clause is a group of
words containing a subject and a predicate. A compound sentence contains two or more independent
clauses, while a complex sentence contains an independent clause and more dependent clauses. A
compound complex sentence contains two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Simple Sentence
 Celso is an electrical engineer.

Computers, rocket ships, cassettes, and videos are new kinds of inventions.

Compound Sentences
Thomas Alva Edison was a scientist, he was also a good son.

The doctor should accelerate the operation, or the patient will die.

Complex Sentence
The manager will grant your loom if you will endorse my request.

The lightning struck where the children were playing.

Compound Complex

When the report is written in long complex, compound and compound-complex sentences, the
reader may not be able to clearly understand what it means. A writer must observe precise, simple
sentences to get the correct proportion. The length of the sentences must also observed because the
reader will have difficulty in reading if the sentences used are very lengthy. The length of a sentence
should not exceed 20 words. But it does not follow that all the sentences used will be illuminated to 20
word. If it is possible, avoid using words with more than 3 syllables.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT:
The following statements are considered fragments as they do not give complete thought.
Complete them by supplying with the needed ideas.

1. When the students and the teachers are going home.

2. Singing the Pambansang Awit.
3. My new bought laptop in the house.
4. In the quadrangle of the school.
5. When he gave the second chance.

Ways of Varying Sentences

Begin with a prepositional phrase.

Ex. We boarded the bus to Manila at dawn.

At dawn, we boarded the bus to Manila.

1. The examination will start today.

2. We go for vacation in Baguio.

5. begin with an adverb

 Ex. The school administration will temporarily be at the OH building.

Temporarily, the school administration will be at the OH building.

3. The students eagerly learns correct grammar.

6. begin with and adjective

Ex. The teachers who were energetic and loving taught us the song.

The energetic and loving teachers taught us the song.

4. The road which is wet and slippery looks dangerous.

7. use compound sentence from the short sentences

Ex. Maria is my friend. She is very kind.

Maria is my very kind friend.

5. We love fruit salad. It is so delicious.

Economy

Implies the use of as few words as possible but with accuracy in conveying the meaning.
Sometimes, you cannot help but repeat words in a sentence for emphasis. But generally, the
fewer words you use, the better the communication. Through careful choosing of words, you can
build a sentence which is rich in texture.

Example: instead of writing

Charlotte has a rather high-pitched voice that is usually known in music as a soprano voice.

You can write it this way to show clarity and economy.

Charlotte has a soprano voice.

Everybody understands that the term for a rather high-pitched voice is known as soprano.

Effectiveness

The terms to be used in writing be made in consideration of the impact the writer wishes to make
on his readers. This means that you also have to consider the occasion and the type of audience
you may have. A good writer should take into account the reason for communication, the level of
formality or informality, and the kind of person who will read the sentence.

Exercise
 The sentence below does clearly convey the ideas of the writer. Rewrite them for conciseness without
omitting essential content.

1. Before the conduction of these test, the condensed moisture should be put out from the
equipment by either tilting or inverting, which ever is more adaptable with its structure.
2. Due to the many and different applications of this type of a system may have in the near future, it
is likely that techniques should be used which will give the system maximum amount of versatility
and capability.
3. Enclosed herewith is a copy of important essentials that would be subject to coverage in the next
meeting dealing with the matter of inefficiency.
4. The supervision of the Sales Department must prepare a budget estimate for the objectives of
making it possible to make good sales.
5. It is to be equated that job to be scheduled will not include the necessity of any untoward
overtime work in the neighborhood during the holiday period.
6. From the cleaning point of view, these computers are exceeding good.

The sentence below is too brief and choppy. In case, combine the short sentence to come out with
well-constructed longer sentence. Reword them if necessary.

1. The boys finished polishing the parts. They gave them a primer coat.
2. The evidence show that the post tests have been very clear. The doctors denied them.
3. The project will soon to be done. The results will be reported. The engineers decision as to
whether to continue the project will be deliberated on.
4. We already have necessary machineries. The project can be started anytime. Any postponement
will be unnecessary.
5. The flow of water in this dam has been reduced to drops. Neighboring field owners are
complaining. Not enough water is used for irrigation.
6. The Management Division needs centralized control for possible expansion. The Management
Division is so big. An alternative solution possible. This alternative solution is to be explained.
7. Majority wants to allot additional money for the control of pollution. A few want to spend additional
budget on health care. There is not enough allocation.
8. We must consider possible consequences. Our headache is whether we still have enough funds.
Our information is insufficient.
9. The pressing problem is to determine how deep the well is. It is explained briefly in the narrative
report. The problem is more complicated than the author thinks. It should be solved immediately.
10. Effective technical writing style does not make use of many extremely concise sentences. A good
technical writing style does not make use of extremely long sentences either.

Connectives or Transitional Words

The relation between ideas is shown by using connectives or transitional words. These include
conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, adverbial and relative pronouns. If they used to join elements of
unequal rank, then they are called subordinating.
 Coordinating Connectives are used in joining elements of equal rank for specific purpose like:

1. To show addition: and, also, not only, but also, besides, likewise, moreover, similarly, furthermore,
in addition, in like manner, in the same way.
2. to show choice: or, nor, neither-nor, either-or, else, otherwise
3. to show sequence: next, finally, in the second place.
4. to show difference or contrast: but, yet, still, while, however, in contrast, on the other hand,
nevertheless, on the contrary, notwithstanding
5. to show cause or reasons: for
6. to show time relationship: thereafter, meanwhile, eventually
7. to show consequence or result: so, thus, hence, consequently, as a result, as a consequence,
accordingly, for this reason, in consequence

Subordinating connectives are needed in joining elements of unequal ranks for definite purpose
such as:

1. to show result- so that, such that

2. to show purpose- so that, that, in order that (in a negative sense)
3. to show condition- if, unless
4. to show manner- as, as if, as though
5. to show cause or reasons- as, since, because
6. to show comparison- than, as, so as
7. to show space relationship- where, wherever
8. to grant or show concession- though, although, even if, while, even though
9. to refer to persons, place or things or ideas- who, that, which, whom, whose, what, whoever,
whatever, whichever, whomsoever
10. to show time relationship- when, whenever, tell, until, while, after, since, before, as soon as, as
long as, meanwhile

Identify the conjunctions in the following sentences:

1. I raised up my hands but the bus driver did not stop.

2. My son Carlo is allergic not only driver did not stop.
3. You can use my bag when you need it.
4. Neither you nor I have seen the wind.
5. Eat this bread or else Ill get mad.

Combine the following sentences to produce good sentences by using connectives.

 1. A drama was held.
The drama was interesting.
The audience enjoyed the drama.
The participants were fulfilled.

2. Humans surroundings speak for themselves.

Some places are very clean.
One such place is Olongapo.
The people are trained not to litter anything.

3. It is ideal to have good friends.

People are known by the friends they have.
Very few people are meticulous about keeping a friend.
Birds of the same feather flock together.

4. Generous people easily attract attention.

People in return are also kind to them.
Love begets love.
Self-centered individual finds it hard to be good to others.

5. Class discussion can be boring.

Students do nothing but read and write.
There are very few class works.
The teacher just sits the whole period.
This class procedure is very unfavorable.

Parallelism

Is the construction of sentences in similar or the same manner by which the other idea is
conveyed through the use of the same grammatical structure to express a number of different
ideas that are closely related.

Examples: I came, I saw, I conquered

of the people, by the people and for the people

wherever you die, I would die; wherever you love so shall I love
 The effective use of parallel structure in developing a sentence requires a knowledge of all the
sentence elements (verbs, nouns, modifiers, phrases of all kinds, subject-predicate word groups), as well
as patterns of structure involving of these elements. In order to use parallel structure, you need to know
how to use the system of English Communication. Many students who attempt parallel structure develop
sentence with serious faults because they are unable to recognize the structural patterns.

THE PARAGRAPH

Originates from two Greek words para (beyond) and graphein ( to write)
Greek term paragraphe means a marginal note.
A group of closely related sentences dealing with a single topic or idea.

STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPHS

How does a paragraph look?

1. The first sentence is indented and all the other sentences following each other are aligned
forming a block.
 2. The sentences are linked to each other in through (thus you get an idea of what the writer is
talking about).
3. There is only one main idea conveyed by the paragraph.

CATEGORIES OF PARAGRAPHS
How many paragraph be classified?

Classified of Paragraph

A. According to structure
1. Sentence paragraph composed of only one sentence.
2. Substance paragraph (thought paragraph) contains a main idea and supporting details.
Such are complete in themselves and are units of a larger whole or each may be considered
a composition in miniature.
3. Structural paragraph serves as part of a composition and must not stand alone by itself but in
relation to other paragraphs.
a. Introductory paragraph found at the beginning of a composition.
b. Transitional paragraph intended to connect a preceding paragraph with a following
one,
c. Concluding paragraph found at the end

B. According to specific purpose of treatment

1. Descriptive type one that gives the readers details, both physical and metaphysical, of the
nature of the object, person, idea, or place that is under discussion.
2. Narrative type one that tells a story or gives the sequence of events as to how something
happened.
3. Expository type sets forth explanation or information on the subject using facts, opinions
and details to make it clear.
4. Argumentative type is intended to convince or persuade the readers from the vantage point
of the writers stand.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBSTANCE PARAGRAPH

When you write substance paragraphs, check your work if each has the following essential
characteristics.

1. Contains a topic sentence expressed or implied.

2. Contains a body of thought, not a mere fragment: (the well-developed paragraph is never sketch
or incomplete).
3. Must be unified: (oneness of purpose is desirable, extraneous detail must be eliminated)
4. Is well proportioned: if the thought of the paragraph is important, it should be fully, completely
developed that the reader can readily understand the significance of that thought).
5. Contains full unified, material arranged in proper order. Good arrangement of ideas implies logical
thinking.
6. Has suitable length: (this statement implies what is said above under proportion; it also means
that a series is short, choppy paragraphs or a group of very long ones, should be avoided).
7. Contains transitional aids: (The thought within paragraphs should make orderly, clear progress
and there should be clear passage from one paragraph to another).
 8. Is mechanically correct. It is properly indented: it contains the words which belong with it, not with
the preceding paragraph; in dialogue; it correctly represents every change of speaker.

USES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE PARAGRAPH

To develop an idea or impression

To set off a simple topic from a larger one
To introduce a topic.
To indicate a transition
To summarize a composition

QUALITIES/ELEMENTS OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

1. UNITY
a. There is unity in a paragraph if one single thought has been developed to which the
readers mind gets focused and all other minor ideas in the paragraph contributes to the
development of that central thought.
b. Oneness of content.
c. All sentence relate to the particular ideas expressed in the topic sentence.
d. To achieve unity, adequate development of the central idea is necessary.

This is done by:

1. Keeping to the topic

2. Providing sufficient details

2. COHERENCE
a. Careful selection of words and logical arrangement of ideas.

TWO PARTS OF THE TOPIC SENTENCE

a. Topic particular subject matter of the work.

b. Limiting terms words and phrases that tell your readers what you are saying about your
topic. They limit or reduce the topic to a single idea, or to several closely related ideas.

2. Supporting Sentences

Explain or prove the topic sentence with specific details, facts, examples, or reasons.

3. Concluding Sentence

Adds on strong ending to a paragraph

A concluding sentence may:
1. Summarize the paragraph
2. State the point of the paragraph
3. Restate the main idea using different words
4. Add insight about the main idea
 5. State an insight or lesson learned from experience

Model Paragraphs: (Read the following examples to see exactly how the topic sentence controls the rest
of the paragraph. First, notice how the topic controls the general area to be considered. Notice that every
sentence is about the topic or some part of the topic.)

Moscow was a deserted city. Moscow City of 250,000 people, was like a city of the dead. The
houses were empty. The echoing streets were empty. Riding through the gastly silence. Napoleon
approached the white walls of the Kremlin, ancient palace of the Muscovy zczars. In through the open
gates, he went, and with resounding footsteps down the arched corridors and into the cast throne room. It
too was empty.

APPEARANCE AND FORM OF A BUSINESS LETTER

-white short bond paper is appropriate

-quality and size vary
-envelop should be of the same quality as the paper
-not glossy but smooth so that ink will not be blur
-top, left and right margins 1 inch while the bottom margin is 1 inches
-heading is followed by the complete date. The month is spelled out.
i.e. January and not Jan. or you may use the military date i.e. 09 January 2012
-if a letterhead is used, heading is no longer necessary
-should be simple but dignified and should not appear like an advertisement
-should be used for the first page only, the second page and the succeeding page should be
-inside address is two spaces after the date line
a. Name of the addressee appears in capital letters
b. Rank or office
 c. Name of the business institution
d. Address
-if an attention line is used
a. The attention line is two spaces below the inside address
b. Name of the addressee appears
i.e. Attention : Engr. Alfonso R. Simon
-the salutation is two spaces below the attention line or the inside address
i.e. Sir: [ colon is appropriate in a business letter ]
c. If the firm is made up of ladies and men, use Gentlemen: [ not Dear Sirs ]
d. If the firm is made up of ladies only, use Mesdames: or Ladies:
e. Gentlemen:, Mesdames:, Dear Mr. Santiago:, or Dear Mrs. Bulusan: are appropriate

-Body is two spaces after the salutation

a. It is three spaces below the last line of the body
b. Only the first letter of the first word of the complimentary close is capitalized
c. It is followed by a comma
i.e. Very truly yours,
Sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
Cordially,
Cordially yours, - emphasize sincerity and healthy friendship
Respectfully yours, is appropriate when addressing a letter to older person, an employer or a
government official
-in an application letter, the reference line comes after the body or before the complimentary close.

Parts of the Proposal or the Feasibility Study:

a. The plan
b. The cost
c. Source of Funding
d. The Market
e. Profitability

Position Paper or the Reaction Paper. It is written to drive a point or to justify a position. It intends to
refuse a known argument with a presentation of both sides and favoring one side in conclusion.

Parts of the Position Paper:

a. Statement of the problem
b. Statement of the position
c. The issues
d. Definition of terms
 e. The prayer. The conclusion of the report favoring one side

Format of the Report

1. Title Page authors name, date of submission, authorization
2. Table of contents list of sections, sub-sections, appendices
3. Acknowledgement section thanking people
4. Summary or Abstract summary of entire report
5. Introduction background, terms of reference, abstracts
6. Findings/Discussions Presentation, analysis of facts obtained
7. Conclusions deductions based on findings
8. Recommendations suggestions and advice based on conclusions
9. Bibliography list of references
10. Appendices Supplementary materials (additional tablets, charts and other supporting data)