INTRODUCTION

In the human body, the skeletal system provides a strong framework upon which muscles, tissues
and organs attach. This structure consisting of the 206 bones of the human skeleton protects the
internal organs and allows the body to move around freely. Unfortunately, like any other body
system, diseases can plague and affect the skeletal system.

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 ARTHRITIS

Arthritis is an inflammatory condition. It affects the joints of the body such as the knee joint and
portions of the spinal column. In general, typical symptoms of this skeletal system disease
include joint pain, swelling, and stiffness accompanied by a reduction in the ability to freely
move the joint. Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are the most common forms of this
disease.

Arthritis is more common among adults aged 65 years or older, but people of all ages
(including children) can be affected. Physical activity and exercise have been shown to benefit
people with arthritis by improving pain, function and mental health. However, around 24% of
adults with arthritis report being physically inactive compared with 18.6% of adults without
arthritis.

TREATMENT OF ARTHRITIS

Treatment for arthritis aims to control pain, minimize joint damage and improve or maintain
quality of life. As yet, there's no single cure for rheumatic diseases, though many conditions can
be effectively controlled. Research has led to great improvements in this area.
Treatments must be tailored to the needs of each individual, because the type, severity and
impact of arthritis varies from person to person. You and your healthcare professionals will need
to balance the risks and benefits of each treatment, based on your personal needs and
circumstances.

By partaking in low levels of exercise, individuals with arthritis face placing themselves
at risk of conditions associated with lack of activity such as cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, obesity and functional limitations.

.Arthritis is treated with a combination of medications, physical therapies and patient

education and support.
Drugs for arthritis
Drug therapies are designed to help your arthritis. In the case of inflammatory arthritis
its important to start your treatment quickly because the sooner treatment is begun the
more effective it's likely to be.Voltarol and Diclomax are two medications that may be
prescribed.

Biological therapies are a newer class of drug. Theyre used in treating rheumatoid
arthritis some other inflammatory types of arthritis. Theyre unique in the way they work,

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 as they were made specifically to block messages between the white blood cells that
cause inflammation. Examples of biological drugs include the anti-TNF
drugs infliximab, etanercept and adalimumab which target a protein called tumour
necrosis factor. Other biological therapies, such as rituximab or tocilizumab target
different proteins.
Physical therapies for arthritis
Often your doctor will recommend a course of physical therapies to help you overcome some of
the symptoms of your arthritis. These may include any or all of the following:
hydrotherapy exercises in a warm-water pool. The water supports your weight and
therefore puts less pressure on your muscles and joints.

physiotherapy specific exercises tailored to your condition and individual needs,

sometimes combined with pain-relieving treatments such as ice or heat packs and
massage.

occupational therapy practical advice on managing everyday tasks, choosing

specialised aids and equipment, protecting your joints from further damage and managing
fatigue.
Surgery for arthritis
Surgery may be necessary and advisable if the damage to your joint is severe enough to
cause difficulties in your everyday life, and when other treatment isnt reducing the
pain. Joint replacements are now very sophisticated and successful. Many different joints,
including hip, knee, shoulder and elbow, are routinely replaced in people with advanced
arthritis. There are also a number of other pain-relieving or reconstructive operations
which can be helpful.

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 BONE CANCER

Bone cancer is a skeletal system disease that originates within a bone of the body causing the
bones to weaken. Individuals with bone cancer commonly experience fatigue, bone pain and
frequent bone fractures. Statistically speaking, although just about any bone in the human body
can be affected by cancer, this skeletal system disease most frequently occurs in the longer bones
such as those in the legs and arms. Bone cancer is a malignant (cancerous) tumor of the bone that
destroys normal bone tissue. Not all bone tumors are malignant. In fact, benign (noncancerous)
bone tumors are more common than malignant ones. Both malignant and benign bone tumors
may grow and compress healthy bone tissue, but benign tumors do not spread, do not destroy
bone tissue, and are rarely a threat to life.

Malignant tumors that begin in bone tissue are called primary bone cancer. Cancer that
metastasizes (spreads) to the bones from other parts of the body, such as the breast, lung,
or prostate, is called metastatic cancer, and is named for the organ or tissue in which it began.
Primary bone cancer is far less common than cancer that spreads to the bones.
TREATMENT OF BONE CANCER

Treatment options depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the cancer, as well as the
persons age and general health. Treatment options for bone cancer include
surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, andcryosurgery.

Surgery is the usual treatment for bone cancer. The surgeon removes the entire tumor
with negative margins (no cancer cells are found at the edge or border of the tissue removed
during surgery). The surgeon may also use special surgical techniques to minimize the
amount of healthy tissue removed with the tumor.

Dramatic improvements in surgical techniques and preoperative tumor treatment have made
it possible for most patients with bone cancer in an arm or leg to avoid radical surgical
procedures (removal of the entire limb). However, most patients who undergo limb-sparing
surgery need reconstructive surgery to maximize limb function.

Chemotherapy is the use of anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. Patients who have bone
cancer usually receive a combination of anticancer drugs. However, chemotherapy is not
currently used to treat chondrosarcoma.

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 Radiation therapy, also called radiotherapy, involves the use of high-energy x-rays to
kill cancer cells. This treatment may be used in combination with surgery. It is often used to
treat chondrosarcoma, which cannot be treated with chemotherapy, as well as ESFTs. It may
also be used for patients who refuse surgery.

Cryosurgery is the use of liquid nitrogen to freeze and kill cancer cells. This technique
can sometimes be used instead of conventional surgery to destroy the tumor.

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 LEUKEMIA

Leukemia is also a form of cancer but this skeletal system disease originates in the bone marrow
and affects the lymphatic system resulting in the formation of abnormal white blood cells. When
it comes to leukemia, there are basically four major types of leukemia: acute lymphocytic
leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia and chronic
myelogenous leukemia. Leukemia is not a single disease. Instead, the term leukemia refers to a
number of related cancers that start in the blood-forming cells of the bone marrow. There are
both acute and chronic forms of leukemia, each with many subtypes that vary in their response to
treatment. In addition, children with leukemia have special needs that are best met by care in
paediatric cancer centers. Such centers have trained medical professionals whose sole purpose is
to address the unique concerns of children.

TREATMENT OF LEUKEMIA

Leukemia treatment plans often are personalized and geared toward each individual patient. In
general, there are five major approaches to the treatment of leukemia:

chemotherapy to kill leukemia cells using strong anti-cancer drugs;

interferon therapy to slow the reproduction of leukemia cells and promote the immune
system's anti-leukemia activity

radiation therapy to kill cancer cells by exposure to high-energy radiation;

stem cell transplantation (SCT) to enable treatment with high doses of chemotherapy and
radiation therapy; and

surgery to remove an enlarged spleen or to install a venous access device (large plastic
tube) to give medications and withdraw blood samples.

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 Child diagnosed with leukemia

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 OSTEOMALACIA

Osteomalacia is a disease that leads to the softening and weakening of the bone tissue in the
human body. This disease, also called rickets, is typically caused by prolonged vitamin D
deficiency and is very common in children in certain countries of the world. Osteomalacia is not
the same as osteoporosis, another bone disorder that also can lead to bone fractures.
Osteomalacia results from a defect in the bone-building process, while osteoporosis develops due
to a weakening of previously constructed bone.

Your body uses calcium and phosphate to build strong bones. Osteomalacia may occur if you
don't get enough of these minerals in your diet or if your body doesn't absorb them properly.
These problems may be caused by:

The softer bones in osteomalacia have a normal amount of collagen, which gives the bones its
structure. However, they lack the proper amount of calcium.
There are many causes of osteomalacia. In children, the condition is called rickets and is
usually caused by low levels of vitamin D.
Other conditions that may lead to osteomalacia include:
Not enough vitamin D in the diet
Not enough exposure to sunlight, which produces vitamin D in the body
Malabsorption of vitamin D by the intestines
Factors that reduce formation of vitamin D in the body include:
Having very little exposure to sunlight
Shorter days of sunlight
Smog
Using very strong sunscreen
The elderly and people who do not drink milk are at increased risk for osteomalacia.
Other conditions that may cause osteomalacia include:
Cancer
Disorders of vitamin D metabolism
Kidney failure and acidosis
Lack of enough phosphates in the diet
Liver disease
Side effects of medications used to treat seizures

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 TREATMENT OF OSTEOMALACIA

When osteomalacia arises from a dietary or sunlight deficiency, replenishing low levels
of vitamin D in your body usually cures the condition.

Generally, people with osteomalacia take vitamin D supplements by mouth for a period
of several weeks to several months.

If your blood levels of calcium or phosphorus are low, you may take supplements of
those minerals as well. In addition, treating any condition affecting vitamin D
metabolism, such as kidney disease or low phosphate levels, often helps improve the
signs and symptoms of osteomalacia.

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 OSTEOPOROSIS

Osteoporosis is a skeletal system disease in which bones become brittle and weak due to
extensive loss of bone tissue. Though researchers poorly understand the cause of osteoporosis,
increasingly scientists are attributing this condition with the bone remodeling process that occurs
in healthy individuals. Osteoporosis causes bones to become weak and brittle so brittle that a
fall or even mild stresses like bending over or coughing can cause a fracture. Osteoporosis-
related fractures most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or spine.

Bone is living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced. Osteoporosis occurs
when the creation of new bone doesn't keep up with the removal of old bone.

Osteoporosis affects men and women of all races. But white and Asian women especially
older women who are past menopause are at highest risk.

TREATMENT OF OSTEOPOROSIS

If you are diagnosed with osteoporosis or have a high risk of breaking a bone, your doctor will
prescribe medication to strengthen your bones and help prevent fractures. Prescribed medicine
plays an essential role in managing osteoporosis. Some common medications that may be
prescribed are:

Bisphosphonates

Denosumab (6 monthly injection)

Strontium ranelate (Sachet dissolved in water daily)
strontium ranelate

Your doctor will also ensure that you:

have adequate calcium, vitamin D and exercise to support your bone health
stop smoking, reduce alcohol intake and change any lifestyle habits that may impact on
your bones
are monitored for any conditions/medications that affect bone health.

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 SPINA BIFIDA

Spina bifida is a genetic birth defect that affects the development of the spinal cord. When
present, this defect is typically detected and treated before a baby is born. Unfortunately, babies
that are not treated before birth may be born with excess fluid in or around the brain.

The mild form is the most common. It usually doesn't cause problems or need treatment.
You can't see the defect, but some people may have a dimple, birthmark, or hairy patch on their
back. Most people with this form don't know they have it until they get a back X-ray for another
reason.

A rare and more severe form is meningocele (say "muh-NIN-juh-seel"). In this form,
fluid leaks out of the spine and pushes against the skin. You may see a bulge in the skin. In many
cases, there are no other symptoms.

The most rare and severe form is myelomeningocele (say "my-uh-loh-muh-NIN-juh-

seel"). It's what most people mean when they say "spina bifida." Part of the spinal nerves push
out of the spinal canal, and the nerves are often damaged. You may see a bulge in the skin. In
some babies, the skin is open and the nerves are exposed.

The exact cause of this birth defect isn't known. Experts think that genes and the environment are
part of the cause. For example, women who have had one child with spina bifida are more likely
to have another child with the disease. Women who are obese or who have diabetes are also more
likely to have a child with spina bifida.
A child's symptoms will depend on how severe the defect is. Most children with the mild form of
spina bifida don't have any problems from it.
In many cases, children with meningocele don't have any symptoms.
Children with the most severe form of spina bifida often have spine and brain issues that cause
serious problems. They may have:

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 Little or no feeling in their legs, feet, or arms, so they may not be able to move those
parts of the body.

Bladder or bowel problems, such as leaking urine or having a hard time passing stools.

Fluid buildup in the brain (hydrocephalus). Even when it is treated, this may
cause seizures, learning problems, or vision problems.

A curve in their spine, such as scoliosis.

TREATMENT OF SPINA BIFIDA

Most children with the mild form of spina bifida don't need treatment. Children with
meningocele may not need treatment either. But children with the most severe form
usually need surgery. Sometimes surgery to correct severe spina bifida can be done before
a baby is born.

A child who has hydrocephalus will need surgery to put in a drainage tube called a shunt.
It relieves pressure on the brain by draining excess fluid into the belly. This keeps the
swelling from causing more damage to the brain.

Experts such as physical therapists and occupational therapists work with children who
have severe spina bifida. The work starts soon after the child's birth. These therapists can
teach parents and caregivers how to do exercises and activities with the child.

Some children may need a brace, a wheelchair, or other aids. Children with bladder
control problems may need help using a catheter each day to prevent infection and
kidney damage. To help prevent bowel problems, parents usually begin working with the
doctor or nurse on managing bowel care as soon as the child starts eating solid food. As
children with severe spina bifida grow, other treatments and surgeries may be needed to
manage problems that arise

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 REFERENCES

http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/treatment-options

http://www.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/osteomalacia/overview.html

http://www.healthcommunities.com/leukemia/treatment.shtml#sthash.mT3rHeiE.dpuf

http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org/arthritisinformation/conditions/arthritis/treatments.aspx#sthas
h.A5HCPLB4.dpuf

http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org/arthritis-information/conditions/arthritis/treatments.aspx

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

Introduction 1

Arthritis and Treatment of Arthritis 2-3

Bone Cancer and Treatment of Bone Cancer 4-5

Leukemia and Treatment of Leukemia 6-7

Osteomalacia and Treatment of Osteomalacia 8-9

Osteoporosis and Treatment of Osteoporosis 10

Spina Bifida and Treatment of Spina Bifida 11-12

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