Job Competence Coaching & Development

Project

**************

ELECTRICAL
Training Module

TOTALFINAELF E&P INDONESIE

1999/2000/2001
 SE 30

LIGHTNING

LIGHTNING PROTECTION
 SE 30 LIGHTNINING PROTECTION
COURSE CONTENT
-Generalities - Presentation

A. LIGHTNING PHENOMENA

A.1 The "Keraunic" level

A.2 The Blasting
A.3 Storm formation
A.4 Discharge the lightning strikes
A.5 Characteristics of lightning strikes
A.6 Electro-geometrical model
A.7 Effects of Lightning

B. TOTALFINA ELF SPECIFICATION GS ELE 051

C. DIRECT PROTECTION

C.1 Generalities
C.1.1 Protection against direct effects theory
C.1.2 The air terminal /conductor installation
C.2 The air termination
C.2.1 Franklin rod
C.2.2 Early Streamer Emission
C.2.3 Faraday cage
C.2.4 Other protections
C.3 Down conductor
C.3.1 Security proximity distance
C.3.2 Side flashing
C.3.3 Effect of step voltage and touch voltage
C.3.4 Bonding
C.3.5 Specific E.S.E. descent conductor
C.3.6 Lightning event counter

D. GROUNDING

D.1 Earthing - generalities

D.2 Soil conditions
D.3 Principle of earthing
D.4 General method of earthing
D.6 Improvement in soil continuity
D.7 Grounds interconnections debate
D.7.1 Separate grounds
D.7.2 Interconnected grounds
E. ELECTRICAL PROTECTION surge protection

E.1 Generalities
E.1.1 When and where to protect
E.1.2 How to get effective protection
E.2 Different origins of overvoltage
E.2.1 Conducted overvoltage
E.2.2 Induced overvoltage
E.2.3 Propagation of overvoltages
E.2.4 Principle of protection
E.3 Characteristics of protection
E.4 the products for protection
E.4.1 Electrical supply
E.4.2 Power distribution
E.4.3 Sub power distribution
E.4.4 other sub power distribution
E.4.5 End of line power distribution protection
E.4.6 Telephone and data line surge protection
E.4.7 High frequency coaxial line surge protection
E.5 The technology
E.5.1 Zener diodes
E.5.2 Gas discharge
E.5.3 Varistance

F. MISCELLANEOUS

F.1 The practices

F.2 Typical protections techniques
F.3 Maintenance
GENERALITIES

The industrial facilities comprise increasingly electronic, data-

processing equipment and telecommunication based on numerical electronics
on low energy level. These systems are infinitely more sensitive to the effects
of the lightning than the systems based on analog electronics. That can
involve either the dysfunction, or the destruction of expensive materials,
independently of fires or electrification of people.

The interconnection of the systems (telecommunications connections,

modem, etc) makes easier the propagation of the destroying effects of the
lightning. The risk is pernicious because it can occur whereas no thunderbolt
fell near the attacked installation, the disturbance can be transmitted by the
energy connections, telecommunication, etc

THE LIGHTNING PROTECTION BECOMES AN ESSENTIAL

NECESSITY.

A short history of the lightning

- 2500 BC: oldest representations of the lightning (the lightning represented

by axes and stones launched since the sky).
- 2000 BC: Mesopotamia: female divinity belonging to the flashes in its
hands.
- Greek Period: ZEUS Main of the gods, and god of the lightning.
- Roman Period: JUPITER Main of the gods, and god of the lightning.
The lances of the Roman legions " crackled " per stormy weather
(Caesar).
- III Century: BARBARA become Santa BARBE called upon to be saved the
lightning.
- Fires of Saint ELME: The sailors notice emanations at the tops of the
masts of the boats right before the storm.
- First half XVIII century = electrostatic machines - bottle of LEYDE.
- 1749: B FRANKLIN and NOLLET show the similarity between the
lightning and electricity.
- 1752: stem of MARLY, according to the idea of FRANKLIN B.
- 1776: first lightning conductor in FRANCE.
- 1920/1930: estimation of the current values of the lightning, statistics on
the amplitudes.
- After 1950: knowledge of the stormy process and mechanism of the
lightning.
1987: standardisation (in FRANCE) of the model magnet-geometrical.
 It pleases God in his kindness for mankind, to allow men the
discovery of the protection of their home against the misdeed
of thunderbolt and lightning strike.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

Declaration of the academy of sciences in 1753 announcing the discovery of

the lightning rod
Lightning

The results of research conducted in France in recent years by Franklin

France and "Meteorage Franklin" (specialised department) have led to a
significant breakthrough in the knowledge and understanding of lightning
phenomena. This know-how has helped develop better protection and
prevention devices; but lightning retains many of its mysteries and will remain,
both for researchers and manufacturers, a focus of fascination and awe. The
ideal answer to the question of what lightning really is can be provided by
quoting P. G. Laurent, who wrote in 1950 :

"Lightning is an important personage which one cannot resist without danger,

but which is easily led if one lets it have its way. It possesses millions of volts,
capable of shattering insulating obstacles, but flows meekly through small-
diameter conductors. Since it is curious during its descent to explore
neighbouring metal structures and.conductors, where, rightly or wrongly, it
hopes to find an easier outlet, it is wiser to pave its way with appropriate
interconnections than to bar its way with obstacles that are ineffective"...

"Lightning explores the surrounding space thanks to a sort of sensitivity that it

procures from the electrical field that it propagates, and this same field gives it
a means of breaking through insulators by applying its electrical force. The
essential idea behind every protection system is to avoid situations in which
these forces can be brought into play".

This figurative language characterises the physical reality of lightning.

Introduction

Lightning i's a major source of disturbances for all electrical installations and
can affect them in several manners:
all power and voltage levels are concerned, ranging from EHV
transmission systems to integrated circuits and including LV power supplies
and data transmission circuits,
it can cause transient disturbances to the continuity of service, thereby
reducing the quality of the power supply system,
it can damage equipment and result in long interruptions in installation
operation,
it can be dangerous for life (pace voltage, increased potential of exposed
conductive parts and earthing circuits).

Lightning has always been a source of disturbances for users of electricity, yet
the fairly recent and growing demand for quality electrical systems (reliability,
availability, continuity of service, etc.) must be taken into account, as well as
the permanent necessity to minimise the costs of the production and the use
of electrical power. It may be said that in the efforts to improve the above
factors, lightning has come to constitute an obstacle. That explains why it is
now one of the major preoccupations of everyone in the sector, whether they
are distributors (national, private companies), manufacturers, designers
(design offices, engineering firms) or installers.
A study on the effects of lightning comprises two steps, but first requires in-
depth knowledge of the phenomenon. Starting in the 1970's, major
international research programs were initiated, notably by EDF in France, and
today, sufficient knowledge on lightning mechanisms is available.
The two steps are:
anticipate what can happen in a given installation and recommend
improvements. This is possible using dedicated software, validated by
experience, that simulates installation behaviour.
carry out an engineering and cost study on insulation coordination, taking
into account the cost of installations, maintenance and disruptions in
operation.

Note: insulation co-ordination consists in defining, on the basis of the voltage

and overvoltage levels likely to occur in an installation, one or several levels of
protection against overvoltages, then in selecting installation equipment and
protection devices.
 LIGHTNING

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

SE 30A

THE LIGHTNING PHENOMENA

1
A.1. THE KERAUNIC LEVEL

It is of universal use to characterise the stormy severity of an area by

its Keraunic level (Greek Keraunos = the lightning).

By definition, it is the number of days by year where the thunder was

heard. Statistics could be drawn up. However, this data is not very precise.

In France the Keraunic level average is about 20, it reaches 30 in the

mountainous areas and goes down to 10 in the coastal areas.

The experiment shows that the keraunic level fluctuates from one year
to another, but the specialists agree to say that the average of the
observations, extended over 5 years periods is rather well reproducible.

In other areas of the world this level can be much higher; it is for example
about 100 in Florida (U.S.A.), and can even reach or exceed 200 in Indonesia
or certain areas of South Africa.

The world keraunic chart.

2
A.2. THE BLASTING (or strike)
- Definition
The Keraunic level concept is too rudimentary to be able to provide an
usable measurement of stormy severity; because it does not give any
indication, neither on the frequency of blasting, nor on the existence in located
areas of particularly struck down.
A more rigorous definition of stormy severity can be reached by
defining the density of thunderbolts on the ground Ns (number of blows by
km and year). Studies made it possible to establish a correlation between
keraunic level Nj and Ns.

It should be noted that represents only an average, not taking into account the
characteristics topographic.

Correlation between level keraunic and density of blows on the ground

The French Keraunic level is between 10 and 35 days, that means it falls an
average of 3 thunderbolts per year and km.

3
FRANCE 1.5 to 2 million thunderbolts per year.
WORLD 63 billion thunderbolts per year, means 100/Sec.

Considerable dispersions are observable on a local scale. They are caused

by atmospheric instabilities due to the relief, large curtains of trees in plain,
etc

- Local factors influencing blasting

We can wonder whether there are areas particularly struck down,

called commonly nest of storms. Their existence is reported by hearsays
but never was the subject of serious statistics.

What is it necessary to think about it? We can reasonably think of three

possible local factors.

Factor topologic
There are preference areas for the formation of the stormy clouds
under the combined effect of the ground and local re-heating.
There is formation of a stormy cloud in altitude where the condensation
begins: it is the heat storm.

In addition, movements of air channelled by valleys or mountains

facilitate the existence of stormy corridors. Thus, it is not always the highest
points that are struck by the lightning. In mountain, we noted that the slopes
of the valleys were more often struck down than the tops.

Factor geologic
We will further see that the exact impact of a thunderbolt seems to be
determined only in the lower part of its trajectory. The higher part, let us say
beyond the hundred meters above ground level, develops completely
independent of the geometrical or geological structure of this thunderbolt.
That would be thus only local factors, which could have an action on the
decision of the impact. The presence of trees, buildings, chimneys are one of
these factors, well known. Nevertheless, the conductivity of the ground could
be another important factor.

These results would make it possible to allocate at the wet faults, at the
sheets of water, at the marshy grounds, a preferential attraction for the
lightning; their zone of action could not however exceed the hundred meters.

Conductivity of the air

We sometimes called upon the air conductivity to explain a nest of
storm. To date, we do not have experimental data underlining an effect of this
conductivity by supporting for example the way of the discharge.
The theories indicate that would need a rate of ions in the air considerably
higher than we can measure under the natural conditions so that a significant
effect can appear.

4
A.3. STORM FORMATION

The stormy cloud is generally of cumulonimbus type. It can extend on

several Km.
We recognise it with his shape of anvil and with the sink colour of its
base (fig: 3). It constitutes an enormous machine thermodynamic whose base
is at approximately 2 - 3 km above ground level and the top at 10 - 15 km of
altitude.

Figure 3: Cumulonimbus

At the time of a summer storm, the release of the process is

conditioned by the rise of hot air coming from the ground. During this rise, this
mass of air load of moisture until its become a cloud (fig 4).

Figure 4: formation of the cloud

5
 The violent draught ascendant and descendant (100 to 150 km/h),
characteristic of these clouds separate then the water droplets. The
movement is so powerful that the top of the cloud literally crushes against the
higher layer of the Earth's atmosphere (troposphere);it is what explains the
characteristic shape of these clouds as anvil.

By taking altitude these droplets are transformed into ice crystals.

The extraordinary mixing which takes place inside these clouds, tears
off the electrons at the various elements of the water and the ice.The friction
of these elements reveals positive and negative electrostatic loads (ions). Fig.
5

Figure 5: formation of the electrostatic loads

Thereafter, the positive and negative loads separate due to the

mechanical phenomena of air movement. The positive loads made up of ice
crystal are in the higher part whereas the negative charges made up of water
droplets are in the lower part of the cloud. The ground by influence of the
cloud load in opposite polarity (fig. 6). A small quantity of positive loads
always remains at the base of the cloud.

6
 Figure 6: Beginning of the mechanisms of electrification

The accumulation of these loads creates between these zones, a very

great difference of potential (hundred of MV!). When the gradient limit
(threshold of approximately 30 KV/cm) of the air is reached, - that means
when the possibility of holding tension in airspace (dielectric rigidity),
separating 2 opposite zones of polarity is not sufficient any more, -
discharges due to the corona effect take place. This resulting strikes (electric
discharges) occur, either between two zones of the clou

Figure 7: flashes between clouds Figure 8: thunderbolt

7
 The cloud thus forms an enormous capacitor with the ground. In half
an hour which follows the appearance of the first flashes intra-clouds, the
flashes with the ground appear (the lightning). The first rain appears, it is the
phase of maturity. Blasting on the ground intensifies, it is accompanied by
strong precipitation and blasts of wind. It is the phase for the cloud to collapse
releasing several hundreds of thousands tons of water.

With the approach of a stormy cloud, the natural electric field

atmospheric E on the ground, which is about 100 to 200 V/m by good weather
starts to be reduced, to be reversed, then to grow in strong proportions.
When it reaches -15 to -20 kV/m on flat terrain. However the presence of
obstacles locally increases and deforms the electrical field by a factor of 10 to
100 or even 1000, depending on the form of the irregularities sometimes
referred to as the point effect). The air ionisation threshold (approximately 30
KV/cm) is then reached.

The negative sign results from the convention of direction chosen for
the field on the ground:

- The field is negative when the atmospheric electric charges are negative.
- The field is positive when it is directed from the atmosphere towards the
ground.

8
The charge characteristics

The fig. 9 schematises a stormy cloud, the charges that it carries, and
the electric field that it creates on the ground.

Fig. 9: Electric field on the ground

THE CROWN EFFECT

The indicated values of the electric field on the ground suppose a

horizontal and flat ground.
However, we know that any asperity, by an effect of concentration of
tension fields and compressing fields of the equipotential surfaces can
increase the local surface field considerably.

9
 Fig. 10: Reinforcement of the electric field at the top of a half-sphere

We can calculate that at the top of a half-sphere posed on a plan, the

field is triple of the average field (fig. 10). When the half-sphere deforms to
become a pointed half-ellipsoid this effect is more accentuated: thus for a
relationship between large axis and small axis of the ellipsoid equal to 50, the
field is multiplied by a factor of 700 (Fig.: 11).

Ellipsoid pointed
Deformation of the tension fields and equipotential surfaces around
a half-sphere and a pointed half-ellipsoid.

Fig.11: Reinforcement of the electric field at the top of a half-ellipsoid

(asperity).

10
 As the ionisation threshold of the air atmospheric is about 30 kV/cm,
we see that under these particular conditions, it is enough for an ambient field
from 4 to 5 kV/m to cause an crown effect at the top of the ellipsoid, called
also CORONA effect or point effect.

This effect generates ions (positive in general case when the cloud is
charged negatively at its base), ions that derive slowly towards the cloud,
under the influence of the electric field. This drift of ions constitutes an
electrical current ascendant, whose tendency is indeed to discharge the cloud.
That was the 'feeling' of Mr B. FRANKLIN.

This crown effect, which is thus a natural ionisation of the air, results in
the appearance of bluish luminous emanations to the point of any asperity
(trees, pylons, lightning conductor, raised building, etc).

This phenomenon was observed per stormy weather since antiquity on

ends of lances and other pointed objects. This was also known by sailors
under the name of FIRE of St-O, whereas it occurred at the end of the boats
masts. The mountaineers also know that, its appearance on their ice axe
accompanied by a noise of bees means immediate danger and it is
advisable to go down again or to move away from the summits.

Fig. 12: The relief increases the local value of the electric field

11
A.4. DISCHARGE THE LIGHTNING STRIKES
A lightning strike between a cloud and the earth comprises two phases, first
the development of a pre-discharge or leader an ionised channel), which
provokes the lightning strike itself, a discharge of a visible high current arc.

Two main criteria distinguish lightning strikes, their direction and their polarity.

Descending lightning strikes, in which the leader runs from the cloud to
the ground
Ascending lightning strikes, in which the leader runs from the earth to
the cloud
In flat country, the most frequent lightning strike is the descendant. An
ascendant thunderbolt requires the presence of an important prominence
(tower, factory chimney, etc.) to develop; it is also the reason for which the
ascendant thunderbolt more frequently occurs in mountain.

In the second place, we classify the thunderbolts according to the

direction of the principal current dissipation; conventionally we define:

Negative lightning strike when the negatively charged part of the cloud
discharges (80% of lightning strikes under temperature climates)
Positive lightning strike when the positively charged part of the cloud
discharges

12
DESCENDING LIGHTNING STRIKES

The thunderbolt starts with a discharge slightly luminous (TRACER) which

generally occurs in a negative zone of the cloud according to a mechanism
which is not yet well understood. The tracer (stepped leader) consists of
electric particles torn off the cloud by the electric field cloud-ground. These
particles make an ionised luminous channel that moves towards the ground
by successive jumps of a few tens meters with a speed of about 1000 km/s.
After a downtime from 40 to 100 s, a second tracer follows the way (trace)of
the first one by prolonging it of 50 m approximately. A third tracer starts then a
fourth and so on, the end of the flash approaching the ground. We then
attend at the ramifications and the luminosity of the channel increases. When
the tracer approaches the ground, the electric field between the tracer and the
ground increases considerably to reach at this stage the values from 100 to
500 KV/m. Arrived at 200/300 m from the ground (in case of a negative
tracer) positive ascendant discharges develop, starting from the asperity of
the ground, in direction of the tracer. One of the nearest discharges or that
which progressed most quickly is exposed to the Dart (tip of the tracer).

The way being completely ionised (conductor) from the cloud to the
ground, it allows the flow of a strong current. This current is consisted by the
charges of the ground, which by going up the ionised channel formed by the
tracer, neutralise the charges of this tracer. We then observe a strongly
luminous feature, which progresses from the ground to the cloud at a speed of
about 100 000 km/s. it is the RETURN STRIKE.

A lightning strike, in general, is composed of several partial discharges

running out by the same ionised channel. The process is as follows:
when the current of the first discharge ceased (running out), it can occur
approximately 100 s before a second discharge occurs, the cloud being able
to contain a certain quantity of charge. This second discharge starts with the
appearance of a tracer which, contrary to the 1st tracer (of the first discharge
operating by jumps), progresses continuously, it is the DART LEADER of
which the propagation velocity is of 1000 km/s. It is also followed by a return
strike. Several successive discharges can take place called SUBSEQUENT
ARCS. In general, a complete thunderbolt lasts 0.2 to 1 second and
comprises an average of four partial discharges.

In the interval between the successive discharges, which are impulsive,

a weak current (between 100 to 1000 A) continue to run out by the ionised
channel: it is the persistent current (or "following" current), which often runs
out most of the total charge of a thunderbolt. The discharge continues until
the neutralisation of the charges.

13
Principle of negative descendant lightning strike

14
ASCENDING LIGHTNING STRIKES

The emanations of the positive crown effect, which appear at the tops
of the asperity, develop more far and with more intensity that the dimensions
of prominence are important. From a certain intensity of emanations, the
phenomenon changes abruptly and can develop sufficiently to reach the
cloud: it is the ascendant lightning strike. Such ascendant blows are
frequently observed starting from modern tower of television of which the
height exceeds 200 m and starting from skyscraper like showed observations
with the Empire State Building. The relief of the ground, in particular the
isolated mountains support the formation of ascendant blows, when a pylon or
tower is placed at their top. (E.g.: the lightning Observatory of St Salvador in
Switzerland, beside Lake Lugano recorded very many ascendant blows).

From a certain value of the ambient electric field, the tracer develops
and progresses in direction of the cloud to approximately 1000 km/s. During
this progression, the tracer ramifies up to the formation of a tree structure,
whose growth to the cloud can last a few tens of milliseconds. At the time
these ramifications lick the base of the cloud, it is established a discharge of
which the duration can reach the second and with a current of thousands of
amps. In certain cases, we observe short and intense illuminations of the tree
structure. At these re-illuminations correspond impulses of current,
superimposing the persistent current of amplitude, ranging between 10 and 40
kA.

Finally the principal difference between a lightning strike descendant

and ascendant in addition to of course their mode of initiation, lies in the fact
that the descendant thunderbolt always starts, (seen from ground) by an
impulse of strong amplitude current, whereas the ascendant blow starts with a
long persistent current of low value. The subsequent impulse discharges
have then the same characteristics in ascendant and descendant blows.

Descendant lightning strike Ascendant lightning strike

above the Lugano Lake above the Mount San Salvatore
(Switzerland) (Switzerland)

15
 Electrical parameter of the lightning

Equivalent circuit in an atmospheric discharge:

The cloud and the ground behave as a enormous capacitor, which

accumulates static charges (about 100 Coulombs).
When the breakdown voltage is reached, 30 kV/cm, the sparkle occurs
between the cloud and the ground through the conducting ionised channel.
This channel behaves as a resistance R in series with an inductance L. The
current of the lightning strike depends of the voltage between the base of the
cloud and the ground, the resistance and the inductance of the arc which are
themselves function of the way of the flash.

Fig. 15: Circuit equivalent of an atmospheric discharge

On ground, the electric field, by a nice weather, between the ground

and the ionosphere (conducting layer at an altitude of 50 to 60 km) is about
100 to 200 V/m, the ground being negative. The total terrestrial D.C. current,
which flees through this enormous capacitor, is approximately 2 kA, it is the
current during nice weather. The lightning (100 flashes per seconds in the
world) is the phenomenon, which allows the negative charges, rising slowly by
nice weather, to return on the ground. This 'charging' and 'discharging'
sequences are in fact equivalent to a perfect current generator process.

16
 Difference of Potential

In open area, just before a lightning strike, the electric field "E" is about 15
to 20 kV/m. The height "h" of a strike being of approximately 5 km, the d.o.p.
(difference of potential) between cloud and ground is expressed by the
formula:

d.o.p. = E . h

d.o.p. = 20 kV/m X 5000 m = 100 000 kV = 100 MV

d.o.p. = 100 MV!!

Note: The terrestrial electrical measurement is done using an

electromechanical apparatus: the "field-mill-meter"

The electric field E does not have any effect on the electronic
systems.

Current of a typical lightning strike negative

The peak value of the lightning current varies from few tens kA to hundred
kA, for the negative descendant lightning strikes. On the other hand it can
reach several hundreds kA for the positive ascendant thunderbolts.

Fig. 16 : Current of a typical negative lightning strike

The form of the typical discharge (negative current cloud-ground) explains

the blinking aspect of the negative flash.

17
A.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTNING STRIKES

1.Wave form
Lightning as a physical phenomenon, corresponds to an impulse current
source, that is a series of discharges pf a quantity of electricity over a short
period of time.
The actual wave form is quite variable and comprises a steep front to the
maximum amplitude (ranging from a few to 20 microseconds), followed by a
long decreasing tail of several microseconds (see figure under)
The associated spectral field covers a band ranging from 10 kHz to several
MHz.

Oscillogram of a lightning impulse current

2.Amplitude of lightning strikes

Experimental statistical distribution of positive & negative strikes as function of amplitude

18
From these curves, can be said:

-Amplitude of positive lightning strike currents can reach great values, above
150 kA in 10% of the cases
-Amplitude of negative lightning strike current is smaller, 10% of their values
are about 50 kA
-The average values of positive strikes are around 25 kA (in 50% of the
cases)
-The average values of negative strikes are around 18 kA.

**Note: these statistics are valid on worldwide valid

3.Wave front distribution:

The distribution of lightning strikes as a function of front steepness is

illustrated as below

Experimental statistical distribution of positive and negative lightning currents

as a function of their steepness (IEEE)

Negative lightning strikes, having generally their amplitude smaller than those
of positive ones, have a wave front greater. The average being:
- 20 kA / s for negative strike
- 2kA / s for positive strike

19
4.Correlation between wave front and amplitude

There is no specific relation between peak value (amplitude) and front wave
value of a lightning strike current. In fact they are inversely proportional;

Electrical charge:

The total neutralised charge 'Q' during a lightning strike is, in average a few
tens of Coulombs - in maximum it can reach 300 Coulombs (very strong
strike).

Integral I dt

It is the characteristic to be taken into account when estimating the thermal

effects of the strike, for example to calculate the cross section of a descending
cable towards the earth connection.
Taking It at 106 As is safe up to 97% against negative strikes, but hardly
50% against positive ones. For 99% protection against positive strikes
(corresponding to 99.9% of all strikes) the value to consider is 7.107 As.

Table (comparison / recapitulation)

Exceeding Peak Charge Wave I dt Total Number

probability current front duration of strikes
P% I (kA) Q( C ) S (kA/s) (kA) (s) n
50 26 9 48 0.54 0.09 1.8
10 73 69 74 1.9 0.56 5
1 180 330 97 35 2.7 12

Extreme values of I =500 kA have been measured in France / Switzerland ,

values of wave front S = 400 kA in US (NASA), .

AN average strike, type cloud / ground negative, height 4 km, last 0.1 second,
transfer 9 C, has a peak current of 26 kA and a wave front of 48 kA / s

Use of electrical parameters

-Current amplitude is to treat the mechanical stress initiated by the strikes

-Wave front is to know the value of over-voltages
-Tail time (of a strike) is o know the time of application for electromagnetic
force
-Specific Energy is to dimension the components of surge protectors
-Charge is also for the components, related to metal fusion at impact point of
the strike.

Energy of a lightning strike:

Subject is to calculate the energy dissipated by a strike is height of arc is 5

km, electric static field before discharge is E = 10 kV / m and total charge is
50 Coulombs.

20
Solution:
A cumulonimbus acts as a capacitance. The voltage between the cloud and
the ground equals the product of electric field E by the height of the arc
U = E.h = 10000 x 5000 = 50 MV
The discharging capacitance is
C = Q / U = 5O / 50 000 000 = 1 F

Energy stored in a capacitance is W = 0.5 C.U = 1.25 x 109 joules.

Energy is around 1 Giga joules, representing about 300 kWh, principally
dissipated in electromagnetic field. This is a relatively 'small' energy compared
to human electrical consumption.

About the "idea" of using the lightning energy

Taking an example, France is stroked 1.5 millions time a year, with 3.15.107
seconds per year, one strike happens every 20 seconds as average.
Supposing being able to "canalise" all strikes and with a value of W = 1.109
joules per strike

P = W /T = 1 x 109 / 20 = 50 MW value ridiculously small

*In a lightning there is an enormous instantaneous energy (in a range of 1
million of MW) but effective (or average) power and energy are low.

21
A.6. ELECTRO-GEOMETRICAL MODEL

The lighting impact mechanism may be broken down as follow

- A leader originated in cloud approaches the ground at low speed.

As soon as the electrical field is strong enough, conduction takes place
suddenly, producing the discharge of lightning.
- Experimental data has been used to derive the relationship between the
distance separating the beginning (arc) and the end (discharge) of a lightning
channel (i.e. the striking distance), on the one hand, and the amplitude of the
lightning strike, on the other:

d = 9.4 . I 2/3 'others' previously used d = 6.7 . I 0.8

where d is the striking distance in meter and I the presumed peak current in
kA

This electro-geometrical model is valid only for descending negative lightning

strikes (most of the strikes); It obviously cannot apply for ascending negative
strikes for which present studies are trying to define a 'model'.

- An electro-geometrical model can be established, similar to the one for a

vertical rod in the example below:

protection zones surrounding a vertical rod

Consider a vertical rod with a height 'h' and its summit at 'H'. The zones
defined in the surrounding space are the following:
-zone 1; situated between the ground and parabola 'p'. The latter defines the
points equidistant from 'H' and the ground. At the moment of the strike, a
leader located in this zone will hit the ground because it is closer than 'H'.

22
-zone 2; situated above the parabola. At the moment of the strike, a leader
located in this zone will be captured by 'H' if the distance to 'H' is less than the
striking distance d; It follows that for a given current I, i.e. for the resultant
striking distance x to the rod, called the captured range, is:

The capture range of the rod increases with the amplitude of the lightning
strike. For very low amplitudes, the capture range drops to less than the
height of the rod which can then capture strikes along its length. This has
been verified experimentally.

Application of electro-geometrical model: the fictive sphere

Principle: according to this electro-geometrical model the impact point of the

lightning strike is determined by the ground structure or object which will be at
distance 'd' of the descending leader, even if this (object' is the ground itself.

It looks like if the tip of the leader is surrounded by a 'fictive sphere', radius
R = d, centred on this tip, the sphere following strictly the movements of the
leader. Approaching the ground, the first 'object' in contact with the sphere
determines the impact point of the strike.
If during its movement, the sphere touches one protection device (rod, faraday
cage, wire,.) and never touches the 'object' itself, the protection is
considered efficient.

The air terminal protection: lightning rod (with pike or spherical end)
See figure under

Considering leader, bringing negative charges, and with d the radius of

the fictive sphere; The object is compared to a rod, height 'h'
-If the sphere makes contact only with the rod (case A), this one takes he
impact of the strike
--If the sphere makes contact with the ground, without touching the rod
(case B), the ground supports the impact in point S
-If the sphere makes contact simultaneously with rod and ground (case C), the
lightning strike touches either one of this 'object', but do not go within the
protected zone .
This zone is for a radius 'd1 corresponding to a determined peak current
'I1
If d1 is smaller than h, impact can occur under the tip of the rod (this is an
explanation for side strikes on towers, skyscrapers; commonly observed).

"Strength" of a strike is a factor which can affect the effectiveness of a

protection , a relatively "small" strike could enter the supposed (and
calculated) protected zone see the table after.

23
 Zone protected
for a current I1

Method of the fictive sphere

The following table is for a lightning rod 30 meters of height. The protective
radius is given according to the lightning current & d = 9.4 . I 2/3 with rounded
result values
I (kA) 3 7 10 30 80 150
D (m) 21 36 46 96 185 281
X (m) 19 35 43 70 101 126

The choice of distance 'd' is critical when defining the protection of an

installation. Engineering has to make compromises between number of
protecting rods, their heights and the rating (Amps) of protection.

24
A.7. EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING

The lightning is an electric phenomenon and thus has the same

consequences as all other current circulating in an electric conductor or than
any other passage of current through a bad conductor or an insulator. We
can thus expect the following effects:

- thermal effects (release of heat)

- electrodynamics effects (appearance of forces)
- electrochemical effects (galvanic decomposition)
- acoustic effects (thunder)
- effects of rise in potential of the ground
- effects of induction

! THERMAL EFFECTS

A) EFFECTS RELATED TO THE QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY Q

They result in effects of fusion at the entrance point of the lightning

current in an electric conductor (traces of impact). We note sometimes a
fusion on the acute points of some mm. On the plane surfaces (metal sheets)
we note traces of fusion which can go until boring for thin metal sheets. A
strong strike (300 coulombs) can bore 2 to 3 mm in a steel plate,
consequently material used for protection has a minimum thickness of 4 mm
in steel.
Negative lightning strikes are of several successive pulses. Between
two pulses and after the pulses, a tail current (about hundred Amp's) flows to
"empty" the charge of the lightning strike. This phase is the cause of fire
ignition in forest, farms,.,welding of metallic parts, explosions.

B) EFFECTS RELATED TO THE JOULE EFFECT

! The current of the lightning obeys the JOULE law

When the current of the lightning penetrated in a metallic conductor in

which it can be propagated. Its release of heat obeys the Joules law where
intervene the square of intensity i, the time of the current passage t and the
ohm resistance R.
Lightning current passing through relatively bad conductors can create
sever damages. For example a tree, a rock (with water): when passing the
current vaporises the water and provokes the bursting of the material sending
pieces away (up to hundred meters for trees)

25
! ELECTRODYNAMICS EFFECTS

! The current of the lightning obeys the LAPLACE law

Mechanical efforts can only appear where several lightning paths are
laid out in a way that one could be in the magnetic field created by the other.
In this case, the more the variation between these parts is weak, the more the
efforts become large.

! ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS

! The current of the lightning obeys the FARADAY law

By considering a flash releasing a charge of 100 Coulombs, it

corresponds, by application of the Faraday's law, at most, to one electrolytic
decomposition releasing 30 milligrams of iron or an equivalent lead or zinc
mass, at the exit point of the current. Even on the descents of lightning
conductor very frequently struck down, it is not necessary to expect that the
current of the lightning produces electrolytic decompositions with the earth
electrodes. The action of consecutive corrosion due at currents circulating in
the ground can be much more important on buried conductors.

! ACOUSTICS EFFECTS

While the current discharge runs out in the lightning path, the
electrodynamics forces produce a contraction of the channel until making it
very narrow. The rise of the electrodynamics pressure of origin in the
channel, is estimated at 2 or 3 atmospheres, the temperature reaches 30000
K. It disappears when the strike dies out, so that we can say that the heart of
the lightning explodes, producing a shock wave. The impression made by the
thunder on the observer is very different according to its distance from the
dispersal point. The duration of a thunder clap is due to the fact that the
ionised channel presents a big length, including the internal part of the cloud,
often invisible: the noise emitted by each elementary length, according to the
distance from this one compared to the observer, arrives at this one with a
different temporal shift. In addition, the spectral components of high
frequencies generated by the shock wave are propagated according to a
privileged direction, perpendicular to the section of channel from which this
one results, whereas the low spectral frequencies are characterised by an
omni-directional radiation: it results from it that, according to the relative
orientation of an elementary section compared to the observer, the noise will
be perceived like a dry slapping or a deaf noise. It is thus ultimately the
combination of the distance to the observer and the respective orientation of
the successive sections of the channel of the lightning that will characterise
the perceived total noise. The succession of thundering and slapping
constitutes a true sound signature of a thunderbolt.

However, the remote perception is relatively restricted: it exceeds

hardly 10 km (approximately 30s of time delay between the flash and the

26
thunder). The sound range depends of the wind direction and it is all the
weaker since the temperature decreases more quickly with altitude.

! RISE IN POTENTIAL OF THE GROUND

! The current of the lightning obeys the OHM law

The rise in tension of the ground near an impact of the lightning is due
to the flow in the ground of the very strong power of the lightning current. The
OHM law remains impossible to circumvent! For example, with a ground
resistance of 10 ohms and a current of 5 0000 amps, we obtain a local
variation of the ground potential of 500 000 volts! when the non-affected
away ground remains conventionally with potential zero.
The distribution of the potential in the ground is represented on the
figure below, it is given by the law:
.I
Vx =
2 x

Vx = potential in point x ('x' in m) compared to the .

= average resistivity of the ground in /m
I = current of the lightning strike in A
x = distance between the measured point (Vx) and the impact of the
thunderbolt in m. (which can be the earth electrode of the lightning

air terminal device).

Rise in potential of the ground

27
 If only the earth electrode went up to this potential, that would be without
consequences, and we could stop the 'discussion'. But it should be
remembered that the conductors of descent and roof are connected there,
and they are thus also at this potential.
We see that all the conducting parts of the building, which are
interconnected with the ground, in an unspecified way (heating installations,
network of drain, armours of cables) undergo a rise in potential, though much
weaker, which will be designated by u.
In the case of a big length of drains with a very low resistance, u can
remain close to zero.

At all events, between the descent of lightning conductors and any of

these objects, it appears a difference of potential U .

U=V-u

If their spacing is too weak, it can then occur a dielectric breakdown that
means a spark flying between one and the other. The same phenomenon can
also occur between two close objects subjected to two different potentials u1
and u2.

As an example, a difference of potential of 300000 V (V= 500000 V,

u= 200000 V) is able to create a spark between 60 to 70 cm. This
phenomenon is not sufficiently well perceived. Contrary to firmly anchored
beliefs, the ground does not remain with a constant potential during these
disturbed periods!

It results from what it precedes that a great importance should be

attached to reduce at the minimum the resistance of the earth electrode. In
addition, it is necessary that there is a sufficient spacing between the metal
parts connected to the ground independently and the descent of the lightning.
The spacing must be the larger possible since the ground resistance of the
descent of lightning conductor is larger.

When the earth electrode resistance of a lightning conductor descent

cannot be made rather low, taking into account the existing spacing between
the parts connected separately to the ground, or when we cannot carry out a
sufficient spacing of the parts compared to the resistance of the existing earth
electrode, the only means of preventing breakdowns is to connect electrically
by conductors the descent of the lightning with the parts put independently at
the ground. By this means, these last become integral parts of the installation
of lightning protection and can run out a fraction of the lightning current, in
accordance with the laws of the derived circuits. Because of their connection
with the lightning descents, they are integrated into the installation of
protection.

This phenomenon is called resistive coupling between grounds or

galvanic coupling

28
 In the same way, the rise of the ground voltage is particularly dangerous
for the cattle (Bovine, horses, sheep, etcall 4 legs animals). Thus, it can
appear a difference of potential of several thousands of volts, between the
legs of a cow (step voltage). This generally involves the electrocution of the
animal, because its heart is placed on the internal path of the current.
Thousands of animals are thus struck down each year. Although the steps of
a man are smaller, the flow in the ground of a very intense electrical current
can produce a difference of potential, from one foot to another, sufficiently
important so that it can be electrified!

Risk of electrocution by step voltage

Which is the difference of potential between the legs of a cow, which

grazes at 50 m of the impact point of the lightning shock of 25 kA, if the
resistivity of the ground is approximately 1000 m
Distance between front and back legs = 1m

Solution:
It is not the absolute potential of the animal, which counts but,
fortunately, the difference of potential between the front and back legs.

The legs at 50 meters of the impact point go up to a potential of:

U50 = 0.2 x 25000 x 1000 / 50 = 100000 Volts

The legs at 50 meters of the impact point go up to a potential of:

U51 = 0.2 x 25000 x 1000 / 51 = 99000 Volts

The cow thus will undergo a d.o.p.: U = 1000 V between the front and
back legs, under conditions of extreme moisture. This blow can be fatal.

The direct blasting of a human is extremely uncommon, even a lightning

air terminal receives exceptionally the lightning strike whereas it is conceived
and installed for that !!

The electrocutions by step voltage have always been the only

causes of electrocution by the lightning.

29
! PHENOMENON OF INDUCTION (INDUCED OVERVOLTAGE)

! The current of the lightning obeys the LENZ law

When there is discharge intra-clouds or between cloud and ground

(thunderbolt), this one generates an electromagnetic field, which induces a
voltage on the lines located outside and/or inside a building. Any closed loop
and in particular any electric circuit subjected to the magnetic field of the
lightning will be subjected to an induced (over) voltage (given by the LENZ's
law).

Example of perturbation by striking between (different) earthing

One lightning rod is connected to ground with one descent conductor
tightened on the wall of a building / house; What is the voltage between this
conductor and the building earthing wire placed at 10 meters.
Strike current 10 kA

Solution: inductance of the descent cable estimated at 1H/m, for 10 m.

L 10 H. Voltage between descent conductor and building earthing is
U = L i / t U = 10 x 10-6 x 40 000 / 10-6 = 400 kV
Obviously striking can occur through the wall

General practice is to multiply the number of descent conductors and

interconnect them, through the wall, with the internal earthing
A descent conductor must be as rectilinear as possible, a simple bend can
create sparking through the insulation / support (and provoke fire)

! INDUCED OVER VOLTAGE

When the lightning falls directly on a line (electric, telephone), the current
of the lightning generates locally an impulse of voltage in the conductors of
this line, impulse which then will be propagated to the building. Nearer was
the impact, more will be the amplitude of this impulse at the entrance point of
the line in the building. We call this impulse an over voltage of the lightning.
The amplitudes of these over voltage are generally about several thousands
of volts for the low voltage lines (230/400 volts) and telephone lines. They are
sufficient to make sparks and breakdowns in the insulation of the electric
apparatuses, and damage the electronic apparatuses.
These phenomena are called inductive coupling.

30
! DAMAGES OF LIGHTNING STRIKES

Persons and animals

In the Nordic countries it is not common that people are hit by direct lightning
strikes. The annual risk is less than one per one million. If many persons are
close together in a small-unprotected area, however, the consequences of a
close lightning strike can be serious, and precautions should be taken. Since
the behaviour of lightning is very unpredictable the details of different cases
deserve to be reported and discussed here. It is known that it is dangerous to
talk in the telephone or work close to electric lines when lightning is close.

Cows and animals often gather in crowds under a tree during thunderstorms
and sometimes all are killed when lightning strikes the tree.

Who is responsible for an accident? Should warnings be issued? What

information about emergency measures should be taken? Contributions will
be welcomed, and edited.

Nature
The most important damages in the nature caused by lightning are forest fires.
Their frequency varies from year to year, depending on the dryness of the
summer. Lightning location systems can be very useful to indicate where fire
is probable to occur.
Damage can also be caused by the release of large amounts of substances
toxic to plants or animals. Cases can be very different and therefore the
reporting and sharing of experience is important.

Structures

A structure means a building including electric and other installations and also
the persons occupied in or around the building. Several standards exist and
others are under preparation, e.g. by IEC and CENELEC. Under this heading
special problems not covered by standards could be subject of discussion.
How good is the protection that follows the standard? Still it is an up to date
question.

Electric Power

Electric power lines for transmission and distribution have, because of their
length a high probability of receiving a direct lightning strike and the current
can be conducted over very long distances and cause damage at many
places to different types of components. The protection of electric power
systems is a highly specialised technique and protection standards have been
well developed in international cooperation. Still certain problems are different
in different countries, due to lightning properties and due to different structures
in the system grounding etc. The safety measures determine the availability
and reliability which today everywhere is expected to be very high since the

31
modern society often depends critically on the uninterrupted supply of
electricity. Experience from all fields in all the countries are welcome,
including information about cases where unexpected long-lasting outages of
electric power caused critical situations.

Telecommunication

Telecommunication systems are sensitive to damage as well by direct strikes

as by close lightning, and overvoltages can also be from connected electric
power lines hit by lightning. The protection technique is sophisticated and
requires normally early planning. Standards exist and new are under
development. Like the electric power telecommunication is necessary for the
proper functioning of vital parts of our society. Reports of extensive long-
lasting outages of telecommunications are welcomed.

Computer and complex systems

Computers and complex electronic systems are sensitive also to

electromagnetic fields radiated from lightning strikes in the neighbourhood,
and to transient currents in close conductors. Since almost every part of the
society depends on computers and electronic control systems, these EMC
problems have been studied a long time. Because of international standards
and cooperation there is a constant need for laboratory testing. It is very
important to understand the properties of lightning for this work.

Some figures:

- Average of 20 persons in France , 90 in USA killed each year because of

lightning
- Numerous persons wounded (hundreds in France, Thousands in USA)
Example of a "news" in US :
"22 people were injured, some seriously, while swimming in a lake at a county
park near Potterville (Eaton County). The lightning struck while the sun was
still shining at the lake and originated from a non-threatening cloud nearby.
This incident and some surprising statistics underscore the importance of
lightning safety, especially for those working out of doors"
- 20 000 head of cattle killed each year in France
- 10% of the blazes are caused by lightning strikes
- 0.1 GF and 1 G$ respectively in France and US are estimated costs/year
- 100 transformers and 50 000 energy counters to be replaced / year in
France
- Tens of thousand household electric appliances damaged in France / year
- 50% of electrical breakdowns due to lightning strikes

32
Some people happy to be struck by lightning !:

Lightning is not all bad news. On rare occasions, its victims have welcomed
strikes. In 1872, a paralysed member of the household of the Duke of Kent
was struck by a lightning. He survived, with his paralysis cured.
Edwin Robinson, a resident of Falmouth, Massachusetts, had been blind and
death for nine years following a road accident. Then, as he sheltered beneath
a tree during a storm on June 3 19890, he was struck by lightning. He laid
unconscious for 20 minutes with his hearing aid shattered. When he awoke,
his sight and hearing began to return. But this is very much the exception. The
rule is that lightning is dangerous! *
Lightning killed 504 sheep in Utah with one lightning strike.

33
 LIGHTNING PROTECTION

TOTALFINAELF SPECIFICATIONS

1
 TOTAL FINA ELF
EXPLORATION PRODUCTION

GENERAL SPECIFICATION

ELECTRICAL

GS ELE 051

Design and installation of lightning protection

Rev. Date Notes

2
 Contents

1. Scope......................................................................................................................... 4

2. Reference documents .............................................................................................. 4

2.1 Standards............................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Professional Documents...................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Regulations ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Codes.................................................................................................................................. 4
2.5 Other documents................................................................................................................. 4

3. Other associated TotalFinaElf General Specifications.......................................... 4

4. Protective devices .................................................................................................... 5

4.1 Air-termination system......................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Surge arresters.................................................................................................................... 5
4.3 Surge diverters .................................................................................................................... 5

5. Design of protective devices ................................................................................... 6

5.1 General principles ............................................................................................................... 6
5.2 Earthing of air-termination system ....................................................................................... 6
5.3 Hypothetical sphere model .................................................................................................. 7
5.4 Protection against direct lightning strikes............................................................................. 8
5.4.1 Buildings ........................................................................................................................... 8
5.4.2 Non-metal chimneys ....................................................................................................... 10
5.4.3 Aerial masts for onshore installations .............................................................................. 10
5.4.4 Aerials on offshore platforms........................................................................................... 10
5.4.5 Storage areas for combustible or explosive products ...................................................... 11
5.5 Protection against voltage surges...................................................................................... 11
5.5.1 High-voltage power lines ................................................................................................. 11
5.5.2 Transformers................................................................................................................... 11
5.5.3 Low-voltage power lines.................................................................................................. 11
5.5.4 Cables connecting sensitive buildings to be protected .................................................... 11
5.5.5 Remote control, telemetry and communication cables..................................................... 12
5.5.6 Sensitive equipment........................................................................................................ 12

6. Quality control methods ........................................................................................ 13

Appendix 1 - Table of options.................................................................................... 14

3
1. Scope
This Standard Specification reviews lightning-related phenomena representing
a hazard to persons and likely to disturb of or even destroy electrical
installations, and defines protective measures.
These arrangements cannot under any circumstances guarantee total safety,
but shall be designed to provide statistically effective protection.

2. Reference documents
2.1 Standards
Reference Title
IEC 1024-1 Protection of structures against lightning. Part one: general
principles
IEC 1024-1-1 Protection of structures against lightning. Part one: general
principles. Section 1: selection of protection systems for
lightning
IEC 99-1 A Recommendations for surge arresters

2.2 Professional Documents

Reference Title
Not applicable

2.3 Regulations
Reference Title
Not applicable

2.4 Codes
Reference Title
Not applicable

2.5 Other documents

Reference Title
Not applicable

3. Other associated TotalFinaElf General Specifications

Reference Title
Not applicable

4
4. Protective devices
Protection against indirect lightning strikes is provided by air-termination
systems.
Protection against the indirect effects which produce over voltages shall be
provided by surge arresters and surge diverters.
4.1 Air-termination system
Air-termination systems may comprise rods, taut wires or meshed conductors.
Their general principles of installation are only partly described in IEC 1024-1;
it is therefore important to emphasise the following points:
The conducted lightning current must be conveyed to earth by means of
appropriate down conductors and earth electrodes so that the increase in
potential is not hazardous to persons and equipment nearby.
In the case of a large building (surface area > 1000 m2), a number of
appropriately spaced and interconnected lightning conductors should preferably
be used.
For technical buildings, a single down conductor is insufficient; several will
reduce transient potential differences. As a rule, increasing the number of down
conductors is more effective than increasing their cross-sectional area. In a
technical building of reinforced concrete construction the down conductor(s)
must be connected to the top and bottom of the reinforcing elements.
In the case of an outdoor metal structure, the vertical metal framework may be
used as down conductors if permanent electrical continuity is assured and
verified over time.
In the case of metal chimneys, towers or pylons, separate down conductors
are of no utility if continuity is assured (by means of shunts at joints if
necessary) and if the cross-sections are equivalent to 60 mm2 of copper or
100 mm2 of iron.

4.2 Surge arresters

Conventional arrester.
Zinc oxide arresters.
Remarks: The effectiveness of these protective devices depends not only on
their characteristics but also on how they are connected to earth and on their
location relative to the equipment to be protected.
Surge arresters on overhead lines may be fitted with automatic devices known
as disconnectors which open the circuit in the event of a lightning strike and
indicate this fact.
4.3 Surge diverters
These devices are designed to protect electronic equipment; they comprise
inductors and transformers and are rated according to the installation to be
protected.

5
5. Design of protective devices
5.1 General principles
The protection of a building or installation against lightning is subject to a
preliminary evaluation of the benefits taking into account the cost of the
protective device and the economic and safety value of the installations to be
protected.
This should be done at the draft project stage, before the building or
installation is constructed, as it is very difficult, often impossible, and always
costly to improve an installation when appropriate measures have not been
included in its construction.
To be effective, protection must provide simultaneously:
An equipotential link bonding the earthing systems inside and outside the
installation having the lowest possible resistance.
Protection against direct lightning strikes.
Protection against over voltages on all cables entering the area to be
protected. This protection must be provided at the point where the cables enter
the installation.
In an area comprising clearly separated equipment (1 m. spacing), protection
may be provided for only the equipment susceptible to damage by lightning.

Particular attention must be paid to segregating the paths of protected and

unprotected cables, with regard to the layout of air-termination systems,
it is important to remember that the protected area is essentially variable and
depends on the amplitude of the lightning current, which in turn depends on
the quantity of electric charge accumulated.

In practice, the following rules can be applied:

When a lightning rod is installed on a building, it protects only that building.

The position and the height at the tip are determined knowing that the area
protected by the lightning rod is delimited by a cone whose half-angle at the
apex is 60.
To protect an area on the ground, the half-angle at the apex must be limited to
45.
If the lightning rod is installed on a mast to protect installations such as storage
tanks, the protection area must be calculated using the hypothetical sphere
method.

5.2 Earthing of air-termination system

The earthing of an air-termination system must be such that its wave
impedance is as low as possible. It must cover as great a surface area as
possible to collect electric charges accumulated on the ground because of the
increase in the electric field due to the impending lightning strike.
It must therefore mainly consist of a large number of conductors buried in
trenches and laid out in a fan arrangement.
The earthing system can easily be extended by increasing the number of
down conductors reaching the ground at spaced points. Any such system

6
must equalise potentials across the entire area protected by air-termination
systems so as to prevent the appearance of a hazardous potential difference
between two nearby points. This is very important in the case of large
technical buildings housing electrical or electronic installations that are highly
sensitive to over voltages. In such cases, since the down conductors of the
air-termination systems are arranged around the periphery of the building, the
earth system must comprise an external loop around the building (possibly
duplicated by a parallel second loop) and, at the base of each down
conductor, a fan arrangement of conductors buried in trenches.
It is very important that all electrical or electronic installations in a building
should always be at the same potential; it is therefore imperative that all the
down conductors be connected to the single general earthing system of the
installation.
5.3 Hypothetical sphere model
The electrogeometric model is one of the tools used to determine the
locations of air-termination system.

Since the protection volume of an air-termination system conventionally

represented by a cone has been found discredited, a new and more
representative model has been proposed.

This model is based on the concept of striking distance which is the distance
between the leader (ionised channel preceding the lightning strike) and the
ground or an obstacle on the ground.

It has been established that this distance varies with the lightning current
according to the equation:
d = 9.4 I 2 /3
d in metres
Iin kilo amperes
For a feasible maximum current of 180 kA, the distance "d" would be 300 m.

For a feasible minimum current of 2 kA, the distance "d" would be 15 m.

It is as if the tip of the leader were the centre of a hypothetical sphere of

radius "d". Towards the ground, the first object reached by the sphere will
determine the point of impact of the lightning. This is the basis for the method
of determining the protected volume described below.

A hypothetical sphere of radius "d" is imagined to roll on the ground in all

directions, remaining in contact at all times with the ground and with a
prominent object; if, in the course of this movement, the sphere comes into
contact with the protective devices without being able to touch any of the
objects to be protected, then the objects are protected.

7
5.4 Protection against direct lightning strikes

5.4.1 Buildings
One or more lightning rods (number defined in accordance with IEC 1024-1)
will be installed, and a full mesh will be set up at roof level using 30 x 2 mm
copper strip.

In line with each lightning rod, there shall be a 30 x 2 mm-copper strip down
conductor leading to an earth electrode.

Each down conductor shall have, above ground and as close as possible to
the point of connection to the earth electrode, a terminal that can be
disconnected for measurement purposes.

Each down conductor will have its own small fan shaped earth electrode.
A full loop shall be set up with un-insulated cable with a minimum cross-
sectional area of 70 mm2, laid in a trench.

To this loop shall be connected all the earth electrodes, the connector blocks
inside the building and the equipotential bonding links of the exposed metal
parts.

This loop shall be connected to the site's main earth system.

8
9
5.4.2 Non-metal chimneys

One lightning rod per 2 m of perimeter (two

rods minimum)

Two down conductors if h > 30 m, with one

positioned on the prevailing upwind side

5.4.3 Aerial masts for onshore installations

The aerial cable must be installed in a metal conduit in the case of a lattice-
work mast or, failing this, routed along the centre of the mast on the inside of
the structure.
The anchoring points of the stays must be interconnected with the lightning
conductor's earthing system.
5.4.4 Aerials on offshore platforms
A lightning conductor is necessary only when there are aerials, and, in this
case, its rod shall be located at least 2 m above the highest aerial.
The down conductor shall be run inside the mast using a copper strip with a
minimum cross-sectional area of 30 x 2 mm, and connected to its base by a
stainless steel lug welded to the structure of the platform when the platform
represents the equipotential bonding system.

10
5.4.5 Storage areas for combustible or explosive products
The lightning rods shall be positioned according to the hypothetical sphere
method.

The distance between lightning rods and vents must be at least 15 m.

To obtain the most effective protection possible (d = 15 m for large

constructions), guard cables must be installed.
5.5 Protection against voltage surges

5.5.1 High-voltage power lines

Entirely underground main supply (infrequent):
Surge arresters are not required, except in special cases.

Overhead/underground main supply (with the installation to be protected

connected underground):
A set of variable resistance surge arresters is provided at the feeder
post.

Beyond 30 metres downstream of the surge arresters, protection is no

longer provided; further protection may need to be provided if sensitive
equipment is present.
5.5.2 Transformers
As appropriate, three variable resistance surge arresters may be installed on
the up line side of the transformer.

Furthermore, star-connected transformers with neutral(s) insulated from earth

or earthed through high impedance must incorporate a spark gap, a surge
arrester or a surge absorber on the neutral conductor.
5.5.3 Low-voltage power lines
Protection must be provided by installing a variable resistance low-voltage
surge arrester between each phase conductor and the earth electrode to be
installed at the base of the post or at the feeder point.

Where the distance between the base of the post and the feeder point
exceeds 30 m, surge arresters shall be installed at both ends.

If the neutral conductor is not directly earthed a surge arrester should be

added between neutral and earth.
5.5.4 Cables connecting sensitive buildings to be protected
This section concerns power cables, outdoor lighting cables and all cables
susceptible to voltages induced by atmospheric phenomena.

Fitting a low-voltage variable resistance surge arrester to each conductor of

the cable or circuit to be protected provides protection.

11
The arresters are located at the point of entry of the cable into the building to
be protected and the connections between them and the earthing system
must be as short as possible.

These arresters are usually installed in cabinets or cubicles, but under no

circumstances may the same cabinet accommodate arresters protecting
cables and conductors entering the building at different points.

In installations in which the neutral is directly earthed and which are equipped
with differential circuit-breakers, the operation of a surge arrester will trip out
the circuit-breaker; this must be allowed for in designing installations for which
no interruption of service can be tolerated; in such cases an earthed neutral
system may be preferred.
5.5.5 Remote control, telemetry and communication cables
The purpose of protecting such cables is to avoid:

destruction of a buried cable if lightning strikes the ground in the vicinity of the
cable,
hazardous transmission of a voltage surge by the armour and conductors of a
cable and destruction of equipment connected to the cable.
The following protective measures may be employed:

Segregation of the cables from unprotected cables either by running them

separately or by using metal ducting connected to the earthing circuits
(common routing in plastic ducting in buried systems is prohibited).
Laying accompanying earth conductors over cables in buried runs.
Fitting surge arresters between conductors and earth at the point of entry of
the cable(s) into the buildings to be protected.
Precautions when installing components or equipment concerning the choice
of connecting terminals (sufficient distance between terminals or printed
circuits).

5.5.6 Sensitive equipment

Precautions against voltage surges due to atmospheric phenomena in the
form of surge arresters installed at various levels of an installation are
normally sufficient to protect electrotechnical equipment and installations.

A residual voltage surge remains downstream of the surge arresters which

may cause damage to sensitive electronic equipment.

Surge diverters may be installed to protect such equipment.

The objective of these is to reduce the residual voltage surge to levels

acceptable to the electronic equipment.

Surge diverters are installed in series with the installations to be supplied and
their rating depends on the size of the installation. They supply only the
sensitive equipment to be protected and no other equipment.

12
Connections from surge diverters must be routed separately, on dedicated
routes far away from other cable runs (to avoid induced interference).

6. Quality control methods

A full lightning protection installation requires complete documentation
including accurate drawings. Once the documentation has been approved,
installation must be monitored during the work and on completion.

Inspection shall cover:

electrical continuity, welding together of all civil engineering steelwork

elements,
relative position of welded steelwork and quality of welds,
lengths, cross-sections and locations of steelwork for connecting the
reinforcing rods of reinforced concrete to the exterior earthing loop and to the
interior earthing circuits,
location of trenches,
cleaning of the bottom trenches before laying earth conductors,
position of earth conductors,
quality of welds and solder joints,
nature of earthing rods,
location of lightning rods,
height of lightning rods,
connection of lightning rods, number of down conductors,
connection of stays to the earthing system, if necessary,
correct installation of down conductors (proximity to metal parts, absence of
sharp edges, etc.),
verification of interconnections between earthing circuits,
continuity of earthing,
position of surge arresters and surge diverters,
segregation between protected and unprotected cables,
measurement of the resistance of the following earth electrodes:
air-termination system,
local,
general, interconnected,
measurement of continuity between the different earth electrodes.

13
 Appendix 1 - Table of options

Lightning Surge Surge

conductor arrester diverter
Chemical plant X X -
Refineries X X -
Offshore platforms if radio aria X - -
Administrative buildings - -
Control rooms X X R
Computer rooms X X -
Magnetic tape stores X X -
Technical buildings (electrical plant/ X X R
instrumentation)
Feeder stations outdoor X X -
indoor - X -
Loading stations X - -
Warehouses X - -
Hydrocarbon storage facilities X - -
Alternators connected to systems - X -
Alternators feeding overhead systems - X -

X Imperative
- Optional
R Recommended

14
 !

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

DIRECT PROTECTION

1
C.1. GENERALITIES

A system protection against the lightning strikes comprises different

'element' systems, which are complementary:

1) Protection system against directs effects (of lightning strikes).

It has as function to collect the lightning strikes, which in its absence would
have struck the building or the structure to be protected. Then to run out the
currents of the lightning towards the ground, avoiding the (current) ingress
inside the volume to be protected.
This system is sometimes called external protection generally, this
protection is ensured by the Air terminal associated with lightning
conductors.

The theory and technologies of the systems and materials uses are presented
in this chapter
Two specific chapters (D and E) are dedicated to the 2 following criteria's.

2) The grounding system

It is probably the most important part of the protection. A good grounding
system is absolutely necessary. The above two protections would have no
effect without the possibility of "evacuation" for the unwelcome extra voltages
and extra currents.

Interconnection of all grounding loops -or not interconnecting- is subject of a

debate enlightened in the other chapter, as well as specific materials and
theory.

3) A protection system against indirect effects:

it has as function to protect the interior installations and equipment
electric/electronic as well as the people against the induced voltage and the
rises in potential.

This system is sometimes called internal electrical protection generally,

this protection is ensured by the Lightning Surge Protectors

-----------------------------------------

Direct Protection is only one third of the necessary Lightning Protection.

Grounding and Electrical Protection are the Mandatory Complementary
Two Other Elements of a Lightning Protection Installation.
General trend is to install air terminal captors, descent cables, and a 'quick'
local grounding, then to believe: "Protection is done". This is a thoughtless
and even dangerous behaviour, as it becomes a provocation for lightning to
strike and damage the installations.

2
C.1.1 Protection against direct effects theory:

The techniques of protection against the lightning strikes can be

classified, according to their philosophy of action in 2 types:

Protections known as passive

Protections known as active

The electrical field breaks between a thundery cloud and any rough bit on the
ground level causing the strike.
We can protect an installation theoretically in 2 manners:

- By eliminating the rough bits that are at the origin of the strike and by
maintaining the elements to be protected on the same potential (potential of
the ground), it is the passive protection.
- by creating voluntarily some rough bits, to attract the strikes and channel
the energy towards the ground, it is the active protection

The active protection is carried out by air terminal & lightning

conductor.
The passive protection is carried out by grid cages (cages of Faraday).

C.1.2 The complete Air terminal / conductor installation

They include:
1 ) Devices of capture
2 ) The conductors of descent
3 ) The earth electrodes

In practice, there are two types of air terminal installations:

- Air terminations in metallic rods. It consists in laying out, above the

structures to be protected, conducting rods of adapted length, rods which are
connected by descent conductors to earth electrodes.
* The rod, also called pointer, can be topped with an additional capping device
according to some vendor specific technologies.
- The grid cage lightning protection. It consists in laying, around the building
to be protected, a Faraday screen cage whose meshes are connected to
earth electrodes at the foot of the building.

NOTE:
It is important to keep in mind that the trajectory of the lightning channel is
not directly affected by the height of the objects located on the ground. It
is only at the very last stage of its descent, that the strikes decides of its
point of impact.. A lightning Air Termination does not attract the
lightning at the time of its formation, it collects the electric discharge only
if it is already spontaneously very near.

3
The lightning direct protection system shall be of the enhancing type designed
to attract lightning from a predetermined volume and to safely convey the
lightning current to earth through a known and preferred route.

The lightning direct protection system shall include components as follows: air
termination's), mechanical support(s), down conductor(s), performance
recording equipment, and an earthing system.

C.2. THE AIR TERMINATIONS - Capture Devices

They are metallic rods, capped with pointer or "early streamer emission
system" or metallic taut cables.

C.2.1. Franklin rod

Metallic rod with a pointer

Franklin lightning conductors, which are tapered, have a perfectly slender and
attractive point. They exist in nickel/chromium-plated copper and stainless
steel versions. They have a standard length of 2.4 m and can be extended by
the addition of treated steel or stainless steel elevation rods. These systems
do not require guying and can be up to 7 or 8 m long. The tip of 2F Franklin
lightning conductors features a solid point of marine bronze or stainless steel..

4
Variance of Franklin rod with accessories

5
Installation on a structure: to study the best lay-out , the 'Rolling Sphere
Method is the widest used principle.

The main problem becomes the choice of radius R for the sphere. If a radius
r1 is chosen, it corresponds to a protective current i1 as per the Electro-
geometrical model. When striking current is smaller than i1, it can go across
the protection. The only 'safe' protection is to consider the smaller striking
current possible, being 2 kA, R is then equal to 15 meters.

Principle of Franklin rods + conductors protection

The risk according to the chosen protection

The 100% protection does not exit in lightning protection and this regardless
any type of system (including other than Franklin rods).

Example with an "accepted risk" of 7 kA as current protection, the statistics

show that only 5% of strikes are under these 7 kA. The associated radius of
36 meters (Rolling Sphere) is the base for the protection calculation wit a
theoretical "risk of failure" of 5%. If the building to protect is an isolated one (a
country farm in Europe for example), the chance of strike happening is one
over 140 years; with the 5% considered 7 kA protection, it becomes a risk of
one strike per 2800 years

International standards (C.E.I.) has 'normalised those risks, introducing

several levels of protections, each one corresponding to a Rolling Sphere
radius, a protective angle for the Franklin rod, a distance between linking
protective conductors.

6
 Ground trench
conductor

Typical Franklin rod protection (for risk definition)

Parameters giving the capture devices choices inducing a protection level

PL RoF R Angle for a given h WoM
(%) (m) 10 20 30 45 60 (m)
I 0.5 20 45 25 - - - 5
II 5 30 55 35 25 - - 10
III 15 45 60 45 35 25( - 15
IV 30 60 65 55 45 35 25 20

PL: protection level

RoF: risk of failure
R: radius of the fictive Rolling Sphere
h: height of the Franklin rod above the surface to protect
WoM: width of the meshed network (distance between conductors)

Angles of protection are different according to protection level. These angle

cannot be defined in 'h' (height of rod + pointer) is bigger than the radius of
the Rolling Sphere, in this case there is a risk of 'side impact'.

C.2.2. Early Streamer Emission or "ionisers"

Relatively new technology, mainly developed by Australia (Dynasphere

product) and France (Saint-Elmo rod)
The 'idea' is by creating a surrounding 'ionised area', to provoke a preferable
channel for the descending leader as a "strike-exciter"
Hereafter are the descriptions of the available products.

7
C .2.2.1 Saint-Elmo lightning air termination (Franklin)

Principle
A rod-type lightning conductor works by altering, at its level,
the equipotentials which match the structures of the building it
protects. The emergence of the lightning conductor is an
important factor in increasing the local electric field. The
principle of the piezoelectric lightning air termination designed
by 2 F relies on several factors: the reinforcement of the local
electric field, the excitation and initiation of the corona effect,
and favourable conditions to the development of the corona
discharge.

Description

The Saint-Elmo piezoelectric lightning air termination consists

essentially of the following
- Capture head: profiled, inalterable and a good conductor,
structured to generate a forced air circulation at its tip and in
its prolongation (Venturi system: air intakes and peripheral
ejectors).
- Support pole: of treated copper (or stainless steel according
to versions) whose upper part has one or more stainless steel
ion emitter points, inserted in an insulating sleeve and
subjected to the floating potential. They are protected from
direct impact by lightning and from the weather by the capture
head which, like the pole, is permanently connected to the
earth potential.
-Transducer (piezoelectric stimulator): built into the lower part
of the pole and consisting of piezoelectric ceramics stressed
in an insulating container combined with a simple and
completely reliable loading system (CEA and Franklin
patents). A high-voltage cable running along the interior of the
pole connects the simulator to the emitter point.

Operation

- Piezoelectric ceramics
Piezoelectric ceramics are crystalline structures in which
electric dipoles have been stressed into a given orientation by
subjecting them initially to an intense polarisation field. They
consist of a very hard material, lead zircotitanate, and their
ends are covered with a fine layer of electrode grade nickel.
Used in their "generative" action, these ceramics generate
very high voltages by simply increasing the pressure (up to 20
000 to 25 000 V in a series stack), voltage levels that are
much higher than those required to produce the desired ions.

8
- Piezoelectric stimulation:
The many reversible effect stresses are obtained by the force resulting from
the combination formed by the lightning conductor itself and the least
turbulence, the vibratory effect of the resonance of the mast, and the pre-
stress applied to the stimulator. Electrically connected to the transducer, the
emitter points are subjected to these high potentials. Accordingly, they release
large amounts of ions (7,65 1010 of 2,5 to 6,5 kV). These are taken over by
the venturi circuit and generate an ionised airflow around the capture head
and in its prolongation. The bi-polarity of the piezoelectric pulses gives the
Saint-Elmo lightning air termination the advantage of operation with both
positive and negative lightning.

- Reduction of corona effect excitation time and lowering of the breakdown

potential:
The piezoelectric ionisation system mainly cuts the initiation time of the
corona effect (Townsend avalanche) as confirmed by various research
projects. The recent investigation by the scientists N.L. Alien, T.E Allibone and
D. Dring shows directly that the excitation lag is cut by 50 % by raising the
natural ionic density (150 to 1 100 ions / cm3) to 80 000 ions / cm3, and the lag
decreases steadily as the ionic density rises.

The practical effect to this essential property is to increase the lightning air
termination zone of protection (investigations by Mr Bodier) by enabling it to
operate with very short peaks of the atmosphere electric field. In fact, any
artificial increase in the ionic density of the air surrounding an electrode
favours a lowering of the breakdown potential. (G. Rumebe)

Hence by favouring
- the increase of the local electric field,
- the presence of a seed electron at the capture point (electron that is rare in
the atmosphere and indispensable to the excitation process).
- the creation of a rising ionised air channel in the prolongation of the lightning
conductor.
Favourable action is achieved in shortening the excitation lag, on the initial
conditions of the triggering of the corona effect, and the rising velocity of the
corona discharge.

Protection offered by Saint Elmo lightning conductors

--- Preferential capture

The ability to favour excitation at lower values of the electrostatic field
enhances the "capture probability" of lightning conductors. This capacity gives
them greater efficiency in the role of "preferential capture points" which they
assume in relation to any other point of the buildings they protect. Accordingly,
these lightning conductors offer superior guarantees during low intensity
discharges (2 to 5 kA) as compared with rod-type lightning conductors, which
can only intercept them over short distances.

(D = 10 I 2 / 3 where D is in meters, I in kA).

9
- Larger zone of protection

The zones of protection of lightning conductors are obtained theoretically by

plotting the Electro-geometrical model, but are in practice, for low heights,
comparable to a cone of revolution whose excitation is the tip of the lightning
conductor. French Standard NF C 17-100 describes the calculation method
applicable to Franklin and meshed cages rods.
French Standard NF C 17 102, concerned with
early streamers emission (ESE) lightning air
terminations, takes account of levels of
protection Np of varying severity (I to III), to be
determinate previously by an assessment of
the lighting risk connected with each project.

It defines the installation rules and radius of

protection Rp (m) as a function of the average
excitation advance AL (m) of the lightning
conductors and the excitation distance D (m)
considered according to the degree of severity
: D (I) = 20m, D (II) = 45m, D (III) = 60m.
The table below gives the Rp (m) values for the three levels of protection Np
depending on and the actual height h (m) of the lightning conductor in relation
to the different planes considered.

10
C.2.2.2 Dynasphere Early Streamer Emission Air Terminal vendor's data
Used in T.I. installations. Hereafter is extracted from vendor document.

The result of many years of theoretical and ongoing field research is the
DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal. This unit provides the
design engineer with an air termination relatively free of space charges which
is capable of creating photo-ionisation and which concentrates electric field to
release free electrons on the approach of a lightning leader.

The DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal is a dynamic device,

which requires no external source of power supply. This remarkable terminal
has the ability to concentrate only that electric field which occurs in the
millisecond time slots as the leader charges approach ground.

The DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal establishes capacitive

coupling to the leader charge and, due to internal non-destructible passive
electronics, the outer spherical surface rises in voltage producing field
concentration about its centrally earthed finial. The rate of field intensification
depends on sphere geometry, terminal placement, leader charge and leader
approach velocity.

Dynasphere Early Streamer Emission Terminal Field Concentration

The DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal has been designed to

provide repetitive electrical discharges but only during the approach time of
the leader. This results in the presence of photo-ionisation and free electrons
without an intervening substantial space charge. Unlike other air terminals
using battery or corona generated discharges, DYNASPHERE Early Streamer
Emission Terminal is radio quiet. Its discharges only occur during the lightning
event and any noise caused is swamped in the magnitude of the main
discharge.

These factors are combined with sphere geometry and the sphere's location
on a structure to determine its collection volume.

Unlike the DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal, pointed rods

and other types of enhancement terminals create corona comprised of free
electrons which are released by high static field or battery powered devices.
These electrons may form a space charge above the emission point and can
act to reduce the electric field at a potential strike point.

11
The attractive range of the DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal
is not constant but varies with the height and geometry of the structure, the
location of the DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal on a
structure, and the atmospheric and electrical properties existing during the
lightning event. Since all points on a structure will compete to capture the
lightning, the DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal must be
positioned to become the preferred strike point.

- Collection volumes

The derivation of the collection volume design concept can be understood by

considering the approach of the downward leader. The charge Q distributed
along this leader causes rapid increase in electric field between it and ground
points. When a critical field value is reached, the ground point launches an
upward intercepting leader. The distance at which this occurs is called
"Striking Distance". The critical electrical field is dependent on both leader
charge and distance from the ground point. Fig. under shows how it is
possible to form striking distance hemispheres around an isolated ground
point. The greater the leader charge, the greater the distance.

Striking distances hemispheres

Unfortunately, this simplistic approach of creating striking distance

hemispheres is not infallible in practice. Regard must be taken of the relative
velocities of the approaching leaders. Fig. above shows how it is possible to
reach critical electric field and launch an upward leader. If the downward
leader is near the periphery of the sphere, its velocity may carry it onward to
intercept another upward leader. Therefore, it is possible for the downward
leader to enter a striking distance hemisphere without interception.

In Fig. under a limiting parabola is placed on the hemisphere. This parabola is

derived from velocity factors and completes the "collection volume". It can
now be stated that a downward leader entering such a volume is theoretically
assured of interception by the ground point concerned. Fig. under also shows
how collection volumes become larger with increased leader charge. That is,
the larger the magnitude of the current stroke, the larger the collection
volume.

12
 Collection volumes, Hemispheres bounded by a limited parabola.

C.2.2.3. The Early Streamer Emission air termination devices:

Their descent conductor is a high voltage type cable, detail given in the next
chapter

The advance (lead) for Strike triggering (Early Streamer Emission = ESE)
Tests have been done comparing ESE air terminal with 'classic' Franklin rod,
it result a difference in 'reaction time' called t which the time in advance for
which an ESE reacts.
L = v . t
V = lightning speed equal to 106 m / s

Increase of protection zone with ESE air termination

R: radius of protection in a horizontal plan placed at a vertical distance h of

the tip of the ESE
h: height of the ESE device, distance between tip of this ESE and the surface
to protect
h': extra virtual height above h. (according to the type of ESE
R = (H + h') tg where = 60
The Rp (radius of protection) for an ESE is

Rp = h 2D - d) + L (2D + L

D: distance for arc striking L: gain in length for ascending leader

H: height of pointer (of ESE) above the surface to protect

13
 Determination of Radius of protection ( Rp )

Comparison of Rp between one ESE and Franklin rod

Height Rp for Rp for air termination type ESE in meters
of rod Franklin "Lead" for striking in Second
in type in 5 15 25 35 45 50
meters meters
2m 5.50m 8.00m 12.2m 17.0m 21.6m 25.6m 27.6m
5m 8.50m 20.0m 31.7m 42.5m 52.5m 63.5m 68.5m
10 m 10.0m 22.9m 33.5m 43.9m 54.1m 64.2m 69.3m

These values of radius are according to french standards. France was

(probably still now) the only one country to establish standards for ESE and
the first with Australia to put on market a product.

The ESE are subject to strong critics: "they are not better than Franklin rods"
Just remind the words of Albert Einstein:

"Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from Mediocre

Minds"

C.2.3. The Faraday cage:

It could look like a 'complement' to Franklin rods, as a mesh of protecting

conductors is necessary for the Franklin rods protection. For Faraday cage
the protection is completed by 'strike points' rods (look alike the Franklin rod)

In fact a Faraday cage is the best-adapted protection against lightning strikes.

All buildings, pipe racks, storage tanks, towers,.. having a metallic frame
have already a Faraday cage design.
With non-metallic buildings, an "artificial cage" can be installed, doing it with
'lightning conductors'.
In all cases the elements of Faraday cages must be connected to a (or the)
earth termination network.

14
 Faraday cage method of protection

Protection by a meshed cage is done on top and around the building with
wide-meshed 'net' of lightning conductors. Strike point rods (small length) are
installed at cross-point of conductors in angles and any "pointing" part.
Descents are outside building, mainly in angles. They are connected to the
earth termination network, itself around the building. Distance between
lightning conductors (width of meshes) is function of the required level of
protection (Rolling Sphere Radius). It is a passive protection conducting
directly the lightning strikes currants towards the ground. Division of the
current within the "mesh network" lightning conductors limits (generally) the
radiant effects inside the building.

Strike point rods

Surface lightning
conductor

Descent angle
lightning conductor Grounding
trench bonding

All the lightning conductors of the mesh are subject to direct lightning strikes
and capable to direct the current towards the ground.

15
Other examples of protection by Faraday cage:

Exhaust

Steam pipe Stainless Steel mesh

Conductor to ground

Faraday or mesh cage installed on top of an exhaust pipe

Strike point rods

Building ground 'loop'

Towards general earthing network

Installation on a non-metallic building

** For metallic building the frame is directly connected to the ground loop &
network

On high risk structures such as explosives factories, no part of the roof should
be more than 2.5m from an air termination conductor. This is generally
achieved by applying a 5m x 10m mesh to the roof.

However, for most structures, a mesh of 10m x 20m is considered sufficient,

giving a maximum distance from any part of the roof to the nearest conductor
of 5m.

16
 Air termination cage type for Tall conducting structures

The zone of protection does not seem to be applied because of the need to
interconnect the down conductors of the tall block to the air termination of the
lower block. In such cases it is necessary to connect the lower air termination
up to the lower down conductors to facilitate this interconnection, even though
this extension is within the zone of protection of the tower.

The, 'Zone of Protection' offered by an air termination network is considered to

be 45 for heights up to 20in. Above this height, the zone of protection is
determined by the 'Rolling Sphere Method'.

Standards for dimensioning of cages

Standard Mesh dimensions Distance for Efficiency
on roof down lightning
conductors
International 5x5m 10 m 98%
European 5x5m 10 m 98%
French NF 17100 15 x 15 m 15 m ?

C.2.4. Other protections:

- Taut cable:
Metallic cables installed above the structures to protect, tightened on supports
if metallic themselves, are part of the protection.
Used to protect overhead lines (high voltage), High voltage substation,
storage tanks (floating roof).

17
 High voltage lines equipped with 'guard cable'

Masts connected to ground

Raising
masts

Metallic Tank
tank

Towards ground Towards ground

network network

Storage tank protection with taut cables

The umbrella:
Used mainly in south-east Asia, mainly to protect communication towers or
masts, but also tanks Their efficiency cannot be denied.

Conic Array - Cone Roof Tank

Stock array

18
C.3. THE DOWN CONDUCTORS descent-meshing-bonding

. The function of a down conductor is to provide a low impedance path from

the air termination network to the earth termination network, to allow the
lightning current to be safely conducted to earth.

Standards advocate the use of various types of down conductors. A

combination of strip and rod conductors, reinforcing bars, structural steel
stanchions, etc. can be used as all or part of the down conductor system -
providing they are appropriately connected to the air and earth termination
networks, and are known to offer good electrical conductivity.

Standards suggest there is no advantage in using 'shielded' coaxial cables as

down conductors. In fact there is thought to be the disadvantage that
potentials up to hundreds of kilo-volts can occur between the inner and outer
conductor (shield) at the top of the down conductor so triggering a side flash.

Down conductor systems should, where possible, take the most direct route
from the air termination network to the earth termination network. Ideally they
should be symmetrically installed around the outside walls of the structure
starting from the corners. Routing to avoid side flashing should always be
given particular attention in designing any installation.

Down conductor siting and distancing is often dictated by architectural

circumstances. There should be positioned no more than 20m apart around
the perimeter at roof or ground level, whichever is the greater. If the structure
is over 20m in height, then the spacing is reduced to every 10m or part thereof

They are generally of a flat copper conductor 30 x 2 mm cross-section, or

galvanised steel (33.5 x 3 mm), over-sized electrically but it must take into
account the electrodynamic effects and the corrosion

For the ESE air termination, there is a specific cable, described here later.

Danger

Re-entrant loops

19
C.3.1. Security proximity distance

A distance of at least one meter must be provides between descent lightning

conductor and any electrical cable or any fluid canalisation. This to avoid an
induced dangerous potential in the neighbouring installations.

Descent conductor

Lightning Minimum
strike distance in
current in meters
Amperes
200 0.1 L
Electrical
cable or 150 0.075 L
fluid pipe 100 0.05 L

Equipotential connection

Towards ground network

C.3.2. Side Flashing

The problems relating to side flashing have attracted a great deal of attention
in recent years and are a very important consideration when designing a safe
lightning protection system. Damage to life and property can occur if the
danger of side flashing is not considered.

The principles of side flash can be explained by the following simple example.

20
If the lightning protection system on a structure is hit by lightning, then the
current flowing through the system and the resistance/impedance offered by
the conductor path will determine the magnitude of the potential difference
seen by the lightning conductors with respect to true earth. The lightning
conductors can, instantaneously, have a potential of magnitude of megavolts
(1,000,00OV) with respect to true earth.

If there is metalwork in close proximity to lightning conductors which are

connected directly to earth, then for the purpose of this example, we can say
that it is at zero volts with respect to true earth.

If the current flowing down the lightning conductor path at the time of the
discharge sees a high impedance along its route and the nearby metalwork
offers a lower impedance path to earth, then the discharge will flash over to
the nearby metalwork, provided the magnitude of the potential difference is
sufficient to breakdown the gap 'D'

Some of the reasons why side flashing could occur include:

Faulty lightning protection system

Incorrect routing of conductors
High impedance of Lightning protection system

A faulty lightning protection system may well have an interruption in its

electrical path, thus when the discharge occurs, it prefers to travel down a
nearby earthed path which offers a lower impedance. An example could be
copper piping connecting the water tank in the roof to the water supply
underground. (figure above)

A good lightning protection system should always follow the most direct route
to earth. Unfortunately, practical considerations do not always allow this. One
example of incorrect routing of conductors is the re-entrant loop (see figure at
the beginning of this chapter). The example shown in the right hand figure,
highlights the danger to personnel that side flashing can cause.

A high resistance in the lightning protection conductors can easily be caused

by one poor electrical joint within the system. A badly designed clamp, an
incorrectly installed fitting, or inferior quality corroded materials can be
sufficient to cause a high resistance spot. A lightning discharge encountering
this high resistance could well take a lower resistance path afforded by nearby
earthed metalwork, thus creating a potentially dangerous side flash.

Further details of the prevention of side-flashing can be found in Bonding

paragraph.
A faulty lightning protection system may well have an interruption in its
electrical path, thus when the discharge occurs, it prefers to travel down a
nearby earthed path which offers a lower impedance. An example could be
copper piping connecting the water tank in the roof to the water supply
underground.

21
A good lightning protection system should always follow the most direct route
to earth. Unfortunately, practical considerations do not always allow this. One
example of incorrect routing of conductors is the re-entrant loop (see Section
3 - Figure 27D - Page 33). The example shown in Figure 26 highlights the
danger to personnel that side-flashing can cause.

A high resistance in the lightning protection conductors can easily be caused

by one poor electrical joint within the system. A badly designed clamp, an
incorrectly installed fitting, or inferior quality corroded materials can be
sufficient to cause a high resistance spot. A lightning discharge encountering
this high resistance could well take a lower resistance path afforded by nearby
earthed metalwork, thus creating a potentially dangerous side flash.

Further details of the prevention of side flashing can be found in 'bonding

section', following this paragraph.

C.3.3. The effect of Step and Touch Voltage on descent conductor(s)

1. Person X is in contact with the
ground at a and b; person Y is in
contact with the ground at c and the
conductor at d; person Z is in contact
with the conductor at e and a metallic
hand rail f shown grounded at g.
2. Person X is subject to step
potential.
3. Person Y is subject to touch
potential.
4. Person Z is subject to transferred
potential.
5. The potential depends on the
current magnitude and the
impedance of the path of the lightning
discharge.
6. Step potential increases with the
size of the step a-b in the radial
direction from the conductor and
decreases with the increase in the
distance between person X and the
conductor.
7. The transferred potential increases
with increase in the radial distance
between the down conductor and the
ground g.

Extracts from the Australian Standard

on Lightning Protection A.S. 1768-
1983.

22
C.3.4. The bonding

All metal work on or around a structure must be bonded to the lightning

protection system if side flashing is to be avoided. When a lightning protection
system is struck, its electrical potential with respect to earth is significantly
raised and, unless suitable precautions are taken, the discharge may seek
alternative paths to earth by side flashing to other metalwork in or on the
structure.

Typically, water pipes, gas pipes, metal sheaths and electrical installations
which are in contact with earth, remain at earth potential during a lightning
discharge. Even metal parts that are not in contact with earth will see a
potential difference between them and the lightning protection system during a
discharge, even if this potential is smaller in magnitude to the metal parts in
direct contact with earth.

It is vital that all exposed metalwork is bonded into the lightning protection
installation as per example below:

There are two ways of preventing side flashing. The first is to isolate nearby
metal from the lightning protection system. So, even if a strike occurs, the
clearance distance between the metalwork and the lightning protection system
would be so great that the strike would prefer to follow the lightning protection

23
path rather than jump across to the metalwork. Obviously, this will not be
practical for certain fixed metal installations, for example central heating
systems or metal windows. In these cases, the second method of preventing
side-flashing has to be considered, that of connecting the metalwork to the
lightning protection system with an appropriate bond

Illustrations of typical clamps used in metalwork bonding

To determine whether the distance between the suspect metalwork and the
lightning protection system is large enough for the metalwork to be considered
'isolated' or close enough to be 'bonded', Standards provides a mathematical
means of determining the minimum isolation distance for a given set of
parameters.

All descent conductors have to be tightly fastened, to resist to the pull

out force electromagnetically induced. (fixing point at least each 50cm)

C.3.5. Specific E.S.E. descent conductor

Total Indonsie sites are equipped with 'Dynasphere' as Early Streamer

Emissions type of air termination devices
The ESE captor involved the use of a specific high voltage type cable.
Dynasphere being a product name, its vendor has developed a special
product for the descent conductor: the "Triax downconductor"..
As the use of this cable is mandatory for efficiency of Dynasphere, and
protection of personnel, hereafter is presented the 'Triax' - as a copy of
documents, respecting the vendor argumentation

THE TRIAX DOWNCONDUCTOR

The TRIAX downconductor functions to convey the lightning discharge current

to ground virtually without danger of side flashing. A unique conductive outer
sheath allows electrostatic bonding of the building through cable securing
saddles.

24
The TRIAX downconductor evolved after extensive studies of potential voltage
rise in structures due to lightning injection. This cable comprises carefully
selected dielectric materials which create capacitive balance and ensure
insulation integrity under high impulse conditions.

When integrated with the SYSTEM 3000 DYNASPHERE Early Streamer

Emission Terminal, the SYSTEM 3000 TRIAX downconductor assists in both
capture of the lightning discharge and safe conveyance to ground.

The unique ability of TRIAX to confine a discharge current and simultaneously

support electrical bonding will ensure minimal risk to buildings, occupants and
sensitive electronics.

The TRIAX downconductor is the most significant advance in lightning

protection downconductor techniques in decades. To understand the technical
value of the cable, it is first necessary to review the problems associated with
normal down conductors. Fig. 11 shows how the self-inductance of a normal
conductor causes very high voltages to be developed.

A value of inductance of 1.6 microhenries/metre is normally regarded as quite

small. However when a current is impressed which is rising at the rate of 1010
amperes per second, the effect of this inductance becomes dominant. As an
example, a single 60 metre downconductor will rise to a value in excess of
1,000,000 volts with an average discharge. It is for this reason that 4 or more
down conductors are frequently specified with standard protection methods.

25
There is frequently a problem of routing normal downconductors due to the
requirement to keep them out of sight for aesthetic reasons. This often leads
to them being run with right angle bends in their length. The increased
inductance caused by these bends causes further voltage rises and can lead
to electrical break down or side flashing as shown in Fig. 12. In normal
methods of protection, the building is always electrified and there always
exists the danger of side flashing.

A single TRIAX Downconductor overcomes the above danger and even

allows the cable to be run safely inside a building in relative safety. To
understand how this can happen, it is necessary to compare the electrical
transitory effects of normal and triaxial downconductors during the discharge.

26
Fig. 13 shows the electrical conditions immediately before a discharge and
those during the transfer of charge to ground. It can be seen that the rod is
suddenly impressed with a polarity opposite to that of the ground. This causes
intense electric fields between rod, downconductor network and building.
These can give rise to side flashing.

In the case of the TRIAX cable as shown in Fig. 14, it can be seen that the
outer sheath acts as a shield to other objects and the danger of side flashing
is virtually eliminated. It is because of the TRIAX sheath that it becomes
possible to run the cable internally with complete safety.

The practical benefits of the TRIAX are:

1) It provides the design engineer with the ability to select the most
convenient lightning route to ground. The downconductor can utilise air ducts
etc. and be located remote from electrical and sensitive electronic equipment.

2) The lightning is contained in the 50 mm copper core conductor and is

oblivious to impedance irregularities in the structure. The risk of side flashing
is virtually eliminated.

27
3) The structure carries only that minimal current which is due to
capacitive coupling to the main conductor. Accordingly, voltages across
concrete and reinforcing members remains small. This leads to the conclusion
that no special bonding techniques are required.
4) The placement of a single TRIAX downconductor with a single earthing
system is generally of lower cost than that of conventional techniques.
WHY USE TRIAX? - A TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Considers a conventionally protected structure. This is shown in Fig. 15 and
comprises copper or aluminium conductors along and down the outer face of
the structure. Each conductor lies in both physical and electrical contact with
the structure.
When lightning strikes one of these conductors, it rises in voltage due to self
inductance. The internal structural steel is earthed and usually lies only a few
centimetres from the lightning conductor. Many instances are recorded of
discharge currents breaking down the intervening distance and using the
structural steel to reach ground. This is particularly so when the lightning
conductor does not proceed directly to ground but follows a tortuous route
over and around parapets etc.
Lightning currents within structural members have many paths to follow and
may pass close to sensitive equipment or insulated items. This leads to side
flashing and magnetically induced over voltage.
Side flashing is a known cause of human injury and death. Electromagnetic
overvoltages cause major damage and disruption to EDP equipment,
computers and instrumentation.
Fig. 16 shows a similar situation using TRIAX. In this case, the lightning
current is confined and potential equalisation occurs between cable and
structure. Note that by correctly routing the TRIAX, negligible current passes
near sensitive equipment and personnel.
Another clear advantage of TRIAX is its single installation leading to a single
earth system. TRIAX also permits internal routing for security.

28
Conclusion - Downconductor (Triax)

1. Networks of Insulated or uninsulated downconductors installed in

accordance with various Codes of Practices cannot be applied with total
safety against large strikes. The variation of capacitance with structural
discontinuities leads to voltage stress points. These would be variable in
location, and dependent on both structure, shape and installation practice.
Under such circumstances side flashing is inevitable.

2. Other screened downconductors (with screen floating at the top)

improve the performance of an ordinary downconductor by having a known
and fixed capacitance between core and screen. However, the screen to
structure capacitance is variable and dependent on good installation practice.

3. A single TRIAX cable overcomes the above deficiencies by utilising a

conductive sheath which is bonded to the structure by metallic fastening
saddles. This format provides two capacitance's which are core/screen and
screen/sheath. Both are fixed and of known value.

4. The TRIAX cable has been shown to withstand 75% of all statistically
recorded lightnings irrespective of length and relief wave effects. When
account is taken of the latter, together with the statistical spread of lightning
parameters, the TRIAX is capable of withstanding the largest of lightning and
can be applied to very tall structures.

C.3.6 The lightning event counter

Air termination devices are normally equipped (on their direct descent
conductor) with an event counter, totalling the number of strikes of at least a
given value of the current.
Total Indonsie being equipped With Dynasphere + Triax , has also the LEC2
counter (from the same vendor). Hereafter, description of this product.

29
LPI LIGHTNING EVENT COUNTER Type LEC2

'DESCRIPTION
The LPI Lightning Event Counter type LEC2 is specifically designed for use
with the System 3000.
The inbuilt counter will register all lightning strokes and automatically resets. A
special toroidal coil is simply fitted over the earth conductor at the earth point
to inductively couple lightning energy into the counter circuitry.
No batteries are required - the system is self powered and as the components
are fully weatherproof, the system can be mounted outdoors or in damp
locations.
For a modest outlay, the performance of system 3000 can be directly
measured providing valuable statistical information and thus proving the
effectiveness of your lightning protection. LEC2 can of course provide the
same information for other types of lightning installations.

LEC2 Lightning Event Counter

SPECIFICATION
MINIMUM OPERATING CURRENT - 1500 amperes on a 8120 microsecond
impulse.
POWER SUPPLY - Self powered.
CIRCUITRY - All solid state with electro mechanical counter registering up to
9999, not resetable.
COMPONENTS - Toroidal coil, fully encapsulated. Internal hole of 45mm
diameter.
Counter is built into a coil housing and viewed through a polycarbonate
window.

METHOD OF CONNECTION

The counter is slipped over the TRIAX downconductor prior to connection with
the earth stake. If more convenient, the counter can be positioned on the
earth stake itself. This can apply to the downconductors of conventional
protection installations.

30
 !
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

GROUNDING

The earth termination network

1
D.1 EARTHING - GENERALITY

Earthing plays a vital role in all electrical systems. The main reasons for
earthing are:

To protect people and livestock

To protect equipment
To permit the equipment to function correctly
To ensure the reliability of electrical services.

A good earth connection should possess the following characteristics:

- Low electrical resistance between the electrode and the earth. The lower the
earth electrode resistance the more likely the lightning or fault current will
choose to flow down that path in preference to any other, allowing the current
to be conducted safely to and dissipated in the earth.
A lightning ground resistance should have its value under 10 ohms.

- Impedance value (inductance) the lowest possible to minimise the

electromotive force. For this effect it is strongly recommended to avoid
grounding with only one underground horizontal wire or only one vertical
electrode. Practice using deep well to catch moisture is not advisable as this
system shows high impedance (above 10m deepness). Good advice is to
multiply the horizontal wires and the vertical earth electrodes.

- Good corrosion resistance. The choice of material for the earth electrode
and its connections is of vital importance. It will be buried in soil for many
years so has to be totally dependable.

- Ability to carry high currents repeatedly.

- Ability to perform the above functions for a minimum of 30 years.

D. 2. SOIL CONDITIONS

Achieving a good earth will depend on local soil conditions. A low soil
resistivity is the main aim and factors that effect this are:

- Moisture content of the soil.

- Chemical composition of the soil, e.g. salt content.
- Temperature of the soil.

The following tables illustrate the effect these factors have on the soil
resistivity.

2
Table 1 Table 2

Note: Although Table 2 quotes figures for salt laden soil, it is now deemed
bad practice to use salt as a chemical means of reducing soil resistivity,
because of its very corrosive nature. Salt along with other chemicals, has the
disadvantage of leaching out of the surrounding soil after a period of time,
thus returning the soil to its original resistivity.

Once the soil resistivity has been calculated from the local soil measurements,
the appropriate earth electrode system can be chosen by using typical
formulae listed below:

Horizontal strips (Rectangular Section)

200L
R= Log 10
275L wD

Horizontal strips (Circular Section)

100L
R= Log 10
275L dD

3
Vertical strips (Rectangular Section)
800L
R= Log 10
275L w

Vertical strips (Circular Section)

400L
R= Log 10
275L d

Where:
R = Apparent earth electrode resistance in ohms
= Soil resistivity I ohm.cm
D = Depth of electrode in metres
D = diameter of electrode in centimetres
L = Length of electrode in metres
W = Width of electrode in centimetres

For Example

If we require an earth electrode resistance of 20 ohms and we have

established by a soil resistivity survey that P = 10,000 ohm.cm. (several
electrodes in parallel will reduce the general earth resistance)

If for this example we assume that the soil is suitable for deep driven rod
electrodes then we can calculate the depth of rod required to obtain the
desired 20 ohms resistance.

From above, for vertical strips (circular section)

400L
R= Log 10
275L d

Thus R = 20 ohms and = 10 000 ohm.cm

Assume we use a standard 5/8" diameter rod (nominal diameter 14mm)
Actual shank diameter 14.2mm
Thus d = 1.42cm L=?

If we let L = 6mm and substitute to see what of R is obtained

10 000 400x6
R= Log 10 = 6.0606 x 3.228 = 19.56 ohms
275x6 1.42

Thus 6m of extensible rods (5x1.2m) can be used to obtain the desired

resistance value of 20 ohms.

The above example illustrates the importance of the accuracy of the soil
resistivity figure. If the survey is inaccurate, then the calculated apparent earth
electrode resistance R will be Inaccurate and misleading.

4
D.3. PRINCIPLE OF EARTHING according to Lightning air termination

Grounding for Franklin rod:

For each individual descent conductor, from each Franklin rod, earthing
should be done by

- Ground conductor of same component, same section than the descent

conductor, layed in crows foot method such as (for example) 3 conductors
up to 10 metres length, horizontal at a depth of at least 60cm.
- A set of 3 vertical electrodes, of at least 2m depth, layed in equilateral
triangle of minimum 2m side dimensions. Electrodes being interconnected
at their tip by a conductor of at least the same size of the descent
conductor.
- Interconnection with the main earth loop network with a conductor of at
least the section of the descent conductor. (see following paragraph D7).

Grounding for Faraday cage:

For each individual descent conductor, earthing should be done by

- Ground conductor of same component, same section than the descent

conductor, layed in crow foot method, but with small dimensions; For
example 3 conductors of 2 or 3 metres length at a depth of at least 60cm.
- A set of 2 vertical electrodes of at least 2m., distant of at least 2m. and
interconnected with a conductor of at least the section of the descent
conductor.
- Interconnection with the main earth loop network with a conductor of at
least the section of the descent conductor. (see following paragraph D7).

Grounding for Taut cables:

Same as per Franklin rod method

------------------------------------------------

Position of the Lighting ground specific system is always directed towards the
outside of the building / structure to protect.

The conductors, parts of crows foots or interconnecting electrodes must be

distant of at least 3m from any metallic pipe / rack not entering the building /
structure being protected. (different installation)
If this constraint cannot be respected, a good and permanent ground
interconnection has to be established between these different installations.

5
D.4. GENERAL METHOD OF EARTHING

Single Strip End Connected

Comment: Poor results as lightning only

has one path. High ground voltages will
be experienced at injection points.

Radial Earthing, Single Radial

Comments: Ideal for medium resistivity

areas and radials to 30 metre length.
Lightning current split 6 ways.

Radial Earthing, Crows Foot Radial

Comment: Ideal in areas of higher soil resistivity.

Creates multiple paths for lightning current and
high capacitive coupling to ground.
Note: Earth Gel is generally very effective with
Radial Earthing.

Copper Clad Steel Rod earthing

Comment: Effective with only one rod

when high ground water level exists.

Multiple Rod Earthing

Comment: Place rods according to best depth

driven with first rod. Spacing of each rod
should be 2 x depth.

6
 Deep Drill Earthing

Comment:: Required in dry areas and where

ground water level is very low. Essential to
make continuous contact between wall of hole
and rod. Drilling mud and gel is very effective.

**Cautious about high impedance

Earthing with Limited Area and Pedestrian

Traffic

Comment: Use deep drill hole and place one or

two concentric plastic cylinders over top 3-4
metres. This reduces ground voltage rise at the
surface.

D.5. SPECIFIC MATERIALS for earth termination network

Deep Driven Earth Electrodes

A soil resistivity survey indicating lower resistivity at greater depths will make
the deep driven earth electrode a logical choice. Deep driven earth electrodes
are more likely to reach permanent moisture unaffected by seasonal changes.

Ground level

Deep driven Earth Electrode

7
A common misconception is that increasing the diameter/width of the rod/strip
electrode will give a significant reduction of earth resistance.

Tests have shown that increasing the diameter of a rod electrode from 12.5 to
25mm has increased the weight by 400%, increased the cost by 400%, but
only reduced the earth resistance by 9.5%.

.To obtain a low overall resistance, current density should be as low as

practicable in the soil which is in contact with the electrode.

This can best be achieved economically by having one electrode dimension

very large in comparison with the other dimensions. This is best achieved by a
rod or strip electrode.

Parallel Earth Rod Electrodes

Where ground conditions make deep driving of earth rods impossible, a matrix
arrangement of rods coupled to one another by conductors can be used.

If possible, the earth rods must be spaced at least equal to their driven depth.
No significant decrease in resistance will be obtained by spacing greater than
twice their driven depth.

Spacing or Paralleling Earth Rod Electrodes

If earth rods cannot be driven in a parallel line, a 'Crows Foot' configuration

can be used, ensuring that the spacing depth ratio is still maintained

8
 Crows Foot Earth Configuration

Radial Strip Electrodes

Ground that has one metre depth of soil before encountering bedrock will best
be suited to a buried radial electrode, provided the system is installed below
the frost line and below the area that is subject to seasonal weather changes.

Buried Strip Earth Electrode

Solid Plates or Mats

Earth plates or mats can be buried instead of driving rod electrodes but
installation is expensive and time consuming.

9
 Buried Earth Plate Electrode

Reinforcing bars in foundations as natural earths

This is an economical method of using the mass of metal already

underground in the form of the reinforcing bars, within the structure's
foundations. Precautions should be taken to ensure there is electrical
continuity between these reinforcing bars and the earth/lightning protection
connections above ground.

Underground Pipe Work System

Buried water pipes were previously considered to be a reliable method of

earthing but the increasing use of plastic pipes or replacing metal joints with
plastic ones now makes this method unreliable.

Other forms of earth electrode can be used, including ring conductors or radial
strips emanating from a particular point, or a combination of conductors with
earth rods.

Voltage Gradient

A further factor affecting the choice of an electrode system is the electrical

considerations.

Step and touch voltages on the surface of the ground in the vicinity of earth
electrodes must be restricted to safe values.

This can be achieved by using electrodes to form a ring around the area to be
protected. The electrodes must be buried sufficiently deep to reduce surface
potential.

An effective method of reducing the voltage gradient of rod electrodes is to

install them with the top of the electrode some distance beneath the surface of

10
the soil. The connection between the electrode and down conductor being
made with insulated conductor.

An example of how effective this can be is illustrated by tests which gave the
following results.

The maximum voltage gradient over a two metre span adjacent to a 25mm
diameter earth electrode was 85% of the total electrode potential when the top
of the assembly was at ground level. This electrode potential was reduced to
20% when the electrode was buried 0.3 metres below ground level and 5%
when buried 1.0 metres below ground level.

One of the biggest problems for the installation contractor is of obtaining an

earth resistance of, say, one ohm or less in an area of high soil resistivity.
Unfortunately, there is no magical solution. However, several options are
available to the contractor in the form of soil conditioning agents.

Corrosion

The correct choice of materials for a lightning protection system is vital. Metal
fittings must be compatible with the metal or metals used externally on the
structure over which the system passes or with which it may be in contact.

Aluminium and copper, the two metals most commonly used in lightning
protection systems, are not compatible, so great care must be taken when
both are used in a system particularly where they come into contact with each
other.

If aluminium is selected as the material for air termination networks and down
conductors, it has to be connected to copper at or around the test clamp, This
connection should be positioned at the beginning of the earth termination
network. This is because the Earthing Code do not permit aluminium to be
buried underground.

Example of Bi-Metallic Connector

11
The contact surfaces of dissimilar metals should be kept completely dry and
protected against the ingress of moisture, otherwise corrosion will occur. A
particularly effective means of excluding moisture is to use inhibitor pastes,
bitumastic paint, or approved protective wrappings.

As aluminium is prone to corrosion when in contact with Portland cement and

mortar mixes, aluminium conductors need to be fixed away from the offending
surface with an appropriate fixing.

D.6. IMPROVEMENT IN SOIL CONTINUITY

Improvement of earth distribution by

- Adding earth electrodes to the already existing ones

- Multiplying the earthing solutions and interconnect all systems together
- Apply a treatment to reduce impedance of the soil.

Improvement with soil conditioning agents

Introducing a soil-conditioning agent into the ground can reduce the soil
resistivity and hence reduce the earth resistance.

There are various agents available, the choice of any particular one will
depend on the type of earth required - temporary or permanent; the locality;
the condition of the soil, etc.

As previously mentioned moisture forms an important part in obtaining a low

soil resistivity value and it is the impurities in the water that produce this. One
way of reducing the soil resistivity is to pour chemical solutions i.e.: copper
sulphate; sodium carbonate; calcium sulphate, over the local area and allow it
to migrate through the soil. The disadvantage of this is the large volume of
solutions required, which makes it a cumbersome and time consuming
exercise. Also chemicals will eventually leach out of the local soil, returning it
to its original high resistivity. Dissolving chemicals into the soil is also likely to
encourage corrosion of the earth electrode. Hence the reason for not
recommending the use of salt as a means of reducing the soil resistivity.

Other soil-conditioning agents are available including Bentonite and

Marconite.

Bentonite is used as an earth-electrode back-fill to reduce soil resistivity by

retaining moisture. The clay consists largely of sodium montmorillonite, which
when mixed with water swells to many times its dry volume. It has the ability
to hold its moisture content for a considerable period of time and to absorb
moisture from the surrounding soil (e.g. from rainfall).

Marconite is a conductive carbonaceous aggregate which when mixed with

conventional cement, effectively increases the surface area of the earth-
electrode, thus lowering its earth resistance. Ideal for use on sub-stations and

12
transmission/distribution networks or in hot, dry climates, and also has
electromagnetic screening and anti-static flooring applications.

Both products have applications with deep-driven electrodes. The ground/soil

in question can be drilled using a portable drill rig, transported to the site.
Significant depths can be reached depending on the type of ground.

The electrode assembly can then be inserted into the pre-drilled hole and
back-filled with Bentonite or Marconite, or any other appropriate conditioning
agent.

It is vital with any earthing system that regular inspection is carried out for
possible damage. Regular checks on earth electrode resistance to ensure
optimum protection are advised.

An other simple method to improve soil quality is to "import" massive

quantities of topsoil having good resistivity.

D.7. GROUNDS INTERCONNECTIONS DEBATE (Lightning and network)

D.7.1. Separate Grounds between Network and Lightning Protections

When a "normal" strike occurs, on the air termination (specially installed for
that purpose) the overvoltage and high currents are driven away the ground
installation network. Everything is at it "should be", no interference between
the 2 earthing systems (as long as they are clearly distant from each other)

All the manufacturers, all the engineering and standardisation offices cannot
guaranty a 100% protection. Air terminations are there to support the strikes
but nevertheless, within the protected area, an "unexpected" event could
direct a strike a wrong way towards a building or a structure.

13 of 14
Everyone, with field experience have seen or heard about lightning causing
big damages to installation believed to be "well" protected.
Probabilities are low for such happening in descending strikes, but are more
present for ascending ones. A small not directly protected building could have
more 'capacitance' ready to strike than an air termination nearby.

In that case ("unexpected" strike), interconnection with the lightning ground is

welcome as well as the 'electrical' surge protectors devices.

D.7.2. Interconnected Grounds between Network and Lightning

Protections

!
Air Terminal Air Terminal

Earth pit

When strike occurs on the air terminal, the overvoltage could be spread on the
entire network, bring currents in "feed-back". Preferable paths could be taken
according to resistance value of the different branches of the network.
This happens with insufficient direct ground termination for the capturing
device and / or bad connections. It enlightens the necessity to have good
engineering, proper measurement of soil resistivity and earthing value as well
as a permanent survey and maintenance of the earthing network

D.7.3. Conclusion:

- For those in favour in Separate grounding ::

Arguments: Air Terminal is for receiving strikes whose current must be routed
directly to earth, without "feed-back" possible in the installation
Inconvenient: what about the "unexpected" strike creating induced current in
cables on racks or even in ground.

- As the "unexpected" always happens., it is better to interconnect all the

grounding networks, including Lightning, Telephone, Instruments, Radio, etc.
Of course this 'general' network should be of good quality, well engineered,
well surveyed / maintained. When in doubt, "excessive" grounding will be
always better than "bad" earthing.

14 of 14
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

The Surge protectors

1
E.1. GENERALITY:

As a general guide all cables / lines of power, data communication,

signals, telephone, video, etc which enter or leave a building should be
protected.

In fact, any kind of communicating or interconnecting cable having a sufficient

length outside a protected building and being laid either on a rack or under the
ground, is subject to induced voltage / current due to a lightning strike on the
same rack or on the ground even if those elements are well interconnected
within the earthing network.

Each type of cable and each type of signal transmitted have their own
adapted type of electrical surge protection.

E.1.1. When and where to protect:

Transient overvoltages are conducted into the sensitive circuitry of electronic

equipment on power and data communication, signal and telephone lines.
Protection is recommended for:

all cables which enter or leave the building (except fibre optic)
the power supply local to important equipment
electronic equipment outside the main building(s).

Protect incoming and outgoing electrical services

Lightning strikes between clouds or to ground (and objects upon it) can cause
transient overvoltages to be coupled on to electrical cables, and hence into
the sensitive electronic equipment connected to them.

To protect the electronic equipment inside a building, all cables that enter or
leave the building must be protected. (Cables leaving the building can also
provide a route back into the building for transient overvoltages.)

For each building protect incoming/outgoing:

* mains power supplies (including UPS supplies)

* data communication and local area network cables

* signal, control, instrumentation and alarm lines

* CCTV, satellite, TV and antenna cables

* telephone and telemetry lines.

2
Protect the power supply locally to important equipment

In addition to installing protection on the mains power supply as it enters /

leaves the building, protection should also be installed locally to important
equipment. Protection at the main LV (low voltage) incomer(s) is necessary to
prevent large transients from entering the building's power distribution system,
where they could have far-reaching effects. However, where the cable run to
equipment exceeds, say, 20 metres, transient overvoltages may appear on
the mains after the protector at the main LV incomer. These transients can
result from:

the electrical switching of large inductive loads within the building

a lightning strike to the building - as lightning currents flow through down
conductors transient overvoltages can be induced on to nearby power
cables
the natural inductance and capacitance of long cable runs, 'amplifying' the
voltage 'let-through' the protector at the main LV incomer.

Additionally, local protection guards against the possibility of a supply which

enters/leaves the building being overlooked and left unprotected.

(Note: Data communication, signal and telephone lines are not usually
exposed to switching transients and, owing to the protection afforded by their
generally good cable screening, do not normally require additional local
protection.)

Protect electronic equipment outside the building

On-site or field-based electronic equipment with mains power, data

communication, video, signal or telephone line inputs will need to be protected
against transient overvoltages. It may be helpful to think of each equipment
cabinet or cubicle as a separate building with incoming/outgoing cables to be
protected.

E.1.2. How to get effective protection

In order to provide effective protection, a transient overvoltage protector must:

be compatible with the system it is protecting

survive repeated transients
not leave the user unprotected, at the end of its life
have a low 'let-through' voltage, for all combinations of conductors, and
be properly installed.

Compatibility

The protector must not interfere with the system's normal operation:
mains power supply protectors should not disrupt the normal power supply
or cause high leakage currents to earth,

3
 protectors for data communication, signal and telephone lines should not
impair or restrict the systems data or signal transmission.

Survival

It is vital that the protector is capable of surviving the worst case transients
expected at its intended installation point. Transient overvoltages caused by
the secondary effects of lightning are unlikely to have currents exceeding
1OkA. More importantly, since lightning is a multiple event, the protector must
be able to withstand repeated transient overvoltages.

Let-through voltage

The larger the transient overvoltage reaching the electronic equipment, the
greater the risk of interference, physical damage and hence system downtime.
Consequently, the transient overvoltage let through the protector should be as
low as possible and certainly lower than the level at which interference or
component degradation may occur.

Transient overvoltages can exist between any pair of conductors:

phase to neutral, phase to earth and neutral to earth on mains power

supplies,
line to line and line(s) to earth on data communication, signal and
telephone lines.

Thus, a good protector must have a low let~through voltage between every
pair of conductor,.

End of life

When the protector comes to the end of its working life it should not leave
equipment unprotected. Thus in-line protectors should take the line out of
commission, preventing subsequent transients from damaging equipment.
Protectors for data communication signal and telephone lines and protectors
for low current mains power supplies are usually in-line devices. Where
protectors are installed at mains power distribution boards it is usually
unacceptable for these to suddenly fail, cutting the power supply.
Consequently, to prevent equipment being left unprotected, the protector
should have a clear pre end-of-life warning, which allows plenty of time for it to
be replaced.

Installation

The performance of transient overvoltage protectors is heavily dependent

upon their correct installation. Thus, it is vital that protectors are supplied with
clear installation instructions.

4
E.2 DIFFERENT ORIGINS OF OVERVOLTAGE

E.2.1. Conducted overvoltage

Due to a strike directly on an overhead conductor, the current generated is

driven up to the end of the cable, with a voltage in a range of thousands of
Volts, for LV and communication lines. Their "power" are attenuated by the
length of lines and by the surge protectors but are still provoking damage to
sensitive equipment's.

E.2.2 Induced overvoltage

Due to electromagnetic field developed by a strike current either inside ground

or between structures.
The magnetic field will generate voltage in any encountered cable. This
voltage will be in turn propagated by conduction.

This phenomena is devastating for cables laid in cable trays / racks specially if
they have different ground network (instrumentation cables along power
cables even at "reasonable" distance).

5
E.2.3. Propagation of overvoltages

- Common mode:

Produced between the 'active'

conductor and the ground

Hazardous for devices with

earthing connected to main
ground. (dielectric breakdown)
Overvoltage

- Differential mode

Overvoltage is produced
between the active conductors
Phase/phase or phase/neutral

Hazardous for electronics,

computers and any sensitive
equipment

E.2.4. Principle of protection

Protection against transitory overvoltage (surge) consists in connecting

between the 'live' conductor and earth, one system able to draw away the
lightning current and to limit overvoltage amplitude. Overvoltages cannot be
directly eradicated, a residual voltage always stay present.

E.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTECTION

The main "requests" about a surge protector would be:

Voltage of the protection must correspond to the one of the network to

protect
When there is no overvoltage, no 'leaking' current should circulate through
the protection
When an overvoltage, just above the rated value of the protection,
immediate conduction towards ground is to be established limiting the
voltage to the required level.

6
 At overvoltage clearance, protection should stop conduction, and go back
to its initial status (still with no leaking current)
Response time to be lowest (as per standards)
Sizing adapted for releasing of "extra" voltage and current which could
appear in the installation to protect
Follows specific Standards requirement such as : "support 20 times an
overvoltage in the range of 8/20 s of nominal current and one time the
maximum admissible current. " (French Standard)

E.4. THE PRODUCTS FOR PROTECTIONS different levels / voltage

Examples of vendor product are given for each type, level, and voltage of
protection. - All in Low Voltage -

E.4.1 Origin of electrical supply:

The HV/LV transformer is protected on the secondary side in system IT

(neutral Isolated or Impedant). One Surge Limiter is connected between the
neutral and the ground. Voltage of this limiter must correspond with the one of
the transformer

Electrical
distribution

Surge
Limiter

"Cardew" being the product name by Schneider / Merlin Grin

7
E.4.2. Power distribution - SWG / MCC :

From Transfo

Surge
Protector
Distribution

They are 3 phases or 3 phases or 3 phases + neutral surge protector installed

in the main cabinet. Sizing is according to the nominal power to protect with a
nominal voltage of 230 or 400 V AC. They are panel mounting or 'modular',
connection on the bus-bars is made through breaker or fuses.
Regular survey is necessary for replacing the "burned" elements

Hereafter, for information, data's for one Vendor with their 'DS' range of
products:

Modular Surge Protector

Modular and designed for mounting on DIN rails, these protectors are easy to
install in standardised boxes and cabinets and have thermal disconnection
devices and indicators for complete operating safety.

These surge protectors are available with several protection diagrams to

satisfy different installation needs and standards, they offer three levels of
surge protection corresponding to different IEC or VOE classes:

1) Heavy duty AC power surge protectors

Type 1 (IEC) or Category B (VDE)

They are designed to be installed where there is a high "lightning" risk,

especially when there is a lightning rod on site. In addition, IEC standard
61643-7 recommends the use of a surge protector capable of passing 10/350
microsecond impulses representing a direct lightning strike. Because of the
high stresses, these surge protectors are most often installed in boxes
upstream of the main electrical panel.

2) Primary AC power surge protectors

Type 2 (IEC) or Category C (VDE)

Designed to be installed at the head ends of installations, usually just after the
main electrical panel, these Primary surge protectors protect a whole
installation. They use a withdrawable design.

8
3) Secondary AC power surge protectors
Type 3 (IEC) or Category 0 (VDE)

If you have very sensitive equipment or an extensive installation, secondary

surge protectors are advisable. They should be installed near sensitive
equipment and are coordinated with the primary protectors. They may be
installed on secondary panels, in separate boxes, or as an interface on
equipment power cords.

Operating Principle

Most DS surge protectors use zinc metal-oxide varistors (MOV), the best
compromise between a rapid response time (25ns) and a high discharge
current capacity. But the end of life of these varistors must be monitored,
requiring the systematic use of built-in thermal disconnection devices.

AC power surge protection parameters

- Discharge currents In and Imax

The maximum discharge current (lmax) is the maximum a surge protector can
withstand without destruction for one lightning strike (8/20-microsecond
impulse). Typical Imax values are:

Heavy duty surge protector: 7OkA or more

Primary surge protector: 40kA
Secondary surge protector: 1OkA

The nominal discharge current (in) is the level a surge protector can withstand
repeatedly without destruction (15 or 20 x 8/20 microsecond impulses).

- Protection level Up

This is the maximum voltage on the output of a surge protector when loaded
by a discharge current equivalent to its nominal discharge current (in). It is
therefore the transient disturbance to which the protected equipment will be
exposed.

For an efficient protection, the protection level of the surge protector must be
as low as possible - lower than the withstand voltage of the protected
equipment.

In practice, the residual overvoltage seen by the equipment will be equal to

the "Up" of the surge protector plus the voltage drops in the connecting
conductors,' it is therefore important to make the connections from the surge
protector to the network as short as possible (see "Installation"), failing which
the efficiency of the protection will be gravely impaired.

- Operating voltages Un and Uc

9
Un: nominal AC voltage of the network to which the surge protector is
connected

Uc.. Maximum AC voltage that can be permanently applied to the surge

protector without impairing its operation,

Disconnection device

In conformity with AC surge protector standards, DS surge protectors have

internal thermal safeties that disconnect the network protection function in the
event of abnormal operation (overheating because the rated values of the
product have been exceeded).

The user will be alerted by the indicator turning red on the front of the
defective module, which will then have to be replaced.

In addition, to withstand temporary short-circuit currents or overvoltages, the

surge protectors should be connected to the AC network via external
disconnection devices (fuses or circuit breakers).

Maintenance

"Pluggable" design
The design of DS surge protectors is based on the use of a pluggable module
that plugs into a matching receptacle, This makes replacement, and checking,
very easy without impairing the protection function. On multipolar surge
protectors, the possibility of replacing a single pole makes rehabilitating a
surge protector less expensive.

Remote Signalling

Most DS surge protectors are available in "remote signalling" versions. This

function, which allows remote checking of the surge protector's condition, is
especially important when the products are hard to reach or unsupervised.

The system consists of an auxiliary changeover contact that is actuated if the

protection module changes state. This lets the user monitor:

4h The operation of the modules

The presence of the plug-in modules
The end of life (disconnection) of one or more modules.

The "remote signalling" version thus makes it possible to choose a signalling

system (operation or fault indicator) appropriate to the installation (light
buzzer, automation, transmission by modem, etc).

10
 DS40S surge protector diagram

Installation

- Location
DS surge protectors are installed as follows, according to type:

- "Heavy duty" at the head end of the installation, in a separate box or on the
main electrical panel, for effective discharge of large lightning currents.

- Primary" at the head end of the installation, on the main electrical panel, so
as to shunt lightning currents as directly as possible and thereby avoid
coupling.

- "Secondary" on the secondary panel, near the sensitive equipment to limit

ringing and improve the level of protection.

- Connection

Since lightning surges are essentially common-mode phenomena,DS surge

protectors are connected mainly in the common mode (between the active
conductors and ground).

Some recommendations (French UTE guide C15-443) call for additional

differential-mode protection (between phase and neutral). For this case, we
proposes special surge protectors (types DS40D, DS10D, DS470D, DS210D)
or, when the standards allow, combinations of surge protectors between
phases and neutral (differential mode) with a special surge protector
(D5100EG, DS3OG) between neutral and ground (common mode).

- Installation

The total length of the surge protector connecting conductors must not exceed
0,5m, so as not to degrade the level of protection (Up). The surge protector
can be connected to the network by:
-- conductors on screw terminals;
-- a connection bus.

11
 DS44S Installation

Choosing surge protectors

The AC power surge protectors is designed to cover all configurations. There

are accordingly many versions, which differ in:
- maximum discharge current (Imax)
- network configuration (single- / three-phase)
- protection diagram (varistors, spark gaps, filter)
- functionality's (redundancy, differential mode, remote signalling).

- Imax
The Imax parameter varies according to the transient overvoltage risk faced
by the installation to protect. It is usually defined by the different regulations. If
not a quick estimation of the risk can be carried out.
-- Direct strike likely..
10OkA and higher surge protectors
-- High lightning density (Ng > 2)
70kA surge protectors
-- Significant lightning density (1 < Ng < 2)
40-3OkA surge protectors
-- Secondary protection (downstream primary surge protector)
1OkA surge protectors

- Network configuration
The various DS surge protectors are available for single- and three-phase
networks and three-phase networks with neutral. (see table next)

12
- Surge protectors coordinations

To ensure maximum protection of

an installation, it could be
necessary to use a coordination
of surge protector: "Primary"
surge protector installed at the
entrance of the installation and a
"Secondary" surge protector
close to the sensitive equipment
This combination is
recommended for the 2 following
cases:
- Highly sensitive equipment:
Improvement of the
protection level Up.
- Long distance: (greater than
30m between surge protector and
protected equipment)
Ring voltage limitation.

The set up of an efficient

coordination is performed by
adding between the primary and
the secondary surge protector:

- a sufficient length of wire

(higher than 10m).
- a coordination inductor (DSH
type).

Vendor range of 'DS' products

Surge protection operating voltage

Un is the nominal voltage of the network to be protected.

Uc (maximum operating voltage) of the surge protector depends on:
- the nominal voltage of the network to be protected,'
- the type of neutral
- distribution system quality (voltage variation)

13
E.4.3. Sub-Power distribution - MCC / Distribution panel:

Incoming
cable

Sub-distribution
panel

Surge
Protector

Towards distribution

Example shows a 3 phase + neutral

protector.
If the distribution if one Phase +
neutral, the surge protector is to be
adapted accordingly

Used material is in the same standard and construction than for the previous
paragraph. Hereafter is extracted from vendor catalogue

The distribution could be as well from a 22OV from a UPS

The DS410D is a surge protector for 3-phase+neutral networks. The "surge

protection function is fixed and the housing includes a disconnection indicator
and a remote signalling contact. The DS410D surge protector is installed on
the main distribution board and provides a Common / differential mode. The
design of the DS410D allows installation in series on the network (up to 63A),
optimising the efficiency of the protection through the absence of voltage
drops in parallel.

14
Characteristics:
- 3-phase surge protection .
- Discharge currents: In: 1OkA; Imax: 30 kA
- Common / Differential mode
- Protection level Up: 1.511W
- Operating / disconnection indicator
- Remote signalling contact

E.4.4. 'Other' Sub-Power distribution - UPS / DC Distribution panel:

AC

Supply DC
from a
protected
source
Sub-distribution
panel

Surge
Protector

Towards distribution

Each device to be adapted to the

nominal voltage to protect.
Ex: a 24V surge protector cannot be
used for 48V and in reverse a 48V must
not be used to protect a 24V distribution

This type of device is used in Instrumentation individual loop protection.

Hereafter, some examples of range for a DS product

15
E.4.5. 'End of line' power distribution protections

Socket
220V
Distribution
panel

Surge
Protector

Surge
Protector

Each individual socket can be equipped with its own surge protector, this to
ensure the direct safety of the device (sensitive) connected on power supply.

Hereafter, some technical details about one vendor range of products.

Data's from vendor catalogue:

We propose a line of surge protectors for the single-phase low-voltage access

of sensitive terminal equipment. These products, grouped under the
"Varasurge" name, are available in various formats:

16
 Plug-in boxes (PBE P5F ESC)
Multi outlet boxes (P11)
Combined Power / Data Line boxes (P11, PSUMJ)
Connection boxes (MSB, KKM)

Choices
A wide choice of formats is available to provide a solution for any
configuration.
The choice will be based on installation constraints:
- Simple, rapid installation Single / multiple jack outlet boxes
- Telephone l Data equipment Combined units
- Fixed, built-in installation Connection boxes
The jack-based versions are generally available in French and German
versions.

Installation
Parasurges are generally used as secondary protection, i.e. in combination
with primary surge arresters (DS line) installed on the main electrical panel..
For maximum efficiency, Parasurges are installed near the equipment to be
protected.
The single and multiple plug outlet versions can be installed by the end user
with no risk of error.

Operaton
-- "3-stage" diagram
Parasurges (PIN, HF or P11) use a multi-stage diagram for enhanced
efficiency.
With these three protection stages, each having a distinct role, Parasurges
combine three functions normally provided by separate devices:

A - input stage based on a gas discharge tube and varistors for a high
discharge current capacity.
B - Intermediate stage consisting of an RFI filter to reject RF interference and
coordinate the input and output stages.
C - Output stage based on varistors for a very short response time and low
residual voltage.

This version is recommended for the protection of especially sensitive

equipment.

-- "One-stage" diagram
The other surge protectors of the line use a "one-stage" diagram based on a
gas discharge tube and varistor for a high discharge current capacity in a
small volume, yielding compact , low-cost surge protectors.

-- Discharge currents
Because of their location inside the network or their role as "secondary" surge
protectors, Parasurges are not exposed to the very large discharge currents
that may be found at the head end of an installation: In and Imax are
accordingly rated at 3 and 10 kA

17
Safety
Parasurges have thermal disconnectors with check lights to ensure perfect
operating safety and conformity to the various AC surge protector standards.

Some versions also have an indicator of connection to the installation's

ground network, which is an essential condition of effective protection.

Example in range of products

18
E.4.6. Telephone and Data line surge protection

Terminal
Datas data
distribution
panel D

PABX (tph)
Computer Surge
Protector
etc
D

Surge
Protector

Each line/ cable going outside "normally to

have its own protection..
Each type of circuit has its protection also, hereafter example of data for a 2
pairs plug-in surge protector for power supply in telephone / data distribution

As numbers of protections installed are up to the designer, customer, system

of protection for telephone / data distribution can provide "racks" including as
many pair as required (4, 8,10,16, 25, 32, 64,128). Wiring of these protecting
devices becoming parts of the general data's distribution.

Technical Characteristics
All telephone and data fine surge protectors are reliable multistage devices
that combine a high discharge current capacity with fast response times.

All telephone and data line surge protectors use a combination of a non-
radioactive three-element gas discharge tube equipped with an external short-
circuit and fast clamping diodes to provide:

- A nominal discharge current (repeated without destruction) greater than

5kA with the 8 / 2O microsecond impulse OD
- An ultrafast response time, < 1ns

19
- Fail-safe short-circuit mechanism if there is a permanent fault.

The systematic use of 3-electrode discharge tubes provides optimum

protection through simultaneous sparkover.

This set of characteristics is essential for optimum reliability of the protected

equipment whatever the incident disturbance.

-Protections diagrams:

Standard Protection "K 20" Protection

Enhanced Protection Low capacitance Protection

Combined Power / data line surge protection:

This compact surge protector effectively protects the power and telephone
inputs of equipment's such as fax machines, modems (or TPEITFIV), Key
System Units (2 PSTN lines), and ISDN equipment ).

20
The P5F1W has two surge protector circuits, one for each of the two levels
protected, AC power and telephone / data.

The unit is simply plugged into the wall outlet and the telephone line is
connected to RJ 11 (or RJ 45) jacks or to adapter cords for telephone jacks.
The orange check light indicates that the Parasurge is connected to the
installation's ground network.

Any kind of "combination can be developed:

E.4.7. High-frequency Coaxial line surge protection

Technology of the HF coaxial surge protectors

As per on vendor catalogue, two technologies are proposed for HF coaxial

lines: "Gas Discharge Tube" and "Quarter-Wave"

"Gas Discharge Tube" protection P8AX series

A gas discharge tube is an insulator placed in parallel on the line; when its
sparkover voltage is reached because of an overvoltage, the line is briefly
practically shorted (arc voltage).
The sparkover voltage depends on the rise front of the overvoltage. The
higher the dV / dt of the overvoltage, the higher the sparkover voltage of the
surge protector.
When the overvoltage disappears, the gas discharge tube returns to its
original condition of insulator and is ready to function again. The discharge
tube is removable, making maintenance rapid in the end-of-life case.

21
"Quarter-Wave" protection PRC series
(other names: 'Shorting stub" or Protection by resonant line').

The other way to protect antenna lines is judicious replacement of the gas
discharge tube by a short-circuit chosen according to the operating frequency
band.
This short-circuit is tuned to one quarter of the wavelength, giving its name to
"quarter-wave protection.
This tuned short-circuit between the conducting core and the external ground
acts as a band-pass filter.
The filter may be selective (narrow band) or wide-band, according to the
calculation of the various mechanical elements.
Since lightning has a low-frequency spectrum (from a few hundred kHz to a
few MHz), it will be filtered out from the operating frequencies.

Protection by GDT "Quarter-Wave" protection

--Installing coaxial protectors

As per vendor recommendations

The effectiveness of coaxial protectors is highly dependent on coherent

installation, in particular their connection to the installation's ground network.

- Equipotential ground network: all protection conductors of the installation

must be interconnected and connected to a single ground (or ground
network).

- Optimised connection of the protector to the ground network: to minimise

the residual voltages from lightning discharge currents, the connection of the
protector to the ground network must be as short as possible (less than 50cm)
and have the largest possible cross-sectional area (at least 4mm). The
"feedthrough mounting" versions meet all these constraints.

- Relevant location of the protectors. they should preferably be placed at the

input to the installation (to limit the penetration of lightning currents) and also
near sensitive equipment (to enhance protection).

Radio base stations lightning protections

Radio base stations are especially vulnerable to lightning surges, because of

their exposure (high or / and isolated location), the quantity of sensitive
equipment used, and the obligation to keep operating.

22
For effective protection of a radio station from the effects of lightning, a global
approach is required.'

- Protection against the direct effect if there is a risk of a direct strike

(lightning rod);

- Protection of all accesses against indirect effects (surge protectors on

power, telephone, data, antenna, and other lines)

- Optimisation of wiring and ground network.

Example in range of products

E.5. THE TECHNOLOGY

The technology has been partially seen in the "product" paragraph, here is a
general view in the common used techniques.

Essentially, 3 components are used in surge protectors:

- Zener Diode
- Discharge tubes
- Varistance

23
Varistance is at present the more economical product, they are efficient and at
the lowest cost of production.

Other characteristics and options (seen also with the "products")

- Disconnection at end of life
- Status indicator
- Remote indication facility

Comparison between the technologies

Characteristics Component Leaking Leaking Residual Conducted Conduction
current If current Is voltage Energy delay

Ideal
surge 0 0 Low High Low
protector

Low but
Discharge 0 High High High
U high

Varistance Low 0 Low High Average

Zener Low 0 Low Low Low

If: initial leaking current Is: leaking after 'actuation'

E.5.1 Zener Diodes

Characteristics are closed to 'ideal' curve.

Response time is fast (in picosecondes: 10-12) for an accurate Voltage setting
Leaking current can be neglected
The main inconvenient is the low energy dissipation. This type of concept
cannot be used at head of an installation only as last protector for individual
devices protection.

E.5.2 Gas discharge

A) power protection

They can be only electrodes in ambient air or electrodes within an hermetic

casting filled with gas. When overvoltage, air or gas is ionised and provoke a
strike between electrodes

The air electrodes are subject to external interference's (rain, birds, etc)
causing unwelcome functioning.
The gas system is subject to quality of gas itself, specially if it has already
'worked'.
After a strike, a residual leaking current (Is) can last some tens of seconds
and induce increase of potential.

24
These systems have low reliability.
They were used on HV overhead lines and progressively replaced by direct
protection devices.
Advantages are: big energy dissipation and a leaking current (after the initial
residual current 'evacuated') which can be neglected.

B) Data lines protections

Product description as per vendor catalogue

These components are made of two or three electrodes in an enclosure filled

with a (non-radioactive) rare gas at a controlled pressure.

The enclosure is a ceramic tube with its ends closed off by metal caps that
also serve as electrodes.

Their main use is to protect telecommunications lines.

All our gas discharge tubes are certified radioactive-free.

- Operation
The gas discharge tube may be regarded as a sort of very fast switch having
conductance properties that change very rapidly, when breakdown occurs,
from open-circuit to quasi-short circuit (arc voltage about 20V). There are
accordingly four operating domains in the behaviour of a gas discharge tube:

* Non-operating domain, characterised by practically infinite insulation

resistance,'

* Glow domain. At breakdown, the conductance increases suddenly; if the

current drained off by the gas tube is less than about 0.5A (this is a rough
value that differs according to the type of component), the glow voltage across
the terminals will be in the 80 - 100Vrange;

25
* Arc regime: as the current increases, the gas discharge tube shifts from the
glow voltage to the are voltage (20V). It is in this domain that the gas
discharge tube is most effective, because the current discharged can reach
several thousand amperes without the arc voltage across its terminals
increasing.

* Extinction: At a bias voltage roughly equal to the glow voltage, the gas tube
recovers its initial insulating properties.

- The main electrical characteristics defining a gas discharge tube are:

DC sparkover voltage (Volts)

Impulse sparkover voltage (Volts)
Discharge current capacity (kA)
Insulation resistance (G-ohms)
Capacitance (pF).

- DC sparkover voltage

This is the main characteristic defining the gas discharge tube. It is the voltage
at which breakdown will occur between the electrodes when a slowly
increasing voltage (dV I dt = 100 V / s) is applied to the component; it
depends on the electrode spacing, the pressure, and the properties of the gas
mixture and of the emissive substance.
Range of DC sparkover voltages available:
minimum 75V
average 230V
high voltage 50OV
very high voltage 1000 to 300OV

The tolerance on the breakdown voltage is generally 20%.

26
E.5.3. Varistance

This is a V.D.R (Voltage Dependant Resistor); Resistance value fluctuating

according to the voltage across. With nominal voltage, resistance is 'very'
high. As soon as voltage increases, resistance value goes down quickly.
Resistance value stays nevertheless at a 'reasonable' level to avoid short-
circuit.

Called also M.O.V. '(Metal Oxyde Varistor), GEMOV for "General Electric" and
SIOV for 'Siemens'.

Principal advantage is low construction cost for and a dissipation of energy

Disadvantages:
- After several low energy overvoltages, heating occurs and life-time
shortens
- A too high overvoltage destroys the component up to short-circuit
- Explosion can even occurs with high-high voltage
Those disadvantages have been compensated by:
- Automatic disconnection stop the overheating and "switch off" the faulty
component
- Casting in adapted resin contains the forces (for explosion)

Its characteristics are close to 'ideal curve'.

Response time is low (in nanoseconds)
Energy dissipated is high
Leaking current, low at first, will increase after each peak of voltage, after
several strikes, the component has to switch off by itself. Indicator of 'end-of-
life should equip those devices for proper replacement in due time.

27
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

MISCELLANEOUS

1
F1 THE PRACTICES

When requested to connect / interconnect some pieces of equipment, it does

not come in mind the dangerous manner is sometimes used, if a lightning
strike is to happen.

Example:

Signal cable Rack

Rack

Galvanic isolation

Subject to 15 kV !!

Ground

A signal cable connects for example a computer and one printer, they are
insulated galvanically. Each device is connected to the ground through their
supply cable following a different path than the signal cable. Induced
overvoltage is proportional to the surface formed by the 2 cables.
If the surface is 300m, the strike of 100 kA / s at 400 metres, the induced
overvoltage can reach 15 kV.

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Interconnecting type in the grounding network can give explanation:

Star network Meshed network

-Control of path for fault currents -Fault currents path at random
-No Equipotentiallity loop -Equipotentiallity loops
-No coupling by common Coupling by common impedance
impedance
-Low impedance for all frequencies
-Low impedance in low
frequencies and high in high
frequencies

Other example enlightening the difference between grounds connected in star

and grounds meshed

Isolated
connection

Loop surface =
Electro 50m
magnetic
field of
lightning

Non-meshed
grounds

Overvoltage can reach 5 kV in a star type grounding distribution

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 Isolated
connection

Loop surface =
1 m with
Electro interconnection
magnetic
field of
lightning

With meshed distribution

Voltage goes only to 100V

Those examples shows the obvious advantages of "general" interconnections

of grounding systems

F.2. TYPICAL PROTECTIONS TECHNIQUES

Typical techniques of grounding direct protections given as indications in the

following.

F.2.1. Metallic frame structure:

Towards ground
network

Towards ground
network

The metallic frame is by its constitution a natural Faraday cage.

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F.2.2 Pipe racks:

Building B

Ground
network

Building A

Ground
network

Pipe racks have generally a metallic structure. At least one over 2 of the
vertical supports should be connected to the ground network
**Necessity to interconnect with the lightning ground in case of strike on the
pipe rack.

F.2.3 Storage tanks:

Storage
tank The "connecting" bracket is welded by the supplier or
manufacturer of the tank

Protection Overflow area

pipe

Towards
Earthing
ground
general
network

Storage tanks are connected to the ground network through welded brackets
parts of the tank itself. Minimum number of those brackets is 2, but it has to
be increased according to the size of the tank, see picture below.
Floating roof storage tank could have a specific lightning protection such as
"taut cables" (section C of this booklet)

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 Number of earthing connecting points

Towards earthing well and

general ground network

Number of ground connecting points according to size of tank

F.2.4. Columns:

If metallic, to be treated as any metallic structure, for non-metallic, treated as

a building

F.2.5. Non metallic buildings

Metallic frame being absent, a Faraday cage is built with lightning conductors,
strike points rods and descent conductors (as per following figure).

Meshes with maximum dimensions of 15 metres (Rolling Sphere of 15m)

Recommended also to connect to the ground system, the metallic rods and
meshes used to make concrete structures.

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 Strike points rods
Roof
conductor

Descent
conductor

To ground
network

To ground Earthing network

network

Faraday cage for flat roof non-metallic building

Strike points rods

Earthing network

To ground
network

Faraday cage for angle shape roof non-metallic building

F.2.6 Chimneys:

Their height gives preferable path for lightning strikes.

At the top, they have to be equipped with strike points rods interconnected
and with at least 2 descent conductors laid diametrically
This applies for chimneys in concrete alone, but also for chimneys in concrete
with metallic internal conduct.

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 Strike points rods Strike points rods

Metallic
Descent conduct
conductors

Descent
conductors

Concrete
structure

To Concrete
ground pad
network
Crows To
foot Crows
Crows ground
Earthing foot
foot network
network

F.2.7 Aerials:

Existence of an aerial on a roof increases the risk of striking.

The mast has to be connected to the roof network (or to the descent
conductor) through a surge protector. Size of interconnection identical to the
descent conductor size.
If the aerial is not in a protected area, a specific air terminal has to be installed

Air
Terminal

Protected zone

Surge protector

Crows foot

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F.3 MAINTENANCE

Air terminal:
For E.S.E. type air termination, refer to the vendor book
For all other types, the maintenance consists in periodical checks of the
correct fastening of rods and conductors.
Corrosion status to also checked, with replacement of bad pieces.
Continuity between all parts and grounds to be thoroughly checked.

Grounding:
Part of earthing network periodical maintenance
Earthing value of specific lightning ground to be measured
Continuity with main network to be measured
Corrosion status to be estimated

Surge protectors:
Regular surveys of the protections inside the panels is to be ensured. After a
'strong' thunderstorm, a specific survey of all surge protectors should be
initiated.
Surge protectors showing "end of life" have to be replaced immediately
If any doubt about a surge protector (leaking) replacement is advised.