ENERGY = Einsteins Formula: E = mc2 or E = (m)c2

When nuclear reactions occur a significant (measurable) mass change of the nucleus occurs, m.
Einsteins famous formula, E = (m)c2 is used to convert the nuclear mass change (m) into energy (E).
(c = 2.99792 x 108 m/s)

E is generally expressed using the SI unit of J with mass in kg.

The electron volt (eV) and the megaelectron volt (MeV) are older and often cited units of energy. An electron volt is
the energy an electron acquires when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V.
Remember from electrochemistry, V*C = J. (1 V)(1.602x10-19 C/1 e-) = 1.602x10-19 J = 1 eV

Simplified conversion factors between mass and energy: E = mC2

on a particle basis: 1 electron = 0.5110 MeV = 8.185x10-14 J = 2.273x10-20 kWh

1 proton = 938.3 MeV = 1.503x10-10 J = 4.174x10-17 kWh
1 neutron = 939.6 MeV = 1.505x10-10 J = 4.180x10-17 kWh

on a mass basis: 1 g = 5.610x1026 MeV = 8.988x1013 J = 2.497x107 kWh
1 amu = 931.5 MeV = 1.492x10-10 J = 4.144x10-17 kWh

Confirm using Einstein's formula, that 1 g of mass has an equivalent energy of about 9x1013 J.

Nuclear Chemistry 1

ENERGY = Einsteins Formula: E = mc2 or E = (m)c2

nucleus or particle amu g Be careful when using masses. Make the distinction
between nuclear mass and atomic mass. Atomic
e = = +
0
1
0.000548580 9.10939x10-28 masses include the mass of electrons as well as the
nuclear mass. The electrons in an atom must be
1 excluded when finding m for a nuclear rxn.
0n
1.00866 1.67492x10-24
1
1p 1.00728 1.67263x10-24 Nuclear mass = Atomic mass Electron mass
2 Your textbook has examples showing how
1 H Deuterium
2.01355 3.34358x10-24
determine the energy released in a nuclear reaction
3
1 H Tritium
3.01548 5.00732x10-24 when given atomic masses.
3
2 He
3.01493 5.00641x10-24 For problems we do in class, and on exams, I will
always give the nuclear masses.
4
2 He (alpha particle)
4.00151 6.64466x10-24

The thermite reaction is: Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(l) 2Fe(s) + Al2O3(s) H = 851.5 kJ/mol

This is one of the most exothermic chemical reactions known. Since the heat released is sufficient to melt the iron
product, the reaction is used to weld metal under the ocean. How much heat is released when 1.0 mole of Fe(s) is
produced? Compare this energy to the energy released when 2 mol of protons and 2 mole of neutrons combine to
form 1 mole of alpha particles.

Nuclear Chemistry 2
 Mass Change and Energy
Determine the energy change when Uranium-235 decays to Ba-141 and krypton-92 in a nuclear reactor:
235
92 U + 01n 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
92 1

The NUCLEAR masses are:

235
92 U = 234.9935 amu
141
56 Ba = 140.8833 amu
92
36 Kr = 91.9021 amu

Nuclear Chemistry 3

Nuclear Binding Energy, Eb

The Nuclear Binding Energy, Eb, is the glue that holds the nucleons together in the nucleus. This Binding Energy
is the energy required to separate a nucleus into individual protons and neutrons. (This is analogous to the lattice
energy for ionic compounds.)

(Eb) + Nucleus Nucleons Nucleons

energy to break apart

Eb = (m)c2 Eb
Using mass arguments: the nucleus (mass )

(mass nucleons) - (mass nucleus) = mass defect = m Nucleus

For Deuterium:
Nucleons
E b = 2.15x108 kJ/mol
2 1 1
1H 1 p + 0 n
-Eb = (m)c2 Eb (mass )

Nucleus

Where does all this energy come from?

From measurements, we know that the mass of atomic nuclei are ALWAYS less than the sum of the masses of
individual protons and neutrons. This missing mass is called the mass defect, m. This missing mass has been
converted to energy (released) upon formation of the nucleus and this is the Nuclear Binding Energy, Eb.

Nuclear Chemistry 4
 Mass Defect, m, and Nuclear Binding Energy
1. What is the nuclear binding energy of a single Ne-21 nucleus? Ne-21 has a nuclear mass of 20.98846 amu. Find
m for this nucleus. Convert to J and MeV.

2. What is the binding energy in J/mol of Ne-21?

3. What is the binding energy per nucleon for Ne-21?

4. To compare the stability of different nuclei, the nuclear binding energy is often reported as energy per nucleon.
Which is more stable, 12C or 21Ne? The nuclear binding energy of 12C is 7.680 MeV/nucleon.

Nuclear Chemistry 5

Stability of Nuclei - Nuclear Binding Energy

The most stable nucleus is Fe-56.

He-4 is also very stable. We see

tremendous amounts of He-4 in stars as
the hydrogen isotopes combine in fusion
reactions.

The lighter elements tend to undergo fusion

to make heavier - more stable nuclei.

The heavier elements tend to undergo

fission to produce lighter - more stable
nuclei. Consequently we use U-235 in
nuclear reactors.

Nuclear Chemistry 6
 Nuclear Fission Reactions
The fission process produces more neutrons that can initiate fission in other nearby U-235 nuclei. If there is a critical
mass of U-235, this can lead to an uncontrollable chain reaction.
A fission chain reaction has three steps:

1. Initiation: A neutron source is introduced to

begin the first fission process of U-235.
(Example: polonium)

2. Propagation: The release of neutrons in the

first fission process initiates fission in nearby
nuclei. This creates an exponentially increasing
fission rate. Lots of energy is released in a very
short time.

3. Termination: When most of the U-235 is used

up or the neutrons escape without being
captured.
This shows one set of daughter
nuclei from the induced fission
of 235U. There are other
possibilities. On average, 2.4
neutrons are emitted per
fission of a 235U nucleus.

One mole of 235U releases

about 2.1x1013 J during this
step.
Nuclear Chemistry 7

Trinity Test - The First Nuclear Explosion

Play Movie

Trinity Test July, 16 1945 - A 239Pu device

to test the theory of an implosion trigger.
Developed by Edward Teller, this was the
precursor to the Fat Man bomb dropped
on Nagasaki.

Fat Man

Nuclear Chemistry 8
 Little Boy - The First Atomic Bomb
To achieve a sustained chain reaction a critical mass of 235U must be present. For the Little Boy bomb of WWII small
amounts of TNT were used to push subcritical masses of 235U together to produce a single critical mass of 235U.

Little Boy

Little Boy - a 235U bomb. Untested before use.

At 8:12 AM on August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber called the 'Enola Gay' piloted by Col. Paul
Tibbets dropped an atomic bomb codenamed 'Little Boy' over the city of Hiroshima, Japan
and made a sharp high speed banking turn away from the city.

The bomb detonated 1900 feet (545 meters) over the city at 8:15 AM local time killing
140,000 people instantly or later due to the radiation sickness. Three days later a second
bomb codenamed 'Fat Man' was dropped over the city of Nagasaki killing another 70,000
people. Japan surrendered August 15, ending World War II.

Nuclear Chemistry 9

Nuclear Power Reactor - Enriched U-235 (3%)

Play Movie

Play Movie

Reactor Core
238U + 1n 239U Neutron capture to make U - 239
92 0 92
239U 239 Pu +2 0
92 94 1
Production of Pu - 239
1. The control rods absorb neutrons and limit the nuclear reaction. They are made from cadmium, boron or graphite.
Heavy water is also used to control the neutron flux.
2. The heat generated is captured and used to generate electricity.
3. The products of fission degrade the system. The reactor must be shut down to replace and reprocess the fuel rods.
4. Currently all waste is stored on-site. However, in the future the waste must be either be 1) reprocessed on-site or 2)
moved to permanent storage (Yucca Mountain Nevada).
5. In a Breeder nuclear reactor the abundant U-238 is converted into Pu-239 through neutron absorption and beta
emission. Hence, fissionable material Pu-239 was made from non-fissionable material U-238.
6. Breeder reactors are the source of plutonium for nuclear weapons. (Hanford, Washington)
Nuclear Chemistry 10
 Nuclear Reactor Melt Down
Nuclear reactors never have uranium or plutonium in high enough mass to create a
critical mass. Nuclear reactors cannot explode like a nuclear bomb. There is no chance a
nuclear power plants fuel rods can go critical and explode like a nuclear bomb.

Malfunctions in the nuclear core result in a melt-

down of the core creating tremendous amounts of
heat. The heat causes enormous amounts of
radioactive (contaminated) steam and dust to be
expelled into the air. This steam and dust will
eventually fallout of the air onto nearby land. The
land closest to the nuclear core is contaminated most
heavily, the further from the nuclear core the less
contamination. Fallout can occur several hundreds of
miles away from the nuclear core. The accident at
Chernobyl in the 1980s was a partial meltdown of
the core. The nuclear process control was lost and
too much heat was generated. This basically melted
the nuclear core, allowing radioactive material to
escape into the air and the nearby surroundings. The
nearby lands are still heavily contaminated with U
and Pu wastes. Strontium-90 is a particular problem
in the area.

Nuclear Chemistry 11

Nuclear Fusion in Stars

The major reaction believed to take place in stars is the
burning of hydrogen in a FUSION process:
1
4 1 H 2 He + 2 1 e
4 0

Calculate the energy released per mole of He formed in kJ.

Nuclear Chemistry 12
 Nuclear Fusion and H-Bombs
In a hydrogen bomb, nuclear fusion of tritium and deuterium provides most of the energy.
3 2 4 1
1H + 1 H 2 H e+ 0 n
E = - 1.7x109 kJ/mol
Play Movie
A H-bomb contains three stages.
1. A conventional explosive that provides the
trigger for the nuclear reactions to occur.
2. A standard Pu-239 fission reaction to
produce the necessary energy to initiate the
fusion reaction.
3. The hydrogen fusion reaction at the core of
the bomb.

The complete nuclear process, stages 1, 2 and 3 occur

in less than a second!

Ivy Mike was the first H-Bomb test, it was exploded at 7.15 am
local time on November 1st 1952. The mushroom cloud was 8
miles across and 27 miles high. The canopy was 100 miles
wide. Radioactive mud fell out of the sky followed by heavy rain.
80 million tons of earth was vaporized. Ivy Mike was the first
ever megaton yield explosion.

Nuclear Chemistry 13

Sustained Nuclear Fusion - the Holy Grail?

In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei react to form a larger nucleus. This process also releases a tremendous amount of
energy. The classic example is the fusion of tritium and deuterium.

- 1.7x109 kJ/mol
3 2 4 1
1H + 1 H 2 H e+ 0 n
E =

Products are generally not radioactive.

No long-term waste problems.
To make fusion possible three critical requirements are needed:
1. Extremely high T, on the order of 106 to 107 K, are
required. This is like the interior of the sun. At this T, all
matter is in the plasma state, individual nuclei and
electrons. (Fusion reactions are also called
thermonuclear reactions.) Much research has been
directed at using powerful lasers to produce the
needed temperatures.
2. The plasma must be confined long enough for the
fusion reaction to occur. (Use of powerful magnets to
contain the reaction have been researched.)
3. The output of energy must be captured in a useable A tokamak fusion reactor design.
form.

To date, sustainable fusion is still a goal not a reality.

Nuclear Chemistry 14