Lecture Note

4/11/2015
Prof. Charlie B. Batin

Mariano Marcos State University, City of Batac, I.N. Philippines
Visiting Lecturer
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL-THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

Tan Thinh Ward, Thai Nguyen City
S.R. Of Vietnam
Ilocos Norte
Quizzes
Reading Assigments
Recitations
Mid-Term and Final Exams
Laboratory Exercises and Reports
Attendance
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Mid-Term Exam 30%

Final Exam/Lab. Exercises 50%
Participation/Assignments/Quizzes/Att. 20%
100%
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The science that deals with the interactions and

relationships of organisms with their environment.
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Bawa, K. 1990. Tropical Ecology of Tropical Forest Plants. UNESCO.

Paris
Calisaux, P. A. 1973. Introduction to Ecology. John Wiley and Sons,

Inc. New York
Ehrlich, P. R. 1987. The Science of Ecology. McMillan Publishing Co.

New York
Golley, F. B. 1983. Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems: Structure and

Functions. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. New York.
Hocker, H.W. 1979. Introduction to Forest Biology. John Wiley and

Sons, Inc. New York
Ilocos Norte
Kimmins, J.P. 1997. Forest Ecology: A Foundation for

Sustainable Development. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
Kimmins, J.P. 1987. Forest Ecology. McMillan Publishing Co.

New York.
Pickering, W. R. 1995. Advanced Biology Revision Handbook.

Oxford University Press. New York.
Golley, F. B. 1983. Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem: Structure and

Functions. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. New York.
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Calasaux, P. A. 1973. Introduction of Ecology. John Wiley and Sons,

Inc. New York
Kendeigh, C. A. 1974. Ecology. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
Bawa, K. 1990. Reproductive Ecology of Tropical Forest Plants.

UNESCO. Paris.
The Green Machines: A Primer on our Forest (2nd edition). Published

by the Department of Natural Resources. 1983.
Smith, D. M. 1986. The Prentice of Silviculture. 8th Ed. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. New York.
Starr, C. 1987. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life. Wadsworth

Publishing Co. CA.
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This term is coined by ERNST HAECKEL in 1869.

Oikus- house
logus- study of
So in lay mans term, ecology means the study of
organisms home or house or environment.
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Living and non-living things surrounding and potentially

influencing a certain organism.
Abiotic Component- non-living chemical and physical factors.
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Living and non-living things surrounding and potentially

influencing a certain organism.
Biotic Component- living factors
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1. Organismal Ecology- the study of individual organisms

behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. In response to
environmental challenges.
2. Population Ecology- deals with affect and change the size and
genetic composition of populations or organisms.
3. Community Ecology- The study of the entire ecosystems.
4. Landscape Ecology- deals with the exchanges of energy,
materials, organisms and other products of between
ecosystems.
5. Global Ecology- the study of the effects of regional change in
energy and matter exchange on the function and distribution of
organisms accross the biosphere.
2. Ilocos Norte
Scientific observations and recording of relationships between

animals, plants and the physical environment began with the
development of the Egyptian and Greek cultures.
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The Egyptians left evidence in their sculpture and wall

paintings.
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The greek gave us the first formal record of botany and

ecology.
Aristotle (4th century B.C.) wrote about plagues of field
mice and locust echoing outbreaks of animal pests.
Theoprastus (300 B.C.), a pupil od Aristotle demonstrated

a clear understanding of habitat selection by different
plants, the effects of habitat on the growth and
morphology of plants and the implication of these effects
for the utilization of trees by people.
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Thomas Malthus (1978) told the world that

humans, like any other organism are ultimately
resource limited.
Ecology became widespread and led to the
inception of the science of ecology in 1900.
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1. Autecology- study of a single species/individual in relation to

its environment.
2. Synecology- study of several

organisms (communities) interacting
with each other and their environment.
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The place where the organisms lives or the place where

one would go to find it.
1. Terrestrial Forest, grassland, agricultural, etc.
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The place where the organisms lives or the place where

one would go to find it.
2. Aquatic- marine and freshwater ecosystems.
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Plant Ecologist
- studies the distribution and abundance of plants and
their interactions between and among orgnisms
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Animal Ecologist- studies on animal

species and their taxonomic
relationships.
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Microbial ecologist- studies on microbes

interaction with their environment.
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Eco-physiologist- it studies the interrelationship between an

organisms physical functioning and its environment.
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Medico-ecologist- it seeks to define those environment aspect that

has direct benefits to human health....
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1. All living organisms and the environment mutually reactive,

affecting each others in various ways.
2. Environment plays a major role in the critical stages of the life
cycle of the species.
3. The species reacts to the environmental changes and adjusts

itself structurally and physiologically.
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4. The environment also changes according to certain species-

specific activities like growth, dispersal, reproduction, death,
decay, etc.
5. All plants and animal are related to each other by their co-
action and reaction on the environment.
6. Under similar climatic conditions, there may simultaneously

develop more than one community, some reaching the climax
stage, and others under different stages of succession.
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1. Stability- property of a system to withstand disintegration due

to external and internal perturbations or stress.
2. Sustainability- property of a system to persist inspite of

recurrent and predictable perturbations.
3. Equitability- refers to the allocation of energy and materials

and other resources according to their proportionate
requirements.
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4. Plasticity- refers to the ability of the genotypes in the ecosystem

to change and adapt to various patterns to ensure adaptations to
changing environment and hence ensure ecosystem stability,
sustainability and flexibility.
5. Productivity- property referring to the ability to convert free

energy (sunlight) into biomass (living matter).
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Trophe- nourishment
1. Autotrophic component (self-nourishing) - organisms that are
capable of producing their own food through fixation of light
energy, use of simple inorganic substances and build-up of
complex substances.
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2. Heterotropic component (other nourishing) organisms

which utilized other organisms and decompose complex
materials. (e.g. Animals and Microbes)
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1. Abiotic components- non living components of the

ecosystem.
a. Inorganic compounds- e.g. air, water, nutrients
b. Organic compounds- proteins, carbohydrates, simple

sugars, litters, etc.
c. Climate- rainfall pattern, temperature, solar radiation

and other physical factors.
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ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Sunlight
4. Wind
5. Rocks and Soil
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Temperature
This is an important factor in distribution of organisms
because of its effects on biological processes.
Cells may freeze and rupture below 0 centigrade while

most most proteins denature above 45 centigrade.
Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate their

internal temperature.
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Water
This is an important factor in distribution of organisms
because of its effects on biological processes.
Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water

conservation
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Sunlight
Light intensity and quality affect photosynthesis.
Water absorbs light, thus in aquatic environments
most photosynthesis occurs near the surface.
In deserts, high light levels increase temperature

and can stress plants and animals.
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Rocks and Soil
Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and
thus the animals that feed upon them:
Physical Structure
pH
Mineral Composition
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Wind
Organisms tend to stay in a place with a better wind
circulation.
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2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.

a. Producers composed of all green plants and other
organisms capable of manufacturing their own food for
photosynthesis.
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b. Herbivores consumer
component of the
ecosystem that depends
on plants for food.
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c. Carnivores consumer components of the ecosystem
that depend on animals for food (animal that eat other
animals)
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d. Omnivores The consumer
component of the ecosystem that
depend on both plants and animals
for food; animals that eat both
plants and animals.
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e. Decomposers include the microbes, bacteria, fungi
and actinomycetes including soil animals that are
involve in the decomposition of plant and animal debris.
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1. Energy circuits- refers to the flow of energy among the

different components of the ecosystem.
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2. Nutrient flow or cycles- the movement of nutrients among

the different components of the ecosystem.
(e.g. Nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle, water cycle, etc.)
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3. Food Chains- characteristic sequences of energy among the

a. Grazing food chain- sequences that involve autotrophs to
herbivores to carnivores.
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3. Food Chains- characteristic sequences of energy among the

b. Decomposer or detritus food chain- tropic chains commencing
with dead organic matter and involving saprotrophs.
Note: Source of
energy is not the
sun but detritus,
this linear feeding
relationship is
called a detritus
food chain.
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FOOD WEB- A community of organisms living in a forest

ecosystem depend on each other through a complex series
of interacting relationships called
These complex food webs are dependent on simpler food

chains
Both food webs and food chains are
characterized by the transfer of energy originating from the
sun.
Animals cannot convert sunlight to energy, so are dependent
on the plants and trees to do this through the process of
photosynthesis
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Energy pyramid and transfer through a forest ecosystem (Food Web)
Within a food web there are

predators, that is, animals
that hunt and prey on
smaller animals for a source
of food.
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4. Diversity Patterns- the structure that results from the

distribution of organisms in and their interactions with their
environment.
5. Development and Evolution- The change in the physiognomy,
composition and structure of a community usually over a
number years.
6. Control- Refers to the natures way of keeping a balance

ecosystem.
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Ecology- the science that deals with the interactionsand

relationshipsof organisms with their environment.
Organisms- refers to all living components; both biotic and
biological components.
Environment- living and non living things surrounding and
potentially influencing a certain organisms.
Ecosystem- the basic unit of ecology; unit area where

organisms interact with other organisms and the physical
environment leading to diversity, material cycling and
energy flow.
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Diversity- the presence of different species of plants and

animals in the community.
Material cycling- movement of nutrients from air and soil to
plant and back to the air and soil.
Energy Flow- link between the components of the ecosystem;
flow of energy from its source to the different components
of the environment.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
In laymans term, it is a process where plants make their own
food.
Entails the production of complex organic compounds from
carbon dioxide and water.
The basic process of energy storage in nature and all animals
and plants depend on it
The most important physiological processes occurring in
plants.
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This physiological process occurs in two recognizable but
integrated steps:
Step 1. The absorption of light energy and the production of an
energy rich compound and a hydrogen carrier.
Step 2. The incorporation of CO2 into the final product. This
part is called the dark reaction of photosynthesis.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Factors affecting Photosynthesis:
A. Plant Factors
1. Age of leaves
Very young leaves total photosynthetic output is low because
of the small amount of leaf tissue involved and the low
concentration of chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis usually increases with increasing age up to
some critical level of maturity and then declines with age.
2. Structure and arrangement of leaves

Photosynthesis is correlated with the differences in leaf
structure that occur between species, between environmental
adaptations of the same species and even between leaves of
the same branch.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A. Plant Factors
3. Structure and arrangement of leaves
Photosynthesis of sun-grown leaves often is higher in bright
light than that of shade grown leaves of the same species,
possibly because sun-grown leaves have more exposed
lateral leaf surfaces.
4. Stomatal distribution and behavior

Generally, it seems probable that entrance of carbon dioxide
into heavily cutinized leaves occurs primarily through the
stomates.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A. Plant Factors
5. Chlorophyll Content
Generally, photosynthesis in leaves with an abnormally light
green color is less than that with a healthy, dark green color.
6. Carbohydrate accumulation
Carbohydrate produced in photosynthesis may accumulate
much faster than they can be assimilated, used up in
respiration, or translocated out of leaves. Under such
circumstances, such accumulations of carbohydrates reduced
photosynthesis.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
B. Environmental Factors
1. Disease
Leaf diseases reduced photosynthesis by reducing the
photosynthetic area and by reducing the efficiency of the
remaining photosynthetic tissues.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2. Spray Materials
Photosynthesis is reduced by spray materials primarily
because of the clogging of stomates and interference with
inward diffusion of carbon dioxide.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
3. Soil Fertility
Deficiencies of essential nutrients have both direct and and
indirect effects on photosynthesis.
It decreases synthesis of chlorophyll which is often the result
of mineral deficiencies, decreased leaf area and changes in
leaf structure decreased stomatal activity.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
3. Soil Moisture
Either an excess or deficiency of soil moisture can create a
water deficit; hence water deficit reduces the rate of
photosynthesis.
Moisture supply affects photosynthesis indirectly by
influencing stomatal closure, impeding uptake of carbon
dioxide and reducing the hydration of protoplasm.
On the other hand, excess soil moisture as in flooded
condition displaces air from the pore space and the resulting
poor aeration impedes water uptake by roots causing leaves
to dry out.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
3. Soil Moisture
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
5. Carbon dioxide
An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration increases the
rate at which carbon is incorporated into carbohydrate in the
light-independent reaction, and so the rate of photosynthesis
generally increases until limited by another factor.
As it is normally present in the atmosphere at very low
concentrations (about 0.04%), increasing carbon dioxide
concentration causes a rapid rise in the rate of photosynthesis,
which eventually plateaus when the maximum rate of fixation is
reached.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
5. Carbon dioxide
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6. Thermal adaptations
Lower, optimal and upper limits of photosynthesis are
dissimilar in trees from different climatic areas.
Cold adapted trees often show maximum photosynthesis at
low temperatures.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
7. Temperature
Although the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis are
not affected by changes in temperature, the light independent
reactions of photosynthesis are dependent on temperature.
They are reactions catalyzed by enzymes.
As the enzymes approach their optimum temperatures the
overall rate increases.
Above the optimum temperature the rate begins to decrease,

as enzymes are denatured, until it stops.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
7. Temperature
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
8. Light
As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent
Reaction and photosynthesis generally, increases
proportionately (straight line relationship).
The more photons of light that fall on a leaf, the greater
the number of chlorophyll molecules that are ionized and
the more ATP and NADPH are generated.
As light intensity is increased further, however, the rate of
photosynthesis is eventually limited by some other factor. So
the rate plateaus. At very high light intensity, chlorophyll may
be damaged and the rate drops steeply.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
9. Light
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN PLANTS/TREES

TRANSPIRATION
The evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants.
Transpiration is the final step in a continuous water pathway that

starts from the soil, into plant roots and ends as it passes into the
atmosphere.
Of all the water plant absorbs, over 95-99% is transpired to the
air as water vapor.
From where water is transpired?
Aerial parts of whole young plant
Lenticels (lenticular transpiration) 0.1%
Cutin (cuticular transpiration) 3%~10%
Stomatum (stomatal transpiration) ~ 90%
Water enters the root hairs by osmosis. Water will pass through the
cells of the plant or between the cells within the cell walls. Filling
the xylem, a tube-like network of cells, water is distributed
throughout the plant.
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TRANSPIRATION

TRANSPIRATION
Stomatal Transpiration
Cuticle
Prevents
Mesophyll water loss
Site of
photosynthesis
Cuticle
Stomata
Guard
Openings allow gases
and water to move in
cells
Open and close
and out of leaf the stomata
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TRANSPIRATION
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
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TRANSPIRATION
The driving force of

transpiration is the
vapor pressure
gradient (VPG).
VPG is the
difference in vapor
pressure between
the internal spaces
in the leaf and the
atmosphere
around the leaf

Environmental Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
1. Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark.
this is largely because light stimulates the opening of the
stomata , light also speeds up transpiration by warming the
leaf
2. Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures
because water evaporates more rapidly as the
temperature rises.
3. Humidity
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of
the leaf goes on more rapidly.
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Environmental Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
4. Wind
Wind sweeps away water molecules as they diffuse from
leaf surfaces, thus reducing humidity at the leaf/air surface
and increasing transpiration.
Wind speeds greater than 15 mph lead to stomatal
closure.
5. Soil Water
A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss
is not made up by replacement from the soil
When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with

the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the
stomata will close which reduces the rate of transpiration.
If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem,
the plant wilts
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Plant Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
1. Leaf Area
The total leaf area has significant effects on water loss of
individual plants, as plants with large leaf areas usually
transpire more than those with small leaf areas.
2. Root/Shoot Ratio
Imbalance root shoot ratio- decrease in transpiration rate
Balance root shoot ratio- increase in transpiration rate
3. Leaf Size and Shape

The larger the leaf size and shape, the higher would be the
transpiration rate.
4. Leaf Orientation
Higher transpiration rate in leaves which are exposed to
bright light.

Plant Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
5. Leaf Surfaces
Transpiration rate is higher in the lower surface than in the
upper surface of the leaves because there are more stomata
in the lower part of the leaves than in the upper surface and
that the upper surface has cuticle and epicuticular waxes that
prevents water loss/transpiration through the epidermis.
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ASSIMILATION AND RESPIRATION
Assimilation
refers to the conversion of food into protoplasm and cell walls
by the existing protoplasm.
An integral part of growth concentrated in the meristematic
regions such as the cambiums, root and stem tips.
Simpler carbohydrates translocated into these regions are
converted into cellulose, pectic compounds and lignin in new
cell walls.
Respiration
An essential process because it supplies the energy required
for assimilation and other energy-using processes such as fat
and protein synthesis, mineral absorption and maintenance of
protoplasmic structure.

Respiration
can be described as the oxidation of food in living cells
accompanied by the release of energy.
The energy released is stored as chemical energy which can be
used to drive energy requiring reactions, some is released as
mechanical energy such as that exhibited during protoplasmic
streaming and some are used to maintain the structure of the
protoplasm.
It is usually accompanied by an uptake of oxygen, release of
carbon dioxide and decrease in dry weight.
Occurs continuously in all living cells of plants, but the rate is
extremely low in some structures such as the dormant seeds.
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FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATION
A. Internal Factors
1. Age and physiological conditions of tissues
Generally, young tissues with relatively high proportion of
protoplasm in relation to cell wall material have higher
respiration rates than mature tissues which contain less
physiologically active material.
2. Amount of oxidizable substrate
Respiration usually increased with increase in the amount
of oxidizable substrate.
Generally, vigorous and healthy trees have higher
respiration and photosynthetic rate than slow growing or
stunted trees, and the higher respiration rates possibly
reflect the large amount of oxidizable substrates present
in vigorous trees.

A. Internal Factors
3. Hydration
Generally, respiration increased with an increased
hydration (greater water content) of tissue and decreases
when the tissue is dehydrated.
4. Soil and air temperatures
Respiration occurs over a wide range of temperature.
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B. Environmental/External Factors
1. Light
Effect of light on respiration is indirect because of its
influence/relation to temperature increase, influence on
oxidizable substrates of photosynthesis and influence on
hydrolysis of reserve foods to immediate respiratory
substrates.
2. Composition of the atmosphere
Respiring plant tissues receive oxygen by diffusion

therefore cells in direct contact with air normally do not
suffer from lack of oxygen, but the respiration of buds and
internal tree tissues, such as living cells in the sapwood
often is limited by lack of oxygen.

3. Composition of the soil atmosphere
Respiration of roots and soil organisms tends to deplete
the oxygen and increase the carbon dioxide
concentration.
An adequate supply of oxygen for respiration is essential
to the survival and functioning of roots and an excessively
high concentration of carbon dioxide can also become
injurious.
The rate of respiration is higher in a well drained soil than
in a flooded or compacted soil.
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4. Soil Moisture
Excess soil moisture influence respiration of roots largely
by interfering with oxygen availability.
Excessive moisture decreases respiration process.
5. Injuries and mechanical disturbances

Respiration increased when there are injuries and
mechanical disturbances such as handling, wounding,
and rubbing of leaves.

TWO TYPES OF RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic Respiration- When oxygen is present
2. Anaerobic Respiration- When oxygen is absent
Photorespiration- occurs only in chloroplasts
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Photosynthesis Respiration
Requires Carbon Dioxide and Requires Oxygen and
Water Carbohydrates (CHOs)
Produces Oxygen and Produces Carbon Dioxide
Carbohydrates (CHOs) and Water
Light Energy Trapped by Energy Released
Chlorophyll
Takes Place in Light Only Takes Place in Both Light
and in Darkness
Occurs Only in Cells With All Living Cells Respire
Chlorophyll (the mesophyll cells (animals and plants)
of the leaf)
48

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Prof. Charlie B. Batin

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL-THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

Mid-Term Exam 30%

The science that deals with the interactions and

Bawa, K. 1990. Tropical Ecology of Tropical Forest Plants. UNESCO.

Calisaux, P. A. 1973. Introduction to Ecology. John Wiley and Sons,

Ehrlich, P. R. 1987. The Science of Ecology. McMillan Publishing Co.

Golley, F. B. 1983. Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems: Structure and

Hocker, H.W. 1979. Introduction to Forest Biology. John Wiley and

Kimmins, J.P. 1997. Forest Ecology: A Foundation for

Kimmins, J.P. 1987. Forest Ecology. McMillan Publishing Co.

Pickering, W. R. 1995. Advanced Biology Revision Handbook.

Golley, F. B. 1983. Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem: Structure and

Calasaux, P. A. 1973. Introduction of Ecology. John Wiley and Sons,

Kendeigh, C. A. 1974. Ecology. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey.

Bawa, K. 1990. Reproductive Ecology of Tropical Forest Plants.

The Green Machines: A Primer on our Forest (2nd edition). Published

Starr, C. 1987. Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life. Wadsworth

This term is coined by ERNST HAECKEL in 1869.

Living and non-living things surrounding and potentially

Living and non-living things surrounding and potentially

1. Organismal Ecology- the study of individual organisms

Scientific observations and recording of relationships between

The Egyptians left evidence in their sculpture and wall

The greek gave us the first formal record of botany and

Theoprastus (300 B.C.), a pupil od Aristotle demonstrated

Thomas Malthus (1978) told the world that

1. Autecology- study of a single species/individual in relation to

2. Synecology- study of several

The place where the organisms lives or the place where

The place where the organisms lives or the place where

Animal Ecologist- studies on animal

Microbial ecologist- studies on microbes

Eco-physiologist- it studies the interrelationship between an

Medico-ecologist- it seeks to define those environment aspect that

1. All living organisms and the environment mutually reactive,

3. The species reacts to the environmental changes and adjusts

4. The environment also changes according to certain species-

6. Under similar climatic conditions, there may simultaneously

1. Stability- property of a system to withstand disintegration due

2. Sustainability- property of a system to persist inspite of

3. Equitability- refers to the allocation of energy and materials

4. Plasticity- refers to the ability of the genotypes in the ecosystem

5. Productivity- property referring to the ability to convert free

2. Heterotropic component (other nourishing) organisms

1. Abiotic components- non living components of the

b. Organic compounds- proteins, carbohydrates, simple

c. Climate- rainfall pattern, temperature, solar radiation

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

Cells may freeze and rupture below 0 centigrade while

Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate their

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

In deserts, high light levels increase temperature

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS:

2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.

2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.

2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.

2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.

2. Biotic components- living components of the ecosystem.