Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

SURVIVAL SUMMARY by Andrea Enciso
CLIL- Primary Education UIV- Universidad Internacional de Valencia

1. BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION

Bilingualism can be defined, in a general way, like the ability to communicate in more than a
language.
At schools:
From an educational point of view, bilingualism refers to use both languages in order to learn
contents
1st Bilingualism examples in Canada: - Lambert ( 60s)
Why?
Bilingual education has the potential of beign a transformative school practice, able to educate all
students in ways that stimulate and expand their intellect and imagination, as they gain ways of
expressions and access different ways of being in the world.

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH = COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE CC

In order to attain the communicative goal ( LOMCE- students must achieve the Communicative
Competence), new approaches which are more content and process oriented have been proposed and seem
to be better suited to attain these goals.
Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge
of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use
utterances appropriately.
- The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966 reacting against the perceived inadequacy
of Noam Chomsky's (1965).

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2. CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING - CLIL
'CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with
dual-focussed aims, namely the learning of content, and the simultaneous learning of a foreign
language'. (Marsh, 1994)
This approach involves learning subjects such as history, geography or others, through an additional
language. It can be very successful in enhancing the learning of languages and other subjects, and
developing in the youngsters a positive can do attitude towards themselves as language learners.
(Marsh, 2000)
The EU has coined some acronyms intended to clearly distinguish European bilingual efforts from other
similar programmes ( CLIL- EMILE- AICLE) In other words, teaching content subjects in a FL.

CLIL is an umbrella term that embraces any type of programme where an additional language is used
to teach non-linguistic content matter. CLIL is an umbrella term covering a dozen or more educational
approaches (e.g. immersion, bilingual education, multilingual education, enriched language programs).
What is new about CLIL is that it synthesizes and provides a flexible way of applying the knowledge learnt
from these various approaches.

CLIL is based on the assumption that FL are best learnt by focusing in the classroom content not so
much on language ( form and structure)

The most important one is that CLIL must not be regarded simply as an approach to language teaching
and learning but that it is concerned both with content and language. The intention of this approach is
not that content subjects are taught in a foreign language only to improve the students foreign language
competence, but it is geared towards content learning as much as towards language learning.

The second point is equally important: within a CLIL framework, content and language are learnt in
integration. The two subjects --- a language and a content subject like History or Geography --- are
related to each other and dealt with as a whole. This does not take place within the traditional school or
university framework. It is a pedagogical principle, however, in primary schools.

The last point in the definition which should be highlighted has something to do with the way language
is dealt with in the classroom. In CLIL, language is both content and medium in the CLIL classroom.
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The essence of CLIL is in integration. The dual focus of having simultaneous content and language
learning outcomes marks a change from conventional practice in both subjects and language teaching.

This divergence has become more pronounced as research on CLIL has given rise to the triple focus
concept, whereby content and language goals are pursued with a sophisticated understanding of student
cognition, usually referred to as thinking skills.

Despite the fact that CLIL as a general educational concept is quite homogeneous in the countries in
which it has been introduced, variation in its interpretation can be observed. According to David Marsh
there is no single blueprint for CLIL.

Changing the medium of instruction places increased organizational and cognitive demands on both
educators and students.
- 3 way focus: Language- content- learning skills.
The core features of CLIL methodology (multiple focus, safe and enriching learning environment,
authenticity, active learning, scaffolding, and co-operation)
- Scaffolding: A term originally used to refer to teacher talk that supports pupils in carrying
out activities and helps them to solve problems. Examples include simplifying tasks by
breaking them down into smaller steps, keeping pupils focused on completing the task by
reminding them of what the goal is, showing other ways of doing tasks. Scaffolding also
includes support strategies for writing. Examples are the use of substitution tables and
writing frames. Scaffolding is temporary support which is gradually taken away so that
learners can eventually work without it.

3. CLIL ESSENTIALS
CLIL is a tool for the teaching and learning of content and language. The essence of CLIL is integration.
This integration has a dual focus:

1. Language learning is included in content classes (eg, maths, history, geography, computer
programming, science, civics, etc). This means repackaging information in a manner that facilitates
understanding. Charts, diagrams, drawings, hands-on experiments and the drawing out of key concepts
and terminology are all common CLIL strategies.
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2. Content from subjects is used in language-learning classes. The language teacher, working together
with teachers of other subjects, incorporates the vocabulary, terminology and texts from those other
subjects into his or her classes. Students learn the language and discourse patterns they need to
understand and use the content.

What is new about CLIL is that it synthesizes and provides a flexible way of applying the knowledge learnt from
these various approaches.
Many of the core features of CLIL are not just specific to CLIL, but are part of basic best practice in
education.

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Thinking drives the teaching/learning process. The more powerful the thinking, the greater the learning. CLIL
is no exception: good CLIL practice is driven by cognition.
CLIL focuses on content as opposed to form and mistakes are seen as part of the learning process. It is part
of a Holistic development of learners:
Becoming capable
Motivated
Bilingual/multilingual
Independent learners
In order to acquire new knowledge and skills, people usually need not only to access new information, but
also to connect that information with their own existing knowledge, skills and attitudes.

CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING IN THE CLIL CLASSROOM
Creative thinking involves the creation/generation or further development of ideas, processes, objects,
relational links, synergies and quality relationships.
-effective planning.
Critical thinking involves the evaluating of all of the above.
In order to cope with all the learning skills we can follow Blooms taxonomy : Bloom's Taxonomy was created
in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher
forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and
principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning).
LOTS = Low order thinking skills
HOTS= High order thinking skills

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4. CLIL IMPLEMENTATION
Reasons for CLIL implementation:
- Diversifying methods and forms of classroom practice.
- Building intercultural knowledge and understanding enabling students to access
international certification.
- Increasing learner motivation.
- Building self-confidence towards learning English
- Giving added value to the learning of the content.
- Preparing for future studies and working life.
- Enhancing school and region profiles.
LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLINGENCES:
Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. Students learn in ways that are
identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be
better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through
a variety of means. According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-
mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to
make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals
differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which
such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and
progress in various domains."
8 INTELLIGENCES:

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KEY COMPETENCES for LIFE LONG LEARNING.
Key competences for lifelong learning are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to
the context. They are particularly necessary for personal fulfilment and development, social inclusion, active
citizenship and employment.
Eight key competences

This framework defines eight key competences and describes the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes
related to each of these. These key competences are:

communication in the mother tongue, which is the ability to express and interpret concepts,
thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form (listening, speaking, reading and
writing) and to interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative way in a full range of societal
and cultural contexts;

communication in foreign languages, which involves, in addition to the main skill dimensions of
communication in the mother tongue, mediation and intercultural understanding. The level of
proficiency depends on several factors and the capacity for listening, speaking, reading and writing;

mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology. Mathematical
competence is the ability to develop and apply mathematical thinking in order to solve a range of
problems in everyday situations, with the emphasis being placed on process, activity and
knowledge. Basic competences in science and technology refer to the mastery, use and application
of knowledge and methodologies that explain the natural world. These involve an understanding of
the changes caused by human activity and the responsibility of each individual as a citizen;

digital competence involves the confident and critical use of information society technology (IST)
and thus basic skills in information and communication technology (ICT);

learning to learn is related to learning, the ability to pursue and organise one's own learning, either
individually or in groups, in accordance with one's own needs, and awareness of methods and
opportunities;

social and civic competences. Social competence refers to personal, interpersonal and intercultural
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competence and all forms of behaviour that equip individuals to participate in an effective and
constructive way in social and working life. It is linked to personal and social well-being. An
understanding of codes of conduct and customs in the different environments in which individuals
operate is essential. Civic competence, and particularly knowledge of social and political concepts
and structures (democracy, justice, equality, citizenship and civil rights), equips individuals to
engage in active and democratic participation;

sense of initiative and entrepreneurship is the ability to turn ideas into action. It involves
creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to
achieve objectives. The individual is aware of the context of his/her work and is able to seize
opportunities that arise. It is the foundation for acquiring more specific skills and knowledge
needed by those establishing or contributing to social or commercial activity. This should include
awareness of ethical values and promote good governance;

cultural awareness and expression, which involves appreciation of the importance of the creative
expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of media (music, performing arts,
literature and the visual arts).

These key competences are all interdependent, and the emphasis in each case is on critical thinking,
creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive management of
feelings.

5. CLIL IMPACT ON EFL
Thats the reason why CLIL teachers opt for an approach which is content-oriented but at the same time
language sensitive.
It is the content which is the center of the teaching learning process. But, it has been recently studied that
taking care of language aspects in CLIL improves oral and written production.

6. REFLECTING ON LEARNING
Reflecting on learning feeds cognitive development. It is by determining what we know, by stablishing
benchmarks, setting goals, assessing progress and looking how we are learning that we can make informed
decisions about the whole process.
Teacher and student assessment: ( related to L2L competence)
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To determine existing student knowledge
To determine student achievements levels
To understand student interests, attitudes and learning styles.
To involve students in taking greater responsibility for their learning
To obtain information needed to make decisions about how to deliver on improving learning.
To improve learning and teaching practice.
ASSESSMENT IN CLIL
Assessment is not and island itself. It is an integral part of every lesson. Assessment is a never ending process.

The purpose of assessment is to improve learning, inform teaching, help students achieve the highest
standards they can and provide meaningful reports on students achievement.
7. CLIL DIMENSIONS
There are five dimensions:
1. The language dimension LANTIX
2. The content dimension CONTIX
3. The learning dimension LEARNTIX
4. The culture dimension CULTIX
5. The environment dimension ENTIX
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8. SUPPORTING LANGUAGE LEARNING IN CONTENT CLASSESS.

Language of learning = essential vocabulary or grammar associated with the topic and the theme
content.
Language for learning = language needed to operate in the learning environment and in particular in this
lesson (i.e = how to explain or justify)
Language through learning = Homework research
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We have to bare in mind the natural order of acquisition of the 4 skills:
1. Listening.
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
In order to promote learning in the classroom we need:
1. Create a psychologically and physically safe environment.
2. Consistently use one language ( ONLY ENGLISH)
3. In the beginning, it is acceptable for students to use the first language
(be careful here)
4. Speak slowly and articulate (or not)
5. Use an appropriate level of language (or not)
6. Use facial expressions, gestures and pictures to reinforce meaning. (videos, pictures, photos,
etc) VISUAL LEARNING
7. Make it meaningful
8. Repetition is required.
9. Provide a variety of language models (intercultural experience.
10. Create a wealth of opportunities to use the language
11. Communication is of primary importance.
12. Create a wide variety of opportunities to develop all four language skills.
13. Work systematically to build equal status for languages used in the school. (assembly)
14. Set high but realistic expectations.
15. Find ways of recognizing students effort and success.

9. METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON CLIL

CLIL subjects were taught either as a English lesson or as a content lesson in their mother tongue.
Educationalist and practicing teachers have realized that the pedagogical potential of CLIL is higher that
they had anticipated, and a number of more innovative advocates of CLIL insists that a specific CLIL
methodology should be developed.
Now the methodological discussions centers around different aspects depending on the authors. ( i.e
cognitive development, reading comprehension) ( PHONICS)
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The discussion is the integration of content and language in the CLIL classroom.
CLIL teachers opt for an approach which is content-oriented but at the same time language sensitive.
Content should move from more general to more specific vocabulary and structures.
- Skill oriented= classroom discourse ( the language used in the classroom for the teacher and the
students)
COMPULSORY ACRONYMS:
- CLIL= Content Language Integrated Learning
- LLL= Life Long Learning
- ESL= English as a Second Language
- EFL= English as a Foreign Language.
- KC= Key Competences
- LOTS & HOTS
- BICS & CALPS
Not compulsory BUT good to know:
- TL= Target Language
- L1= Mother tongue
- L2= Second language
- SLA= Second Language Acquisition

10. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Whats the difference? !

Acquisition is related to the unconscious learning which takes place when the emphasis is on communication
and there is no attention to form.
Learning refers to the development of conscious knowledge of the target language through formal study.
Explicit knowledge

Similarities between L1 and L2 acquisition

We cannot learn a language just through imitation and practice. Language seems to be created on the basis
of some internal processes and knowledge with interact with the language they are exposed to, allowing
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them to find how the language system works. Childrens early language seems best described as a developing
system with its own internal and systematic structures, not just an imperfect imitation of the language they
are in the process of learning.

Chomsky = Generative Grammar

Interlanguage: Interlanguage is the learners language i.e, the type of language produced by learners who
are in the process of learning a second language. Interference = L1 and L2.
During the L2 acquisition some students are going to use some patters of its own language. ( i.e the cat
black rather than the black cat.)

Learners errors: Errors vs Mistakes:

Error: An error is when a student produces an incorrect utterance because they don't have the knowledge
to utter it correctly. There are a few different types of errors, but they can generally be classified into two
categories:

1. Things the student has not yet learned in the second language.
2. Things that interfere with the rules of their L1 (syntax, pronunciation, grammar, cultural constructions,
etc.)

Mistake: Sometimes students 'know' the correct form in a second language (L2), but they make the
mistake anyway when they are speaking or writing. They understand the rule, but they haven't committed
the form to memory and can make a mistake.

SLA has identified three main types of errors
1.Developmental errors (natural product of a developing ability in the new language).
2. Transfer or interlingual errors. L1 influence
3. Intralingual errors over-generalized application of language rules.

Research on SLA (Second Language Acquisition) has revealed that there are three important similarities
between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. The most important that in both
learning processes there are stages in the development of particular sentences.
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11. BICS AND CALPS
Jim Cummins differentiates between social and academic language acquisition. Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. It is the day-to-day language
needed to interact socially with other people.
CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing about
subject area content material. This level of language learning is essential for students to succeed in
school. Students need time and support to become proficient in academic areas.
Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding of content area vocabulary. It includes skills
such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are
context reduced. Information is read from a textbook or presented by the teacher. As a student gets
older the context of academic tasks becomes more and more reduced.
The language also becomes more cognitively demanding. New ideas, concepts and language are
presented to the students at the same time.

12. DEFINING AND DEVELOPING ACADEMIC ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Academic language: Academic language refers to the specific and general vocabulary, syntax and
sentence structures, discourse genres, and identities that students must be able to manipulate in order
to successfully engage in school-based literacies (Scarcella, 2003).
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Different academic disciplines need the use of specific vocabulary, grammatical constructions, and discourse or
register features (Bailey, 2007; Schleppegrell, 2004). ( Its not going to be the same the language needed in Science
tan in Arts)

Essential features of academic English language instruction and acquisition for English learners (four broad
categories):
- Explicit Teaching,
Language Forms and Functions.
Researchers have found that drawing students attenttion to language forms and functions can be an effective
method for ptomoting language acquisition among older learners in foreign language learning contexts.
By focusing on the ways that students use language to construct meaning, teachers can better target sthdents
needs.
Explicit teaching of Cognitiv and Metacognitive Strategies
teach students who are learning content through their second language to recognize and use cognitive and
metacognitive strategies to assist in the comprehension of content area texts and tasks.
- Building Background Knowledge,
Students knowledge, language, and discourse styles have the potential to enrich academic content and literacy
instruction
- Comprensible Input,
The teacher linguistic input should be just slightly above the students current language development level. (
Krashen) Comprehensible input should be linguistically, culturally, and socially relevant to students and families.
- Opportunities for Practice.
SL acquisition research has emphasized the importance of peer-to-peer interaction and student-to-teacher
interaction for scaffoldinG language development, as learners efforts to communicate push them to modify or
restate their output or utterances.

13. CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
The term classroom discourse refers to the language that teachers and students use to communicate with
each other in the classroom. Talking, or conversation, is the medium through which most teaching takes
place, so the study of classroom discourse is the study of the process of face-to-face classroom teaching.

The notion of using English involves much more than using our knowledge of linguistic structure to create
and interpret sequences of sentences and conversational interactions. It also involves being aware of the
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range of situations in which English can be used in a distinctive and predictable way, and of the possibilities
available to us when we wish to produce or respond to creative uses of the language. They each have a
communicative purpose.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND STYLISTIC FEATURES

- Sociolinguistic features relate to very broad situational constrains on language use, and chiefly
identify the regional and social varieties of the language (e.g. Canadian, Cockney, upper-class,
educated).
- Stylistic features, relate to constrains on language that are much more narrowly constrained, and
identify personal preferences in usage (poetry, humour) or the varieties associated with
occupational groups (lecturers, lawyers, journalists).

Registers and Genres in Academic Contexts
A register is the constellation of lexical and grammatical features that characterizes particular uses of
language. And, genres are purposeful, staged uses of language that are accomplished in particular cultural
contexts.
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Bilingualism and Bilingual Education

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SURVIVAL SUMMARY by Andrea Enciso

CLIL- Primary Education UIV- Universidad Internacional de Valencia

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH = COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE CC

SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND STYLISTIC FEATURES

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