4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 LECTURE -5 Earthquake Motion & Response Spectra 1 Introduction Earthquakes cause damage to engineering structures and often result in loss of human life. Examples (unfortunately) are many, including the earthquakes like the Northridge earthquake near Los Angeles (1994), Kobe earthquake in Japan (1995), Latur earthquake in India (1994), and very recently the in Turkey, Greece, Taiwan (1999) and more recently in Bhuj in Gujarat, India (2001). Effective earthquake resistant design seems to reduce the damage, particularly in terms of loss of human life. An example in this respect may be the Northridge earthquake in which the casualties were about 40 compared to Afghanistan’s earthquake of last week were the casualties were about 4000. On the other side of the coin, the damage in terms of capital was about 40 billion US $ in Los Angeles earthquake and similar order in the Kobe earthquake in Japan. Taiwanese earthquake of 1999 is estimated to have inflicted damage of about 13 billion US$ and casualties of about 1300. While prediction of earthquakes, may help to reduce the casualties (at best) by issuing forewarning, the civil engineering structures need4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 to be designed to withstand a reasonable lateral shaking. Forewarning systems are not always feasible but there is one in Mexico city which will give about 2 minute warning before an earthquake strikes the city. (This was possible due to the site- specific characteristics present in Mexico city i.e. the city is mainly founded on a bowl of sandy- clayey deposit and the direction from which earthquakes come is known due to the location of the fault planes.) We can therefore conclude, that there is a growing need to improve our design methods to make structures more earthquake resistant. We seek to reduce the damage suffered by structures and also reduce the human casualties by making structures safer. Like in any branch of engineering, we seek to understand the mechanics of earthquake motion and study the influence of this on the structures we design. 2 Causes of Earthquakes Earth’s crust is made up of large ‘tectonic plates’, which are trying to move relative to one another. Eg, British Isles are moving away from USA at a rate of about 20 mm / year. Indian Sub-continent moves up causing the Himalayas to rise.4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 Build up of strain energy at faults between plates is suddenly released causing the earthquake motion. This results in e displacement along the fault e elastic rebound causes vibrations (essentially low frequency vibrations in the range of 1Hz and 5Hz). We can now look at some examples of past earthquakes; we shall consider seismicity in terms of the overall spread of earthquakes around the world and consider specifically the El Centro earthquake, Mexico City earthquake and Kobe earthquake. 3 Nature of earthquakes Empirically, we can expect displacement due to a rupture at one place of a fault to be a pulse. A displacement time > velocity time > acceleration time4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture § Earthquakes of this type do occur - Eg: Port Hueneme earthquake (1957). However, a fault ruptures in many places and the resultant earthquake will be © superimposition of many pulses ealmost white noise (wide range of frequencies). e Sometimes earthquake is filtered by local geology giving one dominant frequency (E.g. Mexico City earthquake) 4 Earthquake characterisation We need to understand some basic Seismological terms to understand ground motion. Focus : Point in earth’s crust where earthquake begins (site of rupture). We ignore the length of rupture along the fault plane, for this purpose. Epicentre: Projected point of focus on surface of earth (Note rupture may extend many miles - distance to fault more significant. Magnitude: Measure of intensity of earthquake. There are many scales for measurement of intensity.4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 4.1 Richter Scale The most popular measure of earthquakes employed. The local magnitude M, is expressed as follows; M. = log wA — log wA(A) where M, is the local magnitude A. is the peak amplitude A. is the amplitude corresponding to Zero magnitude earthquake A is the epicentral distance in kilometres. The Richter scale works based on the amplitude recorded at a distance of 100 km. The magnitude decreases with distance from the fault. The contour lines of equal values are irregular in shape. The volume of the material faut affected integrated over the whole area gives a good measure of the gp km earthquake’s intensity. The Richter magnitude is based on the value of amplitude A at 100 km.46 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 4.2 Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale This scale is based on observations and ranges from ‘I’ to ‘XII’. | Not felt generally \|__| Felt by persons at rest on upper floors Ill | Felt Indoors; hanging objects swing, vibration similar to passing light truck IV | Hanging objects swing, vibration similar to passing of heavy truck, windows, dishes and doors rattle, wooden frames creak V_ |Felt outdoors, sleepers wakened, direction may be felt, pendulum clocks stop, start or change rate, liquids disturbed VI | Felt by all, windows, dishes etc broken, pictures shelves fall, weak masonry cracks, small bells ring VII | Difficult to stand, furniture broken, fall of plaster, waves on ponds, water turbid with mud, small slides on gravel or sand banks, large bells ring VIII | Steering of motor cars effected, fall of some masonry walls, twisting and falling of chimneys, factory stacks, decayed piling broken, cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes IX |General panic, general damage to foundations, serious damage to reservoirs, underground pipes broken, conspicuous cracks in ground, general liquefaction evident with mud ejected and earthquake fountains and sand craters appear X |Most masonry structures are destroyed, well-built bridges and structures damaged, serious damage to dams, large landslides, water thrown on banks of reservoirs, rails bend slightly, lateral spreading XI! | Rails bent greatly, underground pipelines completely out of service XIl_ | Damage nearly total, large rock masses displaced, lines of sight and level distorted: objects thrown in air Many other scales exist e.g. relating the fault length involved in the earthquake in km to earthquake magnitude.4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 The Richter scale or MM scale (or any other scales) are not particularly helpful for engineering use. We shall see that the response spectra provide more useful measure. 4.3 Stress Waves The energy released during an earthquake propagates from the bed rock to the soil surface in the form of stress waves. These can take the form of e P Waves - Primary or Compressional waves e S, Waves - Horizontally polarised Vertically Propagating shear waves e S, Waves - Vertically polarised Vertically propagating shear waves e Rayleigh Waves - Surface waves e Love Waves - near Surface waves e Stonely Waves 5 Response Spectra Response spectra are a useful way to characterise the response of a structure to a dynamic event (e.g. earthquake loading in our case). Plot of maximum response (acceleration, velocity or displacement) of SDOF oscillators wrt to the natural frequency of the oscillator. 74D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 Example: DAF plots are a displacement response spectrum for a simple event ! Consider a rectangular pulse A F > an From data 4 sheets F Max . disp of SDOF with period T, talTo tT. 5.1 Earthquake Response Spectra SDOF system subjected to base motion may be represented as pr > v0 absolute }> u(t) relative4D6 Dynamic in Civil Engineering - SPGM - Lecture 5 y) = YO+u(t) 5) = VO) + (0) Here Y(t) is ground motion y(t) is absolute displacement u(t) is relative displacement wrt ground Equations of motion: My+Ku = 0 Mii+ Ku =-MY Ground acceleration is the forcing function for the SDOF system. We can treat a MDOF in a similar way, we only replace M and K with Meg and Keg and introduce modal participation factors [ in the RHS of the second equation. During an earthquake (as we saw before) the ground accelerations / is measured by strong motion accelerometers (seismographs). Normal seismographs measure earthquakes a long way away e.g.: British Geological Survey centre in Edinburgh records earthquakes anywhere in the world. However, this means that when an