Waves and Oscillations:

Ch15: Oscillatory motion (motion of an object attached to a spring)

F s=k x .. (1 )

Where:
F s : Restoring force

k :spring force constant

x : Displacment

F x=ma x
kx =ma x

k
ax = x (2)
m

Where:
a x : Acceleration

m: Attached mass spring

From equation (2) can get:

d 2 x k
= x
d t2 m

2 k
Then let w=
m so

d2 x
2
=w2 x .. ( 3 )
dt

x ( t )= Acos ( wt + ) ( 4 )

Where:
A :The amplitude

w :The angular frequency its unit (rad /sec )

:The phase constant ( initial phase angle ) . Determined uniquely by the positionvelocity of

the particle at t=0

i. e If the particle is at its maximum position x= A at t=0,the phase constant is =0

A function x ( t ) that satisfiesthe second order differential eq . ( 3 )is a mathematical

representation of the position of the particle as a function of time .

w=
k
m
=2 f =
2
T
.. .. ( 5 )

T=
2
w
=2
m
k
.. ( 6 )

1 w
f= = =
1 k
T 2 2 m
. ( 7 )

dx
v= =wAsin ( wt + ) ( 8 )
dt

d2 x 2
a= 2
=w A cos ( wt + ) .. ( 9 )
dt

v max =w A=
k
m
A .. ( 10 )

k
amax =w2 A= A ( 11 )
m

1 1
K= m v 2= m w2 A 2 sin2 ( wt + ) ( 12 )
2 2

1 1
U= k x 2= k A 2 cos 2 ( wt + ) ( 13 )
2 2
 1
E=K + U= k A2 (14 )
2

v =
k 2 2
m
( A x )=

A 2x 2


w

Where:
T : Perodic time , f =Frequency , v :Velocity function of time ,

a : Accelaretion function of time

K : Kinetic energy ,U : Potential energy , E :Total energy

Ch16: Wave motion

y= A sin ( kx wt )

Where:
A : Amplitude , k : Angular wave number , w : Angular frequency

2 2
k= , w= =2 f
T

Where:
:Wave length , f : Frequency

w
v = = f =
k T

The speed of wave on a string:

 v=
T

Where:
T :Tension force on rope , : Mass of rope per unit length

The power of wave:

1
P= w 2 A2 v
2

The linear wave equation in general form:

2 y 1 2 y
=
x 2 v 2 t 2
Ch17: Sound waves
s ( x , t ) =s max cos ( kxwt )

Where:
s max : Amplitude ,k : Angular wave number , w : Angular frequency

P= Pmax sin ( kxwt )

Where:
Pmax :The pressure amplitude , k : Angular wave number , w : Angular frequency

Pmax =B s max k= v w s max

Where:

B :The bulk modulus=( v )2 , k : Angular wave number

The speed of sound waves:

v=
B

Where:
:The bulk modulus , :The density

The average power of sound wave:

1
( power )avg = v w2 Area S 2max
2

The Intensity of wave

( power )avg 1 2 2
I= = v w s max
Area 2

uniformly
The average power emitted by the source must be distributed

each spherical wave front of area 4 r 2 . Hence , the wave intensity at a distance r
the source is
 ( power )avg ( power )avg
I= =
Area 4 r2
Sound level in Decibels:

=10 log ( II )
o

Where:
: Sound level , I : Intensity of wave

I o :The reference intensity is constant taken be at thethreshold of hearing=1 1 012 W /m2

The Doppler Effect:

General form is:

v + vo
f'= ( )
v v s
f

Where:

f ' :The new frequency , f :The frequency of source

v :The velocity of air is constant 340 m/ s

v o :Velocity of observer , v s :Velocity of source

Special cases:
1- Observer moving toward source :
v + vo
f'= ( )
v
f

2- Observer moving away from source:

v v o
f '= (v
f)
3- Source moving toward observer:
v
f'= (
v v s
f )
4- Source moving away from observer:
v
f'= ( )
v + vs
f
 Thermodynamics:
Ch20: The first law of thermodynamics

=Q+W
E

Q=m c T

Where:
Q:The energy required change thetemperature of a mass m of a substance by an amount T

c : Specific heat , T :Temperature change=( T f T i )

:internal energy
W : work done , E

From Balance and conservation of energy:

Qcold=Qhot

Q1 +Q2 +Q 3 +Q 4 Qn=0

Note :this realtion valid for the same state .

The energy Q required to change the state is:
Q=m L

Where:
m: Mass , L:The latent heat

Work and Heat in Thermodynamics process:

Vf

W = PdV
Vi

Where:
W :The work done onby a gas , P : Pressure , dV : changevolume

Notes:
- Cyclic process: a process that starts and ends at the same state

=0
E

Q=W
- Adiabatic
process:
no energy transferred by heat between the system and surroundings
Q=0

=W
E

- Isobaric process: (constant pressure)

W =P ( V f V i )

- Isovolumetric process: (constant volume)

NO work done
W =0

=Q
E
 - Isothermal process: (constant temperature)

Vi
W =n R T ln ( )
Vf

Where:
J
n : Number of moles , R :Gasconstant =8.314 , T :Temperature
mole . K

V i :initial volume ,V f : final volume

Energy Transfer Mechanisms in Thermal Processes:

1- Thermal conduction: (P)

T T T c
P=k A =k A h
L L

Where:
k :The thermal conductivity ( constant ) , A : Area , L:length

2- Thermal radiation
4
P= A e T

Where:
W
: Constant=5.6696 108
m .K4
2
e : Emissivity , A : surface area
 Ch21: The kinetic Theory of gases
- The pressure of (N) molecules of an ideal gas contained in a volume (V) is:

2 N 1
P= ( )
3 V 2
m o v2

2 1
( )
PV = N mo v2 eq . ( 1 )
3 2

From ideal gas:

PV =n R T =N K B T eq . ( 2 )

eq . ( 1 )eq . ( 2 ) we can get the average translationalkinetic energy per molecule is :

1 3
mo v = K B T
2
2 2

Note:
1
Each degree of freedom contributes K B T the energy of a system , where
2

possible degrees of freedomare those associated with translation , rotation,vibration of molecules .

Total translational kinetic energy of N molecules:

t trans
1 3 3
2 ( 2)
E N m v2 = N K B T = n R T
2

Where:
N : Number of molecules , mo=mass , v : average velocity , V : volume

J
P: Pressure , K B : Boltzman n' sconstant =1.38 1023
K

J
n : Number of moles , R :Gasconstant =8.314
mol . K
 :internal energy of gas
T :Temperature , E

as W =0
Q=n C v T at constant volume= E

Q=n C p T at constant Pressure

Notes:
If given number of moles and need number of molecules use this relation:
N=n N A

molecules
N A =6.02 1023
mole

If given mass per mole and need to get the mass divided by Avogadros number
NA

kg
m=
M ( mole ) ( kg )
molcules
NA ( mole )
For monoatomic gases:
3
C v= R
2

5
C P= R
2

C PC v =R

CP
= =1.67
Cv

For diatomic gases:

 5
C v= R
2

7
C P= R
2

C PC v =R

CP
= =1.4
Cv
 Ch22: Heat engines and second law of thermodynamics
W eng =QhQ c

Efficiency for any engine: (e)

output W eng Q hQc Q

e= = = =1 c
input Qh Qh Qh

Coefficient of performance (COP)

Qc Tc
CO Pcooling= =
W eng T hT c

Qh Th
CO Pheating= =
W eng T hT c

Efficiency of Carnot cycle: ( e carnot )

Tc
e carnot =1
Th

e
Efficiency of Otto cycle: ( otto)

1
V2
e otto=1
V1
1
1
=1
( )
V1
( )
V2

Where:
V1 C
: thecompression ratio , :the ratio of molar specific heat= P
V2 Cv

For adiabatic process:

PV =constant

T V 1=constant
For isothermal process:
PV =constant

PV
=constant
T

Optics and Light

Ch35: Optics
Index of refraction (n)
speed of light vacuum ( air ) C
n= =
speed of light medium v

n2 sin 1 v 1 1
= = =
n1 sin 2 v 2 2
Total internal reflection:

Critical angle for total internal reflection c

n2
sin c =
n1

Ch36: Image formation

Lateral magnification M

image height h' q

M= = =
object height h P
 1 1 1
+ =
P q f

Ch37: wave optics (interference)

Double slit
Path difference
=r 2r 1=d sin
Condition for constructive interference
d sin bright =m m=0, 1, 2, 3, ..

Condition for destructive interference

d sin dark= m+ ( 12 ) m=0, 1, 2, 3, ..

y
tan =
L

For small angels:

mL
y bright =
d

1
y dark =
( m+ ) L
2
d

Ch38: Diffraction and Polarization

Single slit:

sin dark =m m=0, 1, 2, 3, ..
a

Polarization
Polarization by Selective Absorption

I =I max cos2
 where I max is the intensity of the polarized beam incident on the analyzer .

Thisexpression , known as Malus s law

Polarization by Reflection
n2
p=
n1
tan

Thisexpression is called Brewster s law ,the polarizingangle p is sometimes

called Brewster s angle