volume visualization
GERALD D. KIDD, Paradigm Geophysical Corporation, Houston, Texas
704 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
tation systems is simplethe colors single base color, red for example, can ally would group the 256 base color
generally maintain their opaqueness be expressed in 256 variations, due to opacity variations into several
throughout the interpretation. How- the eight-bit opacity editor. Each opac- shades. The background color
ever, in volume visualization, the ity level produces a different variation becomes critical since it plays a key
management of colors is complex. A of red. In practice, the interpreter usu- role in foreground-to-background
contrast. A black background is best
for most visualization because black
provides the greatest contrast against
a wide range of colors, especially dur-
ing the enhancement of subtle Z3
amplitudes at low opacity levels. Not
all colors behave in the same way with
respect to background color and opac-
ity level. Therefore, colors can be clas-
sified into two groupscolors that
contrast well at high-opacity levels
and colors that contrast well at low-
opacity levels. This is critical, espe-
cially when working with subtle Z3
features, where Z3 amplitudes can be
Figure 6. Interpretation objectives between 1448 and 1520 ms. further subdivided into subzones,
allowing additional contrast for very
subtle features. Therefore, in Z3 and
a) b) sub-Z3 visualizations, where opacity
levels are usually less than 50%, only
colors that remain bright at low opac-
ity should be used. Colors that work
well in low opacity (with respect to a
black background) are white, yellow,
green, and light blue.
a) b)
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 705
identification of other events, which
a) are then classified by zone and
enhanced. In this case, the opacity of
Z1 and Z2 amplitudes are increased
and opacity of Z3 decreased (Figures
7c-d). The process should be iterated
until the geologic features in all zones
have been visually optimized (Figure
b) 8).
Figures 9a-b show visualized
stratigraphic details and facies inter-
pretation of the northern lowstand
channel-fan system. Sand is inter-
preted to bypass the incised valley and
wide channelized zone, and have been
deposited basinward as an amalga-
c) mated unit. Updip, in the wide chan-
nelized zone, the southernmost
channel shows a south-trending cre-
vasse splay with two delta-like progra-
dational lobes. The amalgamated
sands and crevasse splay facies are
bright Z1 amplitudes. During back-
filling of the incised valley, fine grain
Figure 10. Correlation between volume visualization and 2-D cross-lines. sediments are interpreted to have been
(a) Proximal contourite (A) and crevasse splay (B). (b) Distal contourite (C). diverted and transported southward
(c) Braided fan (D). by transverse paleocurrents and
deposited as contourites. The con-
tourites are classified as Z2 amplitudes.
The very low amplitudes, outboard of
the contourites and north of the chan-
nelized zone, are classified as Z3 and
interpreted as sediment-starved areas.
Figures 10a-c illustrate the corre-
lation between three 2-D dip sections
and the time-windowed visualization
(Figure 8). In Figure 10a, cross-line 70
intersects the proximal portion of the
contourite (A) and the crevasse splay
(B), both of which exhibit southward
depositional directions. In Figure 10b,
cross-line 110 intersects the distal por-
Figure 11. 2-D lines showing reflection free channels. tions of the contourite (C), which are
a)
b)
c)
Figure 12. Volume visualization results after apply- Figure 13. Cross-referencing between (a) 2-D seismic
ing ZS to Figure 11. events, (b) digitization, and (c) volume visualization of a
point bar and cut bank.
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a)
Visualization-guided interpretation.
The information within volume visu-
alization is primarily a visual display
that cannot be physically grasped like
a paper map. If a standard hard copy
is made, the 3-D aspects are lost due
to projection onto a 2-D surface. To
grasp the seemingly nebulous visu-
alization, conventional interpretation
processes, mainly digitizing and map-
ping, are performed in conjunction
with the visualization. Normally, the
digital interpretation is independent
of the visualization and resultant sur-
faces are later inserted into the semi-
transparent volume to complete the
integration.
Figure 11 shows two 2-D sections
Figure 16. Zonal classification of a faulted reflector within a time- through a highly channelized interval.
windowed interval. The objectives are to map the reflec-
tion-free channels (arrows), under-
a) b) stand the complexity of the
depositional environment, and iden-
tify prospective facies. Due to the low
(Z3) reflectivity of the channel-fill
and geologic complexity, automatic
horizon and mapping tools are not
effective. As a result, conventional
interpretation would be time-con-
suming, difficult, and uncertain.
However, a technique called visuali-
zation-guided interpretation can
improve the situation.
Figure 17. (a) Zonal classification of a
faulted horizon with respect to the opac-
ity editor and color scale. (b) Opacity
adjustment, rendering peak amplitude
and fault reflectivity transparent.
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 707
Focusing on the objective interval view (Figure 13c), a coupled cursor is interpretation are continued until a
(1692-1720 ms) and application of ZS used to correlate features between dis- sufficient grid is made and interpo-
generates an interpretation with two plays. This correlation makes the 2-D lated into a map.
primary sinuous channels and asso- interpretation and digitizing process
ciated channel facies (Figure 12). The easier, because an event on the 2-D Horizon-keyed or sequence visuali-
channels are represented by very low line can be directly correlated with its zation. Interval objectives with sig-
amplitudes (Z3) and are visually map expression with respect to the nificant dip require surfaces to isolate
defined by enhancing the contrasting surrounding geology as revealed the data. Thick complex stratigraphic
data that confine them. within the visualization. For exam- units cannot be fully represented by
By utilizing multiple windows to ple, in the interpretation of in-line 201, a surface; however, they are usually
display 2-D lines as cross-sections the abrupt amplitude termination associated with a nearby, mappable,
(Figures 13a-b) and using the semi- (Figure 13a, at cursor location 2) cor- sequence boundary. Therefore,
transparent visualization as the geo- responds to the cut bank in the visu- sequence boundaries are often used to
logic depositional model in map alization (Figure 13c). Digitizing and isolate stratigraphic packages for
visualization. Since the sequence
boundary itself is not the economic
objective and its relief is generally
smooth, its interpretation should be
minimized.
Figure 14a shows data that would
be a difficult interpretation challenge
for conventional techniques. The zone
of interest is characterized by discon-
tinuous, wavy, and shingled reflec-
tors. Due to the high frequency of
discontinuities and cycle splitting,
auto detection tools are of little use.
Therefore, detailed and time-con-
suming line-by-line interpretation
would be performed.
However, horizon-keyed visuali-
zation can make the interpretation
quick and simple. In Figure 14b, an
underlying high-amplitude continu-
ous reflector was easily interpreted
and bulk-shifted upward twice (20 ms
Figure 18. Structural visualization using ZS, rendering the seismic reflec- and 48 ms) to encompass the zone of
tivity of the fault transparent. interest (Figure 14c). Large arcuate
dune-like features are revealed
(Figure 15) and interpreted as deep-
water contourites. Small down-to-
basin fault complexes appearing as
lineaments in the center of the visu-
alization are perpendicular to paleos-
lope. Similar techniques can evaluate
seismic constructive and destructive
interference patterns at unconformi-
ties and onlap and downlap relation-
ships at sequence boundaries.
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tions to define fault patterns and
extents. Prospect-level structural and
stratigraphic detail can be achieved
during regional reconnaissance visu-
alizations. Due to the wide variabil-
ity of fault orientation and dip, data
should be seen from many viewpoints
to determine optimal perspectives for
faults and fault blocks.
Faults can be delineated by using
their seismic signatures in conjunc-
tion with opacity. The mechanics
behind the application of ZS to visu-
alization of fault patterns depend on
several factors. In reflectivity vol-
umes, faults are normally picked at
abrupt amplitude terminations with
associated offset. The overall lateral
amplitude change at the fault is usu-
ally represented by a decrease in
amplitude, often to Z3 amplitude lev-
els (Figure 16). By lowering the opac-
ity of Z3 amplitudes to transparent
or semitransparent levels, the fault
will appear as physical gaps within
the horizon (Figure 17). To increase Figure 20. Application of ZS on a detected amplitude. (a) Amplitude extent
the visibility of the fault gaps, a dark and relief, (b) internal amplitude variations, and (c) enhanced depositional
background projects through the indications.
brightly colored surface. Similar tech-
niques can visualize fracture zones tify and evaluate an amplitude. In whats in the 3-D in one working
and carbonate reefs. Figure 19b, Z1 amplitudes are day.
The fault patterns of a high- revealed and a particular amplitude Because of the speed and advan-
amplitude (Z1) low-relief reflector selected. Subvolume detection iso- tages of volume visualization, it is
(Figure 16) are visualized by trim- lates the amplitude (Figure 19c) recommended that geoscientists
ming the volume along the time axis where extent, structural relief, high- review as many drilled prospects as
and applying opacity with particular amplitude sweet spots, and possible possible and become familiar with
attention to the weak Z3 amplitudes. stratigraphic information are deter- the visualization characteristics and
The volume visualization of the mined. This method is useful when parameters required to see what was
objective interval, an 84-ms slab, high reflectivity is associated with encountered. The goal is to build a
shows fault extents and interrela- hydrocarbons and internal amplitude visualization knowledge, skill, and
tionships (Figure 18). Since the visu- variations showing stratigraphic and expertise base as quickly as possible.
alization is a volume of data, 3-D structural details are critical. Figure However, application of conven-
perspectives of the interval provide 20 illustrates the opacity curves used tional interpretation philosophies
additional insight. to reveal structural, amplitude, and and workflows to volume visualiza-
stratigraphic details within the objec- tion can lead to pitfalls and substan-
High-reflectivity visualization. tive. dard visualizations. A thorough
Visualization of high reflectivity (Z1) understanding of visualization and
amplitudes is easy with high-cut Tips and pitfalls. During the initial the results of its various processes
opacity filters. Because Z1 ampli- stages of volume visualization, many must be kept in mind during all
tudes constitute a small portion (a significant conclusions may be stages of visualization. The most
few percent in many cases) of a 3-D accomplished in a few hours. Early common pitfalls are misinterpreta-
data volume, the number of compu- consensus on key structural, strati- tions of objects in 3-D space due to
tations is greatly reduced and the graphic, and prospect issues can be the visual alignment of unrelated
visualization can be extremely fast. achieved, especially in an immersive events, false truncation of events due
To visually integrate high ampli- environment. Leads can be identi- to the physical limits of 3-D volume,
tudes with surrounding geology, fied and prioritized and key hori- and misuse of opacity. One of the
opacity curves should be designed zons selected for mapping. During best quality control checks is simply
to include Z2 and Z3 amplitudes. Z1 the digitizing process, volume visu- checking interpretations and ideas
visualization difficulties can arise alization usually assists in the task with key 2-D lines. Pitfalls related to
when high-amplitude reflectors are and may resolve interpretation prob- the opacity editor, decimation, flat
included and/or numerous ampli- lems. Because a large amount of events, seismic phase, improper
tudes confuse the view. In these cases, information is revealed in a short dynamic range, and amplitude eval-
horizon- or sequence-keyed volume period of time, it is recommended uations need detailed discussion and
visualization, subvolume detections, that the work be documented as it such articles are planned for the near
or specialized amplitude extraction proceeds. Experienced volume visu- future. LE
methods should be used. alization geoscientists can easily have
Figure 19 is a workflow to iden- a fairly detailed presentation of (Continued on p. 712)
0000 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 1999 JUNE 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 709
Acknowledgements: Thanks to James L. Allen
of Mayne & Mertz for valuable suggestions and
editing, to thank Kimberly Madsen-Cline of
Paradigm Geophysical for creative contribu-
tions toward image enhancements and visual-
ization techniques, and to Amy Jacobsen for
tireless efforts in preparing text and figures for
publication. I also thank Veritas DGC and the
Bureau of Economic Geology for the use of
their 3-D data. I am very thankful for the ener-
getic support and guidance of Oz Yilmaz, also
of Paradigm Geophysical.