1
Introduction
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 2
Instructional Objectives
• State the need for Illumination.
• Define good Illumination.
• State what comprises an electric utility?
• List standard voltage levels.
• State need for high voltages for transmission.
Course Overview
• Radiation and colour.
• Eye and vision.
• Different entities of illuminating systems.
• Light sources: daylight, incandescent, electric discharge, fluorescent, arc lamps and
lasers.
• Luminaries, wiring, switching and control circuits.
• Laws of illumination; illumination from point, line and surface sources.
• Photometry and spectrophotometry, photocells.
• Environment and glare.
• General illumination design.
• Interior lighting – industrial, residential, office departmental stores, indoor stadium,
theater and hospitals.
• Exterior lighting – flood, street, aviation and transport lighting, lighting for displays and
signaling – neon sign’s, LED – LCD displays beacons and lighting for surveillance.
• Utility services for large building/office complex and layout of different meters and
protection units.
• Different type of loads and their individual protection.
• Selection of cable/wire sizes; potential sources of fire hazards and precautions.
• Emergency supply-stand by and UPS.
• A specific design problem on this aspect.
Introduction
Light by definition connotes Electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the range from
about 4,000 (violet) to about 7,700 (red) angstroms and may be perceived by the normal unaided
human eye. In fact in the prehistoric days, all human activities were coordinated with Sunrise
and Sunset. Today, in principle activities are carried out round the clock. All this is made
possible because of Artificial Lighting systems. The lighting systems comprise of a source
employing any physical phenomenon among Incandescence, Electrolumniescence or
Flourescence. Some control scheme and a Luminaire. In fact all this has lead to a class of
professionals called Lighting Engineers or Illumination Engineers. Unlike other group of
professionals they need to be adept at not only at exact sciences of Maths, Physics, Chemistry;
but be wary of Physiology and Psychology of users (like a medical professional); have good
aesthetic sense and economically utilize resources (like an architect video Fig. 1). Efficacy of
these systems is talked in terms of Illuminance per Watt of energy consumed. Efforts are on to
reduce energy conmsumption yet have efficient Illumination to enhance productivity. Need less
Physiology
Medicine Psychology
Math Usefulness
Illumination
Chemistry to
Engineering
Physics Humanity
Economics
Architecture
Art
(Aesthetic point)
1. Necessity of Illumination
Humans depend on Light for all activities. Light is a natural phenomenon, very vital for
existence, which is taken for granted. In fact, Life involves day night cycles beginning with
sunrise and ending with sunset. Pre-historic man had activities limited only to day time. Artificial
light enables extended activity period employing in an planned optimized manner, minimizing
the resources.
Vision is the most important sense accounting for 80% information acquisition for humans.
Information may be acquired through sun/moon light (direct/ reflected) or by using artificial light
(closest to natural light). Before we go any further, it is worth looking at Teichmuller’s definition
for lighting. “We say the lighting is good, when our eyes can clearly and pleasantly perceive the
things around us”. Therefore Artificial light should be Functional and pleasant both
Physiologically and Psychologically. This is often achieved employing multiple sources. It must
be borne in mind that the sources should be economic and energy efficient. As all of us are
aware, all sources today employ electrical energy.
Electrical energy is supplied as a.c. (alternating current) or d.c. (direct current). Usually electric
power supply is a.c. in nature, either single phase or three phase. It must be borne that close
circuit is a must for current flow. As it is well known losses exist in all electrical circuits or lines.
It may be mentioned that, standard levels of power transmission being 132, 220, 340, 400, 735,
765, 1000 kV ac. HVDC or High Voltage Direct Current transmission is also fast catching up as
an alternative.
Fig.2 shows a single line diagram of a typical Power System with all its components.
~
Generator11/ 400
X’mission line Distribution line V
33 kV 132/220/400 kV 66/33/11kV
V
564
2
1 ms
ms t
In view of the fact that artificial Illumination employs electrical energy in a.c form, next, we
address each fundamentals of a.c generation.
N
B ω
R
Fig. 4 Single Phase Generation
90°
θ
M A
o
θ
B 0
b
Fig. 5 Single Phase Generation
∴ e = Em sinθ ……………………………...( 4 )
Em = 2πBAnN …………………………..( 5 )
e = Emsinθ = 2πBAnNsinθ …………... (6)
Y1 B1
N S
B Y
R1
Fig.6 Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s.
R R1
N S
Slip-rings for
Finish
Phase RR1
Start
0
60° 120° 360°
Where Line Voltages = Phase Voltages. Line Quantities are IR, IY, IB, VRY, VYB and VBR Phase
B
Quantities are IRY, IYB, IBR, VRY, VYB and VBR. Three phone connection could also be a star as
shown in Fig 10.
R
S Y
B
R
R
B
S Y
B
Y
IR
Z
Z
Z
Z Z
IY IY
IB
Z
IB
Fig. 12 Unbalanced Loads
How do we connect the sources to loads. Through lines which are either overhead lines or
underground cables. Commonly employed cables are XLPE (Cross Linked Polyethylene) or
PILC (Paper Insulated Lead covered), they could be single cored at higher voltages or multi
cored at lower voltages.
Normally Single storied small buildings are serviced by single phase a.c. i.e. 220V, 50Hz
Where as large buildings are serviced by three phase a.c. i.e. 400V, 50Hz. It may be mentioned
that sparsely populated, short distances are serviced by distribution at 400 V. In densely
populated, vast areas power distribution is at 11 kV / 33 kV. Distribution of power may be
through underground (UG) cables or overhead (OH) lines urban localities are serviced by UG
cables. Rural settings are serviced by OH lines, where there is a lot of free space.
Lecture Summary
Physiology
Medicine Psychology
Math Usefulness
Illumination
Chemistry to
Engineering
Physics Humanity
Economics
Architecture
Art
(Aesthetic point)
Good lighting → our eyes clearly and pleasantly perceive things. Artificial lighting → use some
form of physical phenomena. All lighting sources today employ electrical energy.
~
Generator11/ 400
X’mission line V
33 kV 132/220/400 kV
Introduction
Light is the Radiant Energy that provides visual sensation. It is similar to radiant heat. But has
different frequencies and wavelengths. However, Visible Light – spans from 180nm to 700nm
wavelength. It must be mentioned that human Eye responds from 380 (violet) to 700nm (red).
This becomes necessary for us to understand the suitability of various types of sources of light.
Red 700nm
Sunlight
Violet 380nm
Relative Energy
Germicidal
Visible Spectrum
Drying
IR Heating
Therauptic
UV
f < fred
λ >λred
X
This being the scenario of natural light, artificial sources are made to produce radiation close to
this. Artificial sources employed are Incandescent lamps which depend on temperature of the
filaments giving a continuous spectrum and gas or discharge lamps giving a discontinuous –
Line spectrum / Band spectrum.
Fig. 4 shows the relative energy content of Noon Sunlight, clear blue sky, and an Incandescent
lamp. It is seen that the relative energy is peak at about 450nm for blue sky.
Luminosity
160 .8
Luminosity
Relative Energy
120 NOON .6
SUN
80
.4
40
.2
λ
in nm
3. Fluorescence
Fluorescence is a process in which radiation is absorbed at one wavelength and radiated at
another wavelength eg: UV impinging on Uranium – Fluorescent oils. This re radiation makes
the light radiated visible.
Color Temperature
Radiation Temperature of the materials follow Steafan Boltzman’s Law:
W = kT4 …………………….( 1 )
Its Boltzman’s constant
Absolute °k or
≈ 5.71x10-12 radiation constant
Say Ambient Temperature is T0
Fig. 5 shows the variation of radiation with wavelength for a black body. In each curve total
area denotes the energy which increases as 4th power of temperature. Rate of increase of
radiation is greater as maxima of radiation shifts with temperature. It goes on till 6500 – 7000°
K with 43% radiation visible. This relates to an emission of 90 lm/w
4000°k
3000°k
2000°k
1000°k
°k
Energy corresponding to λm
In terms of radiation ability, a body may be called black body or grey body. Black body is one
that is not transparent, does not reflect and absorbs all the energy while a Grey Body is one in
which energy radiated at each λ is less than that in the case of a black body. That is to say Ratio
Visible Energy
of (remains same). It remains same or reflects a percentage of energy at each
Total Energy
wavelength. Carbon filament lamp is an example of a grey body. There are bodies of selective
radiation also. They radiate less total energy compared to a black body at the same temperature
but radiate more energy at certain wavelengths. If this wavelength is in the visible region it will
be use full for illumination purpose e.g. Arc Lamps.
Thus color temperature is the temperature at which complete radiator ( i.e. a black body ) must
be operated to match the color of luminous source. Complete scale of color temperature for
various natural and artificial sources is shown in Fig. 6. As may be seen color temperature, for
Blue sky it is 25000°K., for a Flourescent Lamp it is 4500°K., for a 500w day light it is
4000°K. and for a Candle flame it is 2000°K.
This Lecture has attempted at understanding the nature of solar radiation – natural light source.
It is seen to have maximum energy content around 550 nm close to sensitivity of human eye. It
has also a addressed the physical process employed in creating artificial illumination.
Concludes color temperature an important index of radiation.
Photographic lamps
4,500 4,500 °K White fluorescent lamp
2 hours
Range of Standard
filament lamps
30 mins 2,500 Vacuum
Tutorial Questions
• What is the visible range of light? 380nm (violet) to 700nm (red)
• What is the maximal relative energy contentof sunlight? 550nm (corresponding to green
light)
• Distinguish between incandescent and gas discharge lamps. Incandescent lamps operate
on the principle of incandescence, radiation output depends on operating temperature
and it gives a continuous spectrum of light while gas discharge lamps operate on the
principle of electroluminescence. The output color depends on the material employed
and it gives discontinuous spectrum of light.
• Why is it necessary to operate incandescent lamp at maximum possible operating
temperature? Due to the fact that the radiation output is directly proportional to the
operating temp. of lamp
• State principle of working of a carbon filament lamp. The ratio of the visible energy to
the total energy is constant for all wavelengths.
• State principle of working of an arc lamp? They work on the principle that they emit
selective radiations in the visible zone.
Introduction
As already mentioned eye acquires > 80% information acquired by human. We look at the
structure and function of eye here. An Eye comprises of Iris, Focusing Lens and Retina. It
Resembles – a Camera in general structure and action.
Table I shows the similarity between them.
Eye Camera
Iris Shutter
Lens Lens
Retina Film
Photopic vision involving cone cells and is used for discrimination of fine details for critical
observation. They are densely packed and transmits sharp images. The cone cells have low
sensitivity below 0.01 ft lamberts and cease to function < 0.001 ft lamberts. It must be mentioned
1 1
that by definition 1 lambert is candles / m 2 and 1 ft lambert is candles / ft 2
π π
Scotopic vision involving Rods takes over when brightness < 0.01 ft lambert. This vision has no
color discrimination ability. Most images have gray appearance and are viewed as silhouettes
lacking sharp details. Eyes have good ability to change from one to other. This shift in
Luminosity and ability of eye to adjust is known as Purkinjee effect. Upon increase of intensity
of illumination by a decrease in Pupil size producing clearer images with greater and fine details.
Pupil diameter varies in the range of 1.2 – 2 mm. Eyes are error free and accommodate very
Table III shows the relationship of Eye opening to lens size, distance of object & color of focus.
Luminosity of Eye
Bluish Green
≈ 507 nm 550 nm
Rods
Cones
(Yellowish
Luminosity
Green Hue)
λ nm
Fig. 2 Luminosity of Human eye
Remember that seeing is the primary purpose of lighting is to be borne in mind. Good Lighting
aims at Prevention or reduction of defective vision at the same time reduces waste of human
resources. Improving the conditions of visibility.
However, visibility depends on the Size of the object, details of the object, level or Quantity of
illumination, contrast or color in brightness and time required (available) for observation. It may
appear that requirements are Contradictory as regards size, illumination, contrast and time. For
effective deficiency in one of these is to be compensated by the other. So, Visibility depends on
efficacy of individual. This in turn depends on eye defects, Eye fatigue which could be optical or
physical. It also depends on amount of distraction present. Eye Fatigue are of two kinds Retinal
and Muscular. Fatigue is enhanced by glare. Glare by definition is intense illumination in the
plane of observation. Source of Glare – Front or behind the plane of attention tires maximum.
Best in the plane of attention. Rotating or focusing muscles on the source of glare causes strain
and fatigue. Similar fatigue in fact results by reading double impression obtained due to slipping
paper in a printing press. After a days work – Pupil is dilated. A nights rest offsets this fatigue.
Similarly weekend rest offsets fatigue of the working week. Pupiliary change call for good
conditions for seeing. Eye defects arise due to Age Use or Abuse. No doubt Eyes ability to
adjust to severe or unnatural conditions – gets injured in the long run. Defective vision may be
due to difference in size and location of images by way of Refractory errors. Easy limited tasks
lead to no defects. Lower Retinal Sensibility calls for larger pupil diameter and higher
illumination levels. Seeing is not instantaneous process. Countless impressions are formed on the
retina. Good illumination looks for producing clear and quick images.
Lecture Summary
• A human eye resembles a camera in structure and function.
• Important parts of a human eye
• Iris / pupil
• Lens
• Retina
• Types of vision
• Photopic (fine image details and color discrimination, due to cone cells).
• Scotopic (functions in dim light and no image details, due to rod cells)
• Human eye is achromatic in nature
• Dispersive power of human eye is little greater than water
• Purkinjee Effect – shift of luminosity and ability of eye to adjust
• Maxima sensitivity of
• cone cells – 550nm (yellowish green hue)
• rod cells – 507nm (bluish green)
• Good lighting
• Prevention of defective vision
• Optimization of resources
• Improving conditions of visibility
• Visibility depends on – (Observer Issues)
• size / details of object
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 6
• level / quality of illumination
• contrast / color
• available time
• Visibility depends on – (Observer Issues)
• efficacy of individual
• one’s eye defects
• optical / physical fatigue
• distraction
• Causes of fatigue –
• rotating source
• focusing on the source of glare
• reading double impression
• after a days work pupil is dilated
• A nights rest offsets fatigue due to a days work
• Visibility reduces due to eye defects and fatigue
• Eye defects caused due to –
• Aging
• Use
• Abuse
• Good illumination looks for producing clear and quick images
Tutorial Questions
• Which is the most acute spot in human eye?
Fovea as it accounts for the fine details of the image formed.
• What are the two types of vision?
Photopic & Scotopic vision.
• Distinguish between rod cells & cone cells.
Rod cells – scotopic vision, functions in dim light when brightness < 0.01 ft-L, no color
discrimination, lack sharp details
Cone cells – photopic vision, ceases to function in dim light, color discrimination, fine
details
• How does eye communicate with the brain?
Through a set of optic nerves – the double nerve system i.e. Rods and Cones
• What is the diameter of pupil?
1.2 – 2 mm
• How does eye functions under varying illumination?
By a change in pupil size together with change in retinal nerve system
• Why is red color used for stop signal?
The eye can easily sense red color from a distance due to its large wavelength so that one
can get enough time to react & stop.
Today eye tasks are many and for long duration requiring increased illumination. More exacting
the task, more illumination is required. Apart from quantity, quality is also important.
Illumination affects Physiology and Psychology also. Natural Illumination conditions need to be
reproduced. Artificial Illumination characteristics are influenced by the physical characteristics
of room or object or illuminating equipment. Color finish of walls or ceiling etc. Quality, Glare,
Diffusion, Direction and Composition effect light Distribution. Illumination requirement for
equal visibility calls for at least 100 ft candles or more.
Functioning of eye may be assessed by the Visual acuity, ability of Discrimination of brightness
and Speed of retinal impression. Factors responsible for visual acuity are Nervous muscular
tension, Fatigue of ocular muscles, Normalcy of heart rate, Normal rate of reading, maximal rate
of reading, Precision of tasks, Performance in demonstration visual test. Visual acuity is reduced
in defective vision. Mainly depends on experience in day light. It bears a Logarithmic
relationship.
Fig. 6
Fig.6 shows the variation of visual acuity with background brightness. As may be noted 90%
acuity levels are attained around 50 ft lamberts but increase to 95% requires 1300 ft lamberts.
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 9 shows change in speed with increase in illumination levels. Curve A pertains to a white
background. Over 1 to 40 ft lamberts, there is not much change in speed of reading. As opposed
Visual acuity reduces with age due to decrease in pupil size, decrease in elasticity of
pupil and decrease in flexibility of optic lens and decrease in adjustment of local length leading
to higher illumination requirement in older people. This may be seen in Fig.10
Fig. 10
Monochromatic light and acuity forms distinct images on retina and details are distinguished
well. Gaseous source using Mercury and Sodium are used.Three primary colors are Red Green
and Blue. Combination results in reduced acuity.
In Color Sensation of eye, Lag exists. Depends on presentation and cessation of stimulus,
presentation of the object, rate of rise / fall of different colors. G – Green is slowest, B – Blue is
fastest. Simultaneous Contrast is max. when adjustable e.g.: Red and Green.
This lecture has looked into the functioning of the eye.Various quantities affecting the acuity.
Lecture Summary
• Illumination affects physiology as well as psychology, hence quality lighting is important
• Factors governing illumination quality :
• glare
• diffusion
• direction / focus
• composition
• distribution
• Minimum lighting required for good visibility is 100 ft-cd or more
• For good visibility, brightness of surrounding should be greater than 0.01 ft-L & also
should be less than that of test object.
• Apart from illumination, visibility is talked in terms of :
• visual acuity
• visual efficacy
• visual speed
• visual health
• Acuity is the ability to distinguish details depending upon:
• brightness of the object
• characteristics of light entering the eye
• contrast maintained
Tutorial Questions
• Why is quantity as well as quality of Illumination important?
At present eye tasks are more & for longer duration, hence increased illuminance is
required. Illumination also affects psychology, hence quality is important.
• What should be the minimum brightness of the surrounding?
Brightness of surrounding must be less than that of the object and should not be less
than0.01 ft-L
• What are the three primary colors?
They are Red, Green & Blue.
• How does aging leads to loss of vision?
Aging leads to decrease in adjustment capability of the focal length of eye. Thus higher
illumination is required for older people
• What is chromatic aberration? Why does it occur?
It is the reduction in acuity due to combination of different colors. It occurs due to the
fact that the eye lens has different refractive power for different wavelength of light.
Laws of Illumination
The original standard of light was Wax Candle, which is highly unreliable. It was replaced by a
Vaporized Pentane Lamp. This is equal to10 original Candles. In the year 1909, Incandescent
Lamp was taken as standard by comparison with a Pentane Lamp. Thing to be kept in mind is
Primary Standard should be reproducible. It was in1948, Luminous Intensity; based on
Luminance (objective brightness) of a small aperture due to Light from a Radiator maintained at
1773°c i.e. Solidification temperature of platinum was adopted as Standard. It consists of:
1. Radiator – Fused Thoria – Thorium Oxide. 45mm long internal dia of 2.5mm. Packed
with Fused Thoria Powder at the bottom.
2. Supported Vertically Pure Platinum in a Fused thoria crucible with a small aperture of
1.5mm in a large refractory container.
3. Platinum melted by a High Frequency Eddy current.Luminance = 589000 Candles /m2 ≈
600 000 units
dφ
∴ I= Cd
dω
Yet another important unit is MSLI. It means Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity. Average
value of Luminous Intensity in all directions. Therefore for the case in Fig 2.
φ = I 4π lumens
Now we define Luminous intensity on a surface. It is known as Illuminance. It is Luminous Flux
per unit area or lumens per sq m. = lumen / m2 = lm / m2 = lux (lx).
Frechner’s law
Weber in 1830 found that I – Stimulus (Intensity) produces dI – Least perceptible increment
affecting sense organs. Then the ratio
dI
= Constant " Under fixed – 1) Fatigue
I
2) Attention and
3) Expectation.
Thus we have sensitivity given by the equation
E = I cos2 ∝ """(4)
D
This – tells us the variation of Illuminance on arbitrary surface inclined at an angle of α. As
shown in Fig 4.
I ∝ = I cos ∝""""(5)
Fig. 5 shows a lamp placed at A, bm above the floor. For this scheme Fig 6. shows the
variation of Illuminance on the floor. It is well known that Illuminance is maximum under the
lamp at ‘B’.
LI in direction AB
Illuminance at B =
b2
LI in direction AB× b
=
3
(b2 + d 2 ) 2
b
Cosθ =
b + d2
2
Illuminance at B
=
3
[1+ (d b)2 ] 2
Next is to measure the candle power of the lamp. Typical measurement can be done using a
photometric bench shown in Fig. 7 where IS represents standard lamp. IX represents test lamp.
There is a screen at the centre called photometer head, adjusted for equal brightness on either
side. Applying inverse law one can arrive at the value of IX.
This lesson introduced the primary standard and other terminology related to measurement of
light flux.
Tutorial Questions
• What is the standard unit of luminous intensity?
Candela (Cd)
• What is MSLI?
Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity. This unit is used as the light flux is radialy outwards
from a source which may be assumed to be a point.
• What is the standard procedure to measure luminosity?
• Luminosity can be measured by the standard procedure of photometry
Photometry
Primary Standard was defined in an earlier lecture based on the brightness of a body (i.e. black
body) maintained at Freezing Temperature of platinum. Unit of Luminous Intensity abbreviated
as is candela cd(z). Light Flux hence emanating from a point source in all directions is
Illuminance - ¼ π lumens and is termed msli is the light flux incident on a task surface in lumens
per unit area and is called lux. Comparison with a standard. Normally Primary standards are kept
in standards Laboratories. Usually Incandescent Lamp Compared with a Primary standard is
used as a Laboratory Standard. The test source / lamp is compared With the Laboratory
Standard. However, Incandescent Lamp not suitable beyond 50 – 100 hours Standardization of
Lamp is by voltage rating Current rating and wattage.
These measurements comprise photometry. They employ a Photometric Bench with a
photometric head which is an opaque screen. These measurements involve compassing the test
lamp with standard lamp
a. by varying the position of comparison lamp (standard Lamp) Is
b. by varying the position of the test lamp IT
c. by varying the position of the screen
Measurement is complete when the bench is balanced. It is balanced when two sides of the
screen are equally bright [in a Dark Room] as shown in Fig. 1.
Is I T2
= 2 ⇒ IT = I s 2
S2 T S
Fig. 1 Photometric Bench
Measurements may be made on Illumination meter or Lux meter also in this instead of the screen
adjust the meter to get the same reading on photometric bench. Fig 2. shows a method where
distance is varied to get the same reading on the meter.
Alternatively, the distance on the bench may be kept constant and readings on the meter are
noted.
R2
I T = Is ………………………………………………………………………(ii)
R1
Fig 4 shows a typical photo meter. It has a standard point source ‘L’ of Light at the centre of a
opaque sphere. It has an opening W where a photo cell is placed that receives diffused light from
the source. Window ‘W’ is shielded by diffusing screen ‘C’ from direct light. Reading on the
micrometer is first taken with a standard Lamp and later with the test Lamp. Then we have
from this, one can obtain light flux output of the test lamp by multiplying msli with 4π.
Fig. 5 shows the photocell employed in a photometer. In a photocell sensitive element ‘S’ is
selenium coated in the form of a thin layer on a steel plate P. This is in turn covered with a thin
layer of Metal ‘M’ on which is a collection ring R.
Sensitive element is a semi-conductor that releases electrons upon exposure to light. Selenium
and Cuprous oxide are most suitable semi-conductor materials. Steel Plate ‘P’ coated with thin
layer of Selenium at 200°c and annealed at 80°c Producing crystalline form. It is in turn coated
by a thin transparent film of metal ‘M’ with a collection ring ‘R’ of metal.
Consider the Polar curve A for the typical lamp with O as centre of the Lamp Draw a semicircle
of convenient radius OB = OC Insert no. of radii. From the top of there radial segments. From
the tip of the radial segments draw horizontal lines extended to cut the vertical line to scale
depending on length of Radic. Then the average width of the curve DP “Q” R “S” F is msli.
Luminaire
They Provide Support and electrical connection to the lamp. They are used to control and direct
the light and distribute as required. They help to keep the operating temperature within
prescribed limits. Using Rousseau diagram, graphical techniques are employed to obtain the
MSLI. They should be easy to install and maintain and have a pleasing appearance. They are
expected to b economically viable. Thus Requirements for good luminaries may be listed as
i. to provide support & electrical connection to the lamp
ii. to control, direct & distribute light as required
iii. to keep operating temp. within prescribed limits
iv. should be easy to install & maintain
v. should have aesthetically pleasing appearance and
vi. be economically viable
In them Lens & prisms can be used for focusing the light one has to keep in mind Depreciation
which is often used as Maintenance factor varies from 0.85 – 0.6. This lesson had a look at the
ways of measuring light output of a Lamp. They consisted using photometric bench, either by
comparison or reading on an illumination meter. Luminaries which form integral part of
Illumination system are characterized by polar luminance curves. Way to assess their luminance
has also been discussed.
Tutorial Questions
• Why can’t an incandescent lamp be used as a standard lamp?
• What is utilization factor?
• What is maintenance factor of a luminaire?
• What are the advantages of diffusing type luminaire?
Incandescent Lamps
Natural Illumination due to sun which is 93 million miles away and 865,000 miles in dia, and has
temperature > 6000°c, leads to 2.3 × 1027 cd. Luminance. Moon, 240,000 miles away and 2160
miles dia, is said to have I ≈ 1.0 × 1027 cd. In order to provide artificial Illumination one of the
following Physical Properties is employed:
Incandescence depending on thermo luminescence,
Luminescence depending on electrical discharge in a gas or vapor
Fluorescence depending on radiation of visible light by absorbing ultra violet light and
Phosphorescence involving radiation at a latter point in time.
Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in 1879. They employed Carbonized Paper as
Filament. It was Fragile. Later it was improved by coating with a Hydrocarbon. In 1893
Cellulose Filament was developed from absorbent cotton dissolved in ZnCl. Normally Filament
is mounted in a glass bulb and maintained in vacuum (type ‘B’) gets heated upon Passage of
current and typically radiating 3.3 lm / W. They are called Type ‘B’ lamps. In 1905, Metallizing
by heating Carbon filament at high temperature in an Electric furnace efficiency improved to 4.0
lm/W. In Europe Osmium a Rare & expensive – Fragile filaments were employed with 5 lm/W
radiation. It was soon, replaced by Tantalum a Ductile material (1906 - 1913) by crystallizing by
application of ac leading to 5 lm/W radiation. In 1907 Tungsten Filaments entered with 7 lm / W
radiation. Finely divided Tungsten Powder is mixed with a binder and squirted through a die. In
1911 Coolidge developed Tungsten in ductile form which could result in a Continuous uniform
Filament. It was Rugged and had very high efficiency. Langmuir introduced use of inert gases
and improved the radiation efficiency – (1913). They ware called type ‘C’.
Fig. 1 shows a typical Incandescent Lamp. It has filament made of Tungsten of S. G. 18.81
before drawing, 19.3 – 20.2 after drawing with a high mp of 3655°K. (Osmium with a mp of
2972°K & Tantalum with a mp of 3172°K). Were other materials Theoretically 52 lm / W
radiation is possible at m.p but Practically, Highest radiation of 35.8 lm / W is achievable. They
are available from 250W Flood Light with a life up 3 hours to 1500 W (at 115 V) of 1000 hr life
radiating 22 lm / W. Smaller lamps being 6 W(at 115 V) with a 1500 hr life radiating 6 lm / W.
Smallest Lamp being used in Surgical Instruments of 0.17 W of “Grain of wheat” radiation 0.35
lm. Largest Lamp being 50,000 W; 1,600,000 Lumens. Equivalent to 1000 - 100 W Lamps. Inert
Gases are introduced in the Glass envelope to decrease the vaporizations of Tungsten. The gases
Nitrogen and Argon are most suitable. Conduction Losses in a gas are proportional to velocity of
gas molecules. Velocity is inversely proportional to square Root of atomic weight. Argon with
atomic weight of 39.8 and Nitrogen with atomic weight 28.0 are most suitable. Ionization
Potential of Argon is low. Hence a mixture of Argon and Nitrogen in the ratio of 85% Argon –
15% Nitrogen are employed. Concentrate the filament over a small region. To adopt tightly
wound helical coil.
Fig. 2: shows darkening of Glass bulbs due to vaporization of Tungsten. Hence the lamps are
called either
During operation Filament evaporates and Tungsten particles deposit on the interior of Bulb in a
Vacuum Lamp. Tungsten Filament cross section of the Filament decides the current Rating and
varies as square of dia. The radiation surface varies as dia. With decrease in operating voltage for
the same wattage filament becomes larger. If a lamp of 40W were to operate at 115 V and has a
cross section C 1 , it becomes C 2 at 220 V then C 1 > C 2 .
S S S S
Figures 4 and 5 show the performance of Incandescent Lamps. As may be seen from Fig. 4 both
luminous efficacy lm/W and light flux lumeses reduce to 20% of Virgin values. Fig 5 shows the
effect of variation of voltage from rated value. From this it may be said that although light output
may reduce marginally when voltage reduces, one can get near 90% performance at about 95%
rated voltage. Fig 6 shows the survival rate. More than 81% survive 80% stated life. Only 30%
survive beyond 100% stated life.
• Filament characteristics depend on Filament Length, Diameter, Coil Spacing, Lead wires,
No. of Supports, Method of mounting, Properties of Gas, Gas Pressure, Bulb Size and
Shape of the Bulb.
The lamp is said to be most economical for the intended Service, if uniform radiation is there at
stated wattage with guaranteed efficiency and Life Rating. Lamp characteristics may be
quantified interest of
Watts – W, Lumens – F, Lumens per watt – E, Life – L, and Volts – V
Equations (1) to (4) give the characteristics. They all show dependence on exponents a, b, c, d, e,
f, g and h.
Table I shows the typical values for Gas Lamps and Vacuum Lamp
( )
a
w
= Vv ………
(1)
W
( ) ( )
b c
= w ……… ( 2 ) ?
f v
=
F V W
( ) ( ) ……( )
v d=
E e
= F 3
e V f
( ) ( ) ( ) ……( )
l f g h
= V = F = E 4
L v f e
V
A
C 1.58 3.51 2.22 1.93 0.540 13.5 3.85 7.0
U
U
M
This lecture covered the characteristics of Incandescent Lamps. One important specifications of
any light source is power consumed in watts. Any lamp is guaranteed to give radiation at stated
efficiency, if operated around rated voltage.
Lecture Summary
• Incandescence – radiation at high temp.
• Incandescent Lamps:
• Type-B : tungsten / osmium / tantalum filament, in vacuum
• Type-C : tungsten filament, in inert gas (generally a mixture of Ar & N2)
• Tungsten is ductile in nature, has high MP & high efficiency which makes it suitable for
use as filament
• Use of inert gas in incandescent lamps helps in decreasing the rate of evaporation of
tungsten & improves efficiency
• Higher efficiency is obtained when incandescent lamps are operated at low voltages
• Filament characteristics depend on
• filament length
• filament diameter
• coil spacing
• lead wires
• method of mounting
• no. of supports
• properties of gas employed
• gas pressure
• bulb size
• shape of bulb
• Bulbs are designed for :
• uniform radiation
Tutorial Questions
• What are the methods employed to tackle evaporation of tungsten filament in an
incandescent bulb?
• use of inert gases in the bulb
• adopt coiled filament.
• Why is it not feasible to operate bulbs at low voltages although it amounts to high
efficiency?
With decrease in voltage current increases & it becomes difficult to handle large current
• What properties of tungsten make it a better material to be used as filament of a bulb?
High melting point, high efficiency, ready availability & ductility.
Discharge Lamps
Incandescence was employed in Tungsten Filament lamps. Halides were employed to reduce
blackening of the bulb. Lumniescence and Fluorescence increase efficiency far beyond
incandescence. Discharge of electricity through a tube containing a conducting medium leading
to electron Flow is employed in Lumniescence. This calls for an abundant supply of electrons.
Electron Emission
Electron emission is a process by which abundant supply of electrons is obtained. Electric Field
Emission is employed in Cold cathode Lamps. Electrons are pulled out by application of High
Potential. Thermionic Emission is employed in Hot cathode Lamps. Electrons are emitted even
at a low voltage by heating. Barium / strontium oxide on a base of iron or Tungsten is used as
Cathode. Photo electric Emission: Striking with Light Radiation of Photons, emission is
achieved. Thus gas / vapor made Luminous by an electric discharge. Color / intensity of light
are dependent on Gas / vapor employed. Intensity is proportional to the current. Commonly
used gases are Neon, Mercury and Sodium. Cold Cathode needs large energy consumption at
the cathode with decreased efficiency. This may lead to disintegration of cathode with high
velocity positive ions due to large Potential drop at the cathode. Blackening of cathode does
occur. They have Long Discharge Tubes with Low voltage Lamps. Mercury Vapor Lamps give
light of Bluish Green, deficient in red rays. In this case color rendering (CRI) improves at high
Pressures. Considerable distortion in colors occurs. Mercury – oxide coated Cathodes
(Electrodes) are employed. In a typical discharge lamp coated tungsten wire electrodes with
Strontium Oxide or Barium oxide coating are located at the opposite ends of a glass tube.
Arc is a Constant Current Phenomenon. The starting electrodes are connected to lower electrode
through a resistance (R). Arc tube contains Mercury at the desired vapor pressure. Pure Argon
initiates arc prior to vaporization as pressure is increased – Radiation moves into visible
spectrum. Standard Rating are 100,250, ……3000 W with a typical illumination of 35 lm / W.
Arc initiation takes place at 20V at about 5A. Argon arc lasts for 2 min with a bluish Glow. At
about 137 V, 3.2 A – Mercury vaporizes and takes over. Run up time or arc initiation time is up
to 30 minutes. Lowest run up time is around 2 minutes. Ballast is a reactor in series that limits
the current. Typical Power factor ≈ 0.65 – 0.7 capacitors added across the Lamp improve power
factor to 0.94.
Lecture Summary
• Luminescence – chemical / electrical action on gas / vapor producing radiation
• Fluorescence – radiation is absorbed at one wavelength & radiated at another wavelength
• Combination of luminescence & fluorescence increase efficiency far beyond
incandescence.
• Discharge lamps consist of discharge of electricity through a tube containing a
conducting medium
• Types of electron emission
• Electric Field Emission
• Thermionic Emission
• Photoelectric Emission
• In a discharge lamp :
• gas / vapor made luminous by an electric discharge
• color / intensity are dependent on gas / vapor used
• intensity to some extent proportional to current.
• Types of discharge lamps :
• Mercury Vapor Lamps.
Tutorial Questions
• What are the different electron emission methods? What method is employed for Hg-
vapor & Na-vapor lamp?
The different methods are electric field emission, thermionic emission & photoelectric
emission. In Hg-vapor lamp electric field emission & Na-vapor lamp thermionic emission
• What are the commonly used gases in discharge lamps?
Commonly used gases are Sodium, Mercury, Neon & Argon
• What are the disadvantages of using cold cathode lamps?
Cold cathode lamps consume large energy consumption at cathode and therefore
decreased efficiency. Also it often results in disintegration of cathode.
• What do you mean by run-up time?
The taken by the starting gases (Ne / Ar) in the discharge lamp to initiate the discharge
process of the main gas (Na / Hg).
• Why do we connect a choke / ballast in series with a Hg-vapor lamp?
It enables high potential build up at the cathode while starting & limits the current
thereafter
• What steps are taken to improve the low power factor of a Hg-vapor lamp?
Generally Hg-vapor lamps have low power factor. To improve the power factor
capacitors are connected in parallel with the lamp
• What do you mean by principle line? What is the principle line for Hg-vapor lamp?
It is the wavelength on the lamp output spectrum which gives the maximum light output.
For Hg-vapor lamp it is 365nm
Table I lists various properties associated with various types of discharge lamps.
Fluorescent Lamp
Employs transformation of UV radiation due to low pressure mercury vapor. Luminescent
Powder in tubular vapor Lamps Enhances brilliancy of light. Radiation from Low Pressure
Mercury Vapor (which is in UV region) is impinged on Luminescent Materials and re – radiated
at longer wavelengths of visible spectrum. In a Glass Tube small drop of Mercury and small
amount of Argon gas are placed for initiation of discharge. Pressure, voltage and current are so
adjusted that 253.7 nm line is excited. This re-radiates at longer wavelength. Typically a 40W
lamp requires 2-3g of phosphors. Maximum sensitivity is around 250 – 260 nm. Various types
of Fluorescent Lamps are:
1. Day Light Fluorescent Lamps
- Average Noon Day Light. 6500°k suitable where demands are not exacting
2. Standard white Light - 3500°k general Lighting.
3. 4500°k white Lamp – between std. white Light & Day Light Lamp.
4. Soft white Lamp – Pinker Light. 25% lower light output than Std. white Lamp suitable
for Residential lighting and Restaurants.
Dimension and Voltage depend on Luminous Efficacy, Brightness, Lumen Output and Lumen
Maintenance. Reliable Starting is achieved by having preheated cathodes / hot cathode. Half the
open circuit voltage should be used by the Lamp and the other half by the ballast. Lamp Voltage
decides the arc length, bulb diameter and lamp current. Hot Cathode lamps operate at lower
voltage < cold Cathode lamps. Typically cold cathodes have 70-100V drop at the cathode.
Lecture Summary
• LP Na-vapor Lamp – in this type of lamp the outer envelope of inner surface is
coated with Indium Oxide & that acts as an IR – reflector
• HP Hg-vapor Lamp – gives rise to bluish white line spectrum, together with some
phosphors improves color
• If some luminescent powder is put in the tubular lamps it enhances brilliancy of
light
• Radiation from LP Hg-vapor lamp (which is in the UV-region) is impinged on
luminescent materials to reradiate at longer wavelength of visible spectrum
• Types of Fluorescent Lamps :
• Day Light Lamp
• Standard White Lamp
• Soft White Lamp
• Factors deciding the dimension of fluorescent lamps :
• luminous efficiency
• brightness
• lumen output
• lumen maintenance
• reliable starting
• Factors deciding the lamp voltage :
• arc length
• bulb diameter
• lamp current
Fig 1 shows the variation of light output with bulb temperature. Shaded region indicates normal
operation at room temperature. It is seen to have a peak around 100º F.
Fig 2 shows the relative efficiency of a 1.5” dia lamp (≈ T12) lamp, with tub length. As may be
seen about 80” – 100” are necessary to get a reasonably good light output.
Lecture Summary
• Fluorescent lamps are LP Hg-vapor lamps
• For a given current & tube diameter of fluorescent lamp we have :
• voltage is directly proportional to length
• voltage is inversely proportional to diameter
• voltage is inversely proportional to current through discharge tube
• By a T12 fluorescent tube we mean that a tube with diameter of 12 × (1/8)” = 1.5“
• Radiation output from a fluorescent tube is directly proportional to the current density in
the tube.
• Fluorescent lamps emit a considerable amount of UV & IR radiation along with visible
radiation
• UV radiations is beneficial in small quantities. Applications of UV radiation:
• purification
• detoxifying bacteria
• curing of diseases
• dye & food processing
• employed in producing Vitamin-D in food sources
Tutorial Questions
Illumination Systems
It is time we looked at an illumination system as a whole. These systems tend to produce
radiation close to natural radiation. They employ artificial sources. These sources obey Laws
of Illumination. The quantification is done through Photometry. Thus an Illumination system
consists of Lamp which may be Incandescent lamp, Discharge lamp or Fluorescent lamp along
with control gear placed in a suitable luminaire.
Luminaries
Luminaire or Luminaries provide support and electrical connection to Lamp or Lamps within it.
They control, distribute and direct the Light on to the object. They ensure that lamps are operated
in a way such that operating temperature is kept within prescribed limits. They should be easy to
install and maintain, aesthetically pleasant and economically viable. Systems may be commercial
or general. Usually Fluorescent Lamps with one or more at a preferred mounting height less than
5 – 6 m are used for general lamps. Fluorescent Lamp may be Batten Fully exposed or Multi
lamp type. Ventilated-Reflectors with Mirrors optics are used. Difference lies in control of
Luminous Intensity, Luminous distribution, No. of Lamps. One may recall that for a
1
Point source of radiation ∝ 2 (e.g one can recall that Incandescent Lamp),
d
1
Line source of radiation ∝ (e.g. Tube Lights), and
d
Plane Source of Radiation ∝ independent of distance (Ideal situation).
Here‘d’ is the distance to the source of light. Designer aims in locating Lamps in this fashion.
Reflectors help in controlling and directing the light. Louvres-opening with slanted Slates are
often employed. Fins / vanes are provided to ventilate. Batten mounted lamps amounts to no
control. Most systems have enameled reflectors. Improved ones have Mirror reflectors.
Additional control obtained through louvre shields and opalescent shades. Reflectors help direct
in a desired solid angle. Louvres may have Square Mesh Box type Luminaries or Diamond
Mesh or Lamellae -Thin Plate Layer type.
Industrial Luminaries
Coming to industrial areas if in the Interior-up to 6m Fluorescent Lamp with matt white reflector
are employed. In High bays beyond 6m Discharge Lamps with Mirror Reflectors are employed.
Luminaries in Hazardous Areas are specially deigned. They are encapsulated in boxes made of
steel or cast iron exterior housing to avoid any explosion, sturdy resisting pressure.
Here moisture & dust are taken care by Gasketted Luminnaires – Completely sealed eg: in a
Shower or a Laundry. Emergency Lighting is required when normal lighting fails. Escape
Lighting sufficient for evacuation typically 1 – 10 lx. Safety Lighting – 5% normal Lighting
is provided in Potentially Hazardous areas. Stand by power supply required for activation of vital
implements. A permanent, separate, self supporting Power system which is reliable and mains
rechargeable batteries in each Luminnaire are provided
Non Permanent - Auto Switching - Emergency Generator - Battery Supply is also used.
Road Lighting
Conventionally by they are arranged in a column, mounted on a wall or suspended by a span
wire. Plane of Symmetry being in vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the road along the
road. Catenary – suspended from a catenary cable parallel to the axis of road. Plane of
symmetry parallel to the axis of road. They employ Corrosion Resistant sturdy materials and are
usually closed.
Flood Lights
Rain Proof Lamp holder with wide / narrow beam Reflectors are used for flood light. They are
usually High wattage Incandescent Lamps, Halogen Lamps, High Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp
or Low / high Pressure Sodium Lamp.
Spot lights / down lights are usually used with Screens, Reflectors, Filters, Colored envelope and
Closed Lamps.
This lesson has had a look at the components of an Illumination system under various scenarios.
Tutorial Questions
• Which type of lighting are used for general lighting & why?
Incandescent & fluorescent lamps are preferred because they have a good CRI & provide
near day light illuminance
• What are louvers?
They are opening with slanted slates often used with luminaires to control & direct light
• What are the different luminaires considered placement wise?
• box type,
• recessed in the ceiling,
• mounted on a surface and
• suspended from a ceiling
• What type of lighting is used in industrial lighting?
For interior lighting fluorescent lamps with matt white reflectors are used while for high
bays discharge lamps with mirror reflectors are used
• What are the different types of emergency lighting used?
• Escape lighting – just sufficient lighting,
• Safety lighting – not less than 5% of normal lighting,
• Standby lighting – for activation of vital implements when power fails
As already brought out the components of an Illumination system are Lamp, the Radiation
Source, Luminaire that directs and controls the light flux. Control Gear is the accessory that
helps in controlling the requisite amount of flux on the work plane. Now we take a look at the
accessories involved. First of these is Ballast. In a discharge lamp a series impedance to limit the
current is required. If the current is allowed to increase there can be explosion of the lamp. This
takes the form in a.c. as Inductance-w/o undue loss of power. This is called Ballast. It should
have high power factor for economic use of the supply and should generate minimum harmonics.
It should offer high impedance to audio frequencies.It should suppress-Electromagnetic
interference (Radio interference-TV interference). It is essentially, a reactor of a wound coil on a
magnetic core often called Choke and is in series with the lamp. Typical power factor is 0.5 Lag.
Power factor is improved by having a capacitor connected across input lines.
Fig 1 shows the connection for a discharge lamp employing a ballast formed by a reactor
commonly known as choke. Fig 2 shows how the capacitor may be connected to improve the
power factor. As may be seen the capacitor is placed in shunt. At times a lead circuit may result
by placing a capacitor in series as shown in Fig 3. However, when a illumination system
employing two lamps is used power factor may be improved by having one with a lead circuit
and other with a lag circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Next important accessory is a starter that initiates
the discharge in a discharge lamp. Starter is marked as ‘S’ in the Figs.1 to 4. Starter less circuit
are shown in Fig 5. They employ pre-heated filament electrodes. The preheating obtained
through a small portion of voltage tapped from the input source.
Ignitors are small 3 electrode devices, which are ignited by control pulses from small electronic
circuit. Typically Metal Halide lamps require 600 – 700V and Low Pressure Sodium Vapor
lamps require 400- 600V. Ignition is through a Thyristor that generate a set of HV pulses, which
Different Light Flux Levels are required at different times. This consists Local and General
Lighting taken care by having dimmers and lamps of different wattages. Fig. 7 shows a typical
Dimmer stat.
A dimmer stat is an autotransformer that can give a variable output voltage. Fig. 8 shows a
typical metal halide lamp employing ignitor as a starting device.
Fig. 9 shows a typical scheme for a multi watt circuit. Typically street lighting requires
such multi watt lamps. High wattage lighting is employed during heavy traffic and low wattage
during the rest of the night.
This lecture thus covered the accessories necessary in an Illumination system.
Tutorial Questions
• Why are inductors preferred for use as ballasts?
They provide high starting voltages without undue loss of power.
Glare Evaluation
Visual comfort system is most common evaluation in the USA/Canada. This is expressed as
percentage of people considering an installation comfortable as viewed from one end. Glare
tables list various proportions and layout of room for glare free lighting. Figure of merit is based
on a source of 1000 lm.from a luminaire. If VCP ≈ 70% then the system is said to be glare free.
British method employs Zone of luminaire with a classification for quality of light expressed as
Glare index. Luminance limit system is adopted in Australia. Standard code for Luminaire base
lamp. dep. on room dimensions, mounting height and a Empirical shielding angle
Table I lists for different types of lamps effective shielding angle. Quality class A denotes very
high level; B denotes high, C medium D low and E very low.
General light is predominantly light coming downwards. Typically reflectance of 0.5 for walls /
ceiling and 0.25 for furniture.
How is Glare evaluated?
1. Determine luminance of the source between 45º - 85º
2. Determine the quality class and illuminance required.
3. Select the curve – class / level.
4. Determine. Max. Angle to be considered from length & height and plane of eye level &
plane of luminaires. (Refer to Fig 1)
5. Horizontal limit based on” a / h”, part of the line ( or curve) to be ignored.
6. Compare luminance of one luminaire with selected part of the limiting curve.
No glare if luminance given by the curve > actual luminance over the whole range of Emission.
Table II lists glare in dicer and curves to be used for different levels of illuminance and quality.
Fig 4 and 5 show the luminaire curves to be employed for different levels for Type I luminaire
and Type II luminaire.
1 ⎡ ⎛ h ⎞3 ⎤
Illuminance at A (B) = ⎢1+ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ (i)
h2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ h +1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
3
1 ⎡⎛ h
3
⎞ ⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
3
Illuminance at D = 2 ⎢⎜ 2 2 ⎟
+⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎥ (iii)
h ⎢⎣⎝ h + (0.75) ⎠ ⎝ h + (0.25) ⎠ ⎥⎦
Glare from windows is the next issue. Sky has a typical luminance of 2000 Cd/m2. Horizontal
Illuminance ≈ 10,000 lx. under overcast conditions. It is prevented by curtains, blinds, louvers.
Opening of windows can be reduced. Shift the work plane away from offending windows. i.e.
normal field of view no light enters from the offending window on the work plane. Lightest
decorative finish on surfaces surrounding window openings. Veiling reflections and reflected
glare are allowed outside the task. Reflected by glossy surface – semi matt. Mild distraction can
cause considerable discomfort. When glare (bright light) on the task. Veiling reflection – reduce
task contrast with some loss of details.
Glare can be minimized by not locating in the forbidden zone, increase light from sideways at
right angles to the direction of viewing. Luminaries having large surface area with low
luminance may be employed. Working surface to be provided with reduced reflection preferably
Matt surface
CRF (Contrast Rendition Factor) is yet another index and influence of Lighting on Task Contrast
and Task Visibility is Contrast Rendition Factor. By definition
Given Emmision
Task visibility =
Sphere Illuminance
Where Sphere Illuminance is the Illuminance by the source providing equal Luminous Intensity
in all directional in a hypothetical sphere. (ESI)
Observer is located / views at angle of 25º to the vertical. Observer considered to be viewing
pencil task which id believed to be slightly conveying.
This lecture has had a look at glare, how originated various evaluation procedures and ways to
minimize.
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 8
Lecture Summary
• Glare is the brightness within the field of vision
• Effects of glare :
• injures the eye
• disturbs the nervous system
• causes annoyance, discomfort & fatigue
• reduces efficiency of work
• interferes with clear vision
• risk of accident increases
• Types of glare :
• Direct Glare
• bright luminaire in the field of vision
• Reflected Glare
• reflection from a glossy surface
• Reflected glare causes more annoyance than direct glare
• Direct glare can be minimized by mounting luminaires well above the line of vision
• Disability Glare impairs the vision
• Discomfort Glare increases with time of exposure
• Glare Evaluation Systems :
• American system (VCP)
• British system (Glare Index)
• European system (Luminance Curves)
• Luminance angle limit for luminaires : 45° < γ < 85°
• Glare from windows can be prevented by using :
• curtains
• blinds
• louvers
• Glare from windows is of two types :
• veiling reflections
• reflected glare
• Techniques for minimization of glare from luminaires :
• not locating luminaires in forbidden zone
• increase light from sideways
• luminaires having large surface area
• CRF (Contrast Rendition Factor) – influence of lighting on task contrast & task visibility
Given_Emmision
Task_Visibility =
Sphere_Illuminance
• Sphere Illuminance – Illuminance by the source providing equal luminous intensity in all
directions. Also known as ESI (Equal Spherical Illuminance)
• Three categories of lighting :
• general lighting
• local lighting
• combination of local & general lighting
• Combination of general & local lighting are preferred to avoid glare
This lesson introduces concepts of color and how it is specified. Three basic elements in color
perception are source of illumination, object illuminated and detector that recognizes color by the
reflected light from the object. It is well known that human eye perceives between 400 to 700 nm
as visible light. Radiation of a source is characterized by the Spectral Power Distribution (SPD)
which affects the color of the illuminated object by way of shift in color under different types of
Lamps.
Color implies different things under different contexts. Firstly at the Source color, characteristic
by which an observer distinguishes patches of light of same shape and size. It connotes the
Spectral Power Distribution. Perceived color, as perceived as object color. This is a result of
object characteristics, viewing direction and adaptation of the observer. Lastly Object Color:
Light reflected, transmitted or absorbed by a source when exposed to radiation from a Standard
Light source. Normally selective absorption of incident light results in object color. However,
color appearance depends on light reflected.
An important index to asses the color appearance due to a radiation from a source is Color
Rendering Index (CRI). So, what is Color rendering? It is the property of making color
appearance of objects under the source in question when compared to color under reference
Light Conditions. This reference condition would no doubt be the conditions under natural day
light conditions. From the point of view of color appearance lamps are broadly divided into three
groups according to correlated color temperature. Table I lists a classification of correlated color
temperature and color appearance.
Table 1
Correlated Color
Color Temperature Appearance
>5300°K Cool (Bluish white)
3300 - 5300°K Intermediate (white)
> 3300°K Warm (Reddish white)
A good quality Lighting calls for Good Illuminance level. As illuminance level increases color
temperature also increases i.e. to say whiter should be the source.
Munsell system
Surface colors in day light conditions are best specified according to Munsell system. According
to this system color has three dimensions i.e. hue, value and chroma. Each of these dimensions
Hue contains five Principal Hues namely, Red (R), Yellow (Y), Green (G), Blue (B) and Purple
(P). Five intermediate Hues are also used they are, YR, GY, BG, PB and RP.
Value indicates lightness or brightness of the hue on a Grey Scale from (0) corresponding to
black, (10) corresponding to white. Chroma is index of saturation – given in 14 steps indicates
freedom from dilution with white. In munsell system, 5y 5/6, indicates yellow with half way up
the Grey scale and six steps away from neutral in chroma. Sequence in specifying is Hue,
value/chroma. Fig 1 shows a typical Munsell color chart for 5y5/6.
CIE System
Around 1931 – mathematically exact specification of the color based on color triangle also
termed chromaticity diagram was introduced. This relies on two chromaticity coordinates x and
y obtained from spectral distribution of Lamp and standard colorimetric observer to three
Primary colors Red, Green and Blue. Saturated Light colors are at the edge of the triangle
diluting to white towards the centre.
This lesson covered essentials of Color. Three prevelant color specification schemes are studied.
Color rendering Index for is a way to assess color rendering property of any radiation.
Tutorial Questions
• What are primary Colors?
Primary Colors are Red, Green and Blue
• What are the various Color Specification schemes?
Color specification schemes in vogue are Munsell system, CIE system and L*a*b Color
space.
• What are basic elements in Color Specification?
Basic elements in Color Specification are hue, value and chroma
• What is Perceived Color?
Color that is perceived as object color. This is a result of object characteristics, depending
on the viewing direction and adaptation of the observer
• What is CRI?
It is the property of making color appearance of objects under the source in
question, when compared to color under reference Light Conditions.
Interior Lighting
Interior Lighting is a complex problem depending on various factors such as
• Purpose intended service,
• Class of Interiors.
• Luminaire best suited,
• Color effect and
• Reflection from ceiling, walls, floors.
Good Lighting means intensity should be ample to see clearly and distinctly. The light
distribution should be nearly uniform over a part of the room at least. It should be diffused that
is soft and well diffused. Color depends on purpose and taste source but should approach
daylight / yellow. Source location should be well above range of vision. To avoid glare intrinsic
brightness is reduced by diffused glass ware and by remaining objects of secular reflection from
range of vision. Shadows are a must for accentuating depth but should not too apparent abruptly
or dense, they are not to be harsh and should toned down.
Standard practice is to have general lighting in all areas at a level comfortable to eye. It should
eliminate dark shadows and avoid sharp contrast. In order to emphasize on parts that should be
shown. Light sources located such that visual importance of object is kept in mind. Lamp may be
concealed or counter lighted with a very low attention value to itself. Glare minimized by
diffusing.
1. General. Lighting – effectively illuminate all objects/areas with due regard to relative
importance in the interior composition. Adequate for eye comfort throughout the room
elimination of dark shadows and sharp contrasts – preserve soft shadows for
roundness/relief – lighting emphasis on those parts that need first attention.
2. Light sources be subordinated in visual importance to the things intended to illuminate,
except rarely when itself is a dominant decorative element. Unless – concealed/counter
lighted, that they are not apparent they have extremely high attention value – dominate
the scheme. If visible – so disposed – to attract eye to major feature of room than
themselves.
3. Glare must be eliminated. Result of intense brightness in concentrated areas within the
line of vision. Produced by excess brightness of visible light.
Trends
It is always taken care to keep brightest surface not greater than 3 – 4 times brightness of task on
hand whereas brightness of task not greater than 3 – 4 times darkest surface. That is to say
luminance ratio from brightest to darkest is 10:3:1. Eliminating glare results in good visibility,
eases viewing, and creates pleasing psychological effect. All the calls for large light sources
covering entire ceiling approaching sheet of light. This ensures good uniform illumination all
over the room! Commonly white ceiling with semi indirect luminaires. One may employ false
ceiling (white or off white) with translucent diffusing material on top of which an array of lamps
are located. Major defects in lighting design are too bright luminaires, too dark floors and
furniture. Preferred scheme is to have light color interiors with large sources of low brightness.
Day light illumination or natural illumination, constantly changes, varies with weather, time of
the day or season. Typically lower daylight levels on upper levels. This required looking into
openings or windows. It is observed that at 20 – 25' from window, daylight falls below 10lx
under these conditions artificial general lighting needs to be turned on. Common technique is to
partially screen them, thus makes uniform general lighting. Top section of window should be as
close to ceiling as possible. It controls the light to the deepest end of the room. Normally height
to top window not less than ½ the depth of the room. Window area is responsible for glare.
Hence termed glare are. Glare area = 1/5th the floor space. Shades, baffles, louver, diffusers are
employed to control glare
If ‘X’ be the artificial illuminance that is sufficient for the task on hand: natural daylight
illuminance (minimum) = 2X. Say windows are located only on one wall. Width of the room less
than 2 times height to top of the window is preferred. Say windows are located on the opposite
walls, width between the walls not greater than 6 times height to top of the window.
Location of lamps based on candle power, maximum allowable spacing, height at which located.
Too great a spacing introduces dark shadows and dark spaces. Preferably lamps closer to ceiling,
clear of obstructions are useful. They may be mounted on surface, suspended or recessed in the
Remembering that a plane source of light gives out light flux which produces illuminance
independent of distance, mounting height is redundant when approaching a sheet of light.
Interior Finish
It is an important issue in interior lighting. Color reflectance – affects utilization white or off
white or yellow are preferred. Typical reflectance for Ceiling is 70 – 85%, for Walls is 45 –
60%, for Floor is 10 – 20%. In addition systems need to be maintained regular by Periodic check
preferably when lux levels fall by 20 – 25%, time to replace lamps. Usually luminaires are likely
to collect direct light. 1½ times of minimum requirement is taken to take care of this. If voltage
is maintained properly energy costs will be optimum. If voltage greater than labeled voltage, life
is shortened. If voltage is less than labeled voltage, less light output results. Lamps and
Luminaires are washed, cleaned. Direct lamps have less dirt, indirect lamps have more dirt.
Luminaries are wiped with brush/dry cloth if necessary with a damp cloth. Grease removed by
washing. Painting walls/ceiling – every 1½ - 2 years ensures good lighting levels. Clean offices
may be lit using direct/indirect fluorescent lamps. Dusty smoky factory lit by mercury vapor
direct or sodium vapor lamps. Replacement strategy should be related to large no. of lamps reach
70% of life preferably in a group.
This lesson covered issues pertaining to interior lighting. Best thing is to approach near plane
source of light. Reflectance’s of Walls, Ceiling and Floor also matter. Last but not least a good
maintenance strategy is required.
Lecture Summary
• Good interior lighting is governed by :
• intensity (ample to see clearly & distinctly)
• distribution (nearly uniform)
• soft & well diffused light
• color (depending on taste / purpose)
• source location should be above plane of vision (to avoid glare)
• Shadows are required for actuating depth of object. It shouldn’t be too apparent abruptly
or dense. Also it shouldn’t be harsh & needs to be toned down
• General lighting controlled to suit psychological moods
• Natural / daylight illumination constantly varies with weather, time of day & season
• We design the window opening such that the minimum daylight illuminance is twice the
artificial illuminance that is sufficient for the required task
• Location of lamps depends on :
• candle power
• maximum allowable spacing
• height at which located
• should be clear of obstruction
• distribution of light required
Tutorial Questions
• What are the factors which need to be considered while designing interior lighting?
• purpose of lighting or intended service
• class of interiors
• luminaires best suited
• color effect
• reflection from ceiling, walls & floor
• Why are shadows important while designing interior lighting?
Shadows are important for actuating the depth of object to be perceived
• What are the defects in interior lighting considering from brightness point of view?
Major defects from lighting systems arise due to too bright luminaires & too dark floor &
interiors. So we should have light color interiors with large sources of low brightness
• What is the criteria for deciding the height of window?
If windows are located on only one wall then the height to the top of window should be
greater than half of the width of room. If windows are located on the opposite walls then
the height to the top of window shouldn’t be less than one-sixth of the distance between
the walls.
• Why is periodic check of the interior lamps required?
Periodic check is required because the lamps need to be replaced when they reach 70% of
its life or illumination level falls below standard. Moreover regular maintenance is
required to clean any accumulated dust / grease / moisture.
Sports Lighting
This lesson addresses sports lighting application. Lighting for sports facility looks for comfort of
four user groups namely Players, Officials, Spectators and Media. Players and officials should
see clearly in the play area to produce best possible results the object used in the game.
Spectators should follow the performance of the players. In addition to play area surroundings
also need to be illuminated. Lighting should be such that it enables safe entry and exit. With
increasing crowd level safety becomes more and more important. Media include TV and film, for
whom lighting should provide lighting such that conditions are suitable for color picture quality
as per CIE 83. This should be suitable for both general pictures as well as close up of players and
spectators. Additionally, it should have provisions for emergency power supply to provide
continuous transmission.
Criteria relevant for sports lighting are Horizontal Illuminance, Vertical Illuminance, Illuminance
Uniformity, Glare restrictions, Modeling & shadows and Color appearance & rendering
Horizontal Illuminance
This becomes important as major part of view is illuminated playing area. Illuminance on the
horizontal plane serves adaptation of the eye. It acts as a background, so adequate illuminance is
important. For safe entry and exit adequate illumination is required in the circulation area also.
Vertical Illuminance
Sufficient contrast across players’ body is essential for the identification of the player. This is
possible only if sufficient vertical illumination is there. This is characterized by both magnitude
and direction. Players need adequate vertical illumination, from all directions. Spectators and
Media need illumination only in defined directions. Generally, if horizontal illuminance is taken
care, vertical illuminance levels become adequate. Usually vertical illuminance is specified or
measured at a vertical height 1.5 m above the play area. Apart from player recognition and
picture quality vertical illuminance should enable observation of movement of ball (or object
moving in the sport concerned) above the playing field by both players and spectators.
Spectator’s stands are also part of the environment and must also have adequate vertical
illuminance, more from the safety point of view.
Illuminance Uniformity
Good illuminance is important in both the horizontal and vertical planes. If it be good it does
away need for continuous adjustment of cameras. This is achieved by having Illuminance
Uniformity. Uniformity of illumination is expressed by two indices:
Glare
When disturbing brightness nears or enters field of view, glare is said to be there. As already
caused at low levels it could cause discomfort or annoyance but can be disabling at higher levels.
It is minimized by a proper choice of flood lights or luminaries, located suitably and aimed in
appropriate direction.
i. Color appearance of the light that takes care of color impression of the total environment,
essentially due to the lamp.
ii. Color rendering of the light, the ability to reproduce color of an object faithfully.
Depends on spectral energy distribution of light emitted. Color appearance obtained from color
temperature varying between 2000 (warmer) to 6000 (cooler) K. Color rendering is specified by
CRI or Ra. Maximum possible CRI being 100, which is comparable to day light situation.
Higher the Ra more agreeable is the environment.
Table I lists the recommendations for various types of sports in terms of E’ Average Minimum
Horizontal Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity indices.
Initial values are taken to be 1.5 times indicated minimum levels. CIE grouping into A, B, C
denotes speed of action in descending order. One may observe small ball size and high speed of
movement are grouped under C. These recommendations change as shown in Table II for media
coverage for National TV, while that for International coverage are as shown in Table III and for
HDTV as shown in Table IV
Vertical Illuminance is provided such that camera operators have free choice of camera angle.
These levels are specified at a height of 1.5m above the playing area.
As seen from the recommendations, Illuminance uniformity is very stringent for TV or media
although human eye is less sensitive and has ability to adjust, levels of uniformity required
higher for TV coverage.
Three band radiator are Indium (In), Titanium (Ti), Sodium (Na). Multi Line radiator are
Dyspersium (Dy), Hofnium(Ho), Thalum(Tm); Titanum (Ti), Sodium (Na) and Dyspersium
(Dy), Titanium (Ti), Sodium (Na). Molecular radiators are Stannic Chloride (SnCl2) and Stannic
Iodide ( SnI2) Essentially improve color rendering ability of a mercury vapor radiation.
Lecture Summary
1. Sports Lighting has four user groups in mind
a. Players
b. Officials
c. Spectators and
d. Media.
2. Category of sport is made as A, B or C depending on the size of the ball/object and place
of the game. “C” denotes fast paced game with small sized object.
3. Horizontal Illuminance, vertical illuminance and illuminance uniformity are crucial for
this category of lighting.
4. Color appearance is very important for media coverage.
5. Considering all user groups CRI of 65 and color temperature of at least 4000K is
recommended.
Tutorial Questions
• Where do we use narrow beam flood lights?
• Where do we use wide beam flood lights?
• Why are lamps used for sports lighting operated at higher voltage than rated voltage?
Road Lighting
Road lighting provides visual conditions for safe, quick and comfortable movement of Road
users.
The factors responsible for the lighting scheme for roads are:
i. Luminance Level.
ii. Luminance Uniformity.
iii. Degree of Glare limitation.
iv. Lamp Spectra and
v. Effectiveness of visual guidance.
Luminance Level
As the Luminance of a road influences contrast sensitivity of drivers’ eyes and contrast of
obstacles, relative to back ground. Hence affects performance of Road users. Surrounding
brightness affects the adaptation of human eye. Bright surroundings lower contrast sensitivity
there by requiring higher luminance for the road surface. Darker surroundings make driver
adapted to road (assuming road is brighter). Roads with dark surrounds are to be lit by including
surroundings. Otherwise drivers cannot perceive objects in the surroundings. CIE 12
recommends that 5m away from the road on either side should be lit by illuminance level at least
50% of that on the road.
Luminance Uniformity
Adequate uniformity is necessary for visual performance and visual comfort of the user. From
visual performance view point, uniformity ratio is defined by U0 = Lmin / Lavg .U0 should not be
below 0.4. From visual comfort view point uniformity ratio is defined as U1 = Lmin / Lmax
measured along the line passing through the observer positioned in the middle of the traffic
facing the traffic flow. Termed longitudinal uniformity ratio.
Glare Limitation
Physiological or disability glare affect visual performance. Psychological or discomfort glare
affect visual comfort. Glare is to be avoided at all costs.
Visual Guidance
Visual guidance guides the road user and hence must for user to get a recognizable picture of the
course immediately. This is improved by lamp arrangement that follows the run of the road.
More so if turns and intersections are there. Lighting scheme must provide visual guidance. On
roads having separate lanes with a separator the lighting columns are located on the separator.
As is the custom in large avenues in Metros. On a curve the lighting column is located along the
outer column. This gives a clear indication of the run of the road on the curvature. Visual
guidance pilots traffic through lights of different colors on different routes. Exits on main roads
are lit differently. Sodium vapour lamps for the main road and mercury lights for exits are
employed.
Official Recommendations
National standards are taken from CIE 12. Visual conditions for smooth movement and safe
traffic pattern. They depend on speed, intensity, composition of traffic and complexity of the
road.
Table I lists the categories of the road as A to E based on the locality and traffic density. Table II
lists the appropriate recommendations for lighting.
a b c d
Single sided Staggered Opposite Span wire
Fig. 1 Lighting arrangement for 2 way street
High speed ways and dual lanes lamps may be located on the separator and are termed central
twin bracket arrangement. As shown in Fig 2.
(a) (b)
Central Twin Central Twin
Bracket Bracket and opposite
Curves
Special care is taken on curves. On radius larger than 300m, the curve can be treated as straight
roads. Smaller radius curves, lamps are located outside of the curve. Smaller the radius, closer
is the spacing. Usually 0.5 – 0.25 times that for a straight road.
Entrance
L20 Exit
Lth
Lexit
Access
Zone Transition
Interior
Tunnel lighting employs transverse and longitudinal light distributions which are symmetrical
and counter beam system, which is asymmetrical. Transverse light radiated at 90º to the axis of
the tunnel may be continuous line of tubular fluorescent lamps that give good visual guidance,
minimal glare and require simple switching. Only disadvantage is close spacing. Longitudinal –
light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis. It leads to high efficacy and large luminaire spacing.
Counter beam is light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis against the direction of traffic flow. In
Residential area, road safety, security and amenity are kept in mind. Where only pedestrians are
there, security and amenity are major criteria. In such areas high pressure mercury vapour lamps
or blended lamps are preferred. Sodium vapor lamps of 50 / 70W have been successfully used.
Wherever light needs to serve pedestrians post top lanterns are preferred.
Longitudinal
Counter beam
Summary
• Road lighting aims safe, quick and comfortable movement of traffic.
• There are five categories of Roads, A, B, C, D and E depending on the type and density
of traffic.
• Mostly sodium vapor lamps are preferred on the roads.
• At junctions mercury vapor lamps may be provided.
• Tunnel lighting needs to be carried out in such a way as to gradually change the light
level. Tunnels lit during the day as well as night.
• Residential areas have post top lanterns.
Tutorial Questions
• What are the factors responsible for road lighting?
• What are the various arrangements of locating lamps on roads?
• What are the various categories of the roads?
• List the various zones in a Tunnel from lighting view point
• What are the various schemes employed for tunnel lighting?
Lighting Calculations
In order to do calculate, manufactures manuals data sheets are the first source. For the
Engineer/Architect several softwares, fast, accurate and convenient are available which rapidly
assess requirements on field. One should be able to check if software is giving right solution!
This needs understanding of long hand calculations discussed in this lesson. Various issues
involved are Illuminance – horizontal and vertical may be got from Tables. Also given in the
form of graphs, called Isolux diagrams. The other issue is the Luminance of the source in
question.
Horizontal Illuminance
Specified as Average illuminance on the work plane while Sitting 0.75 – 0.9m above floor and
while Standing 0.85 – 1.2m above floor.
φ tot
Thus E ar = U.F. × M , where
A
E = Average horizontal illuminance in lux.
φ = Total light output in Lumens.
A = Area in m2
U.F = Utilization factor
M = Maintenance factor
Work plane
Floor
1 – work plane, 2 – wall area below the
luminaire, 3 – on the frieze, 4 – ceiling
Fig. 1 Schematic showing various zones in an interior of a room.
Reflectance code
Code 7751 connotes a reflectance from Ceiling of 0.7, Frieze of 0.7, Walls of 0.5 and work plane
of 0.1. Similarly 751 denote reflectance from Ceiling of 0.7, Walls of 0.5 and Work plane of 0.1.
That is to say there is no frieze at all. If not known or available average value of 753 is taken for
a room with light colors.
Table I
K 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
M 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 8 10
N 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 6
Direct component at a point p due to a point source is as already discussed is shown in Fig. 2 and
that due to a line source is shown in Fig. 3.
Iα α Iα
Ep = cos 3α
2
hm hm
d
a p
Fig. 2 Illuminance due to a point source
π I α C osα
Ep =
α hm 2d
π Iα
= C osα
2hm
Fluorescent lamp
Fig. 3 Illuminance due to line source.
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 4
Calculating from Isolux diagram involves no of steps. Let us consider source placed at P be a
point source. Then place the Isolux diagram on that plane.
Step1. From the luminous intensity table for the luminaire calculate illuminance on the working
plane and distances to each point.
Step2. Plot E and a using this 2 illuminance distribution curves draw isolux curves as shown.
Step4. Place isolux diagram on the plan of the luminaire layout. Positioning: centre over the
point of interest. Sum the illuminance.
φn E
Ep =
1000
N = no. of lamps per luminaire
E = value from step 4.
1 2 3 5 – 40
4–5
8 – 10
4 5 6 9–5
5 P 40
60402010 5 lx
Epe 594
n=3
7 8 9
10 5 3300 = φ
eav =
∑e F n n
∑F n
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 5
Where en = reflectance of the nth surface
Vertical Illuminance
It becomes important in case of an Average wall, wall mounted object, black board – chalk board
and wall display in a shop.
Illuminance is given by
φtot
E av = (R)n w M
A
Where φ = Luminous Flux – Lumens,
A = Area of the work plane,
(R)Nw = U.F,
M = maintenance Factor.
Figure 5. shows the vertical illuminance at a point ‘P’
Iα
α Iα
Ep = Cos 2 α Sinα
h2
h
d
a p
Aν
Lecture Summary
• Illuminance level depends on the nature of working environment & is specified in terms
of horizontal, vertical & inclined illuminance. These are obtained graphically from
numerical tables.
• Isolux diagrams are used for calculation of illumnance & luminance levels
• A room can be divided into four zones for calculation of illumination level :
• work plane
• wall area below luminaire
• on the fieze (wall area above luminaire)
• ceiling
• Horizontal illuminance is given by:
φ tot
E avg = × UF× M
A
• Utilization Factor (UF) depends on:
• light distribution of luminaire
• reflectance of ceiling / walls
l× b
• Room index (k) is given by : k =
h m × (l + b)
• Vertical Illumination is given by:
φ
E avg = tot × UF× M
A
I
• Luminaire Luminance is given by: L γ = γ
Aγ
Where Aγ is the apparent area in the specified direction & is given by
A γ = A h × cosγ + A v ×sinγ
Lightning Applications
This lesson presents various issues pertaining to lighting applications. First area of application is
Industrial. Here Wide range of visual tasks are involved compared to schools or offices. Involves
Extremely small to very large objects. The objects or areas could be Dark or light with Flat or
contoured surfaces. In industrial environs the tasks are graded according to degree of fineness.
Less critical tasks require low level/quality of light Finer work requires high level with
minimum glare. General lighting is usually supplemented by specific lighting. Lighting is
dictated by Nature of work, Shape of the space and ceiling structure
Multistorey
Ussually Smooth white ceilings with height in the range 2.8m < h < 3.5m. Here Roof acts as
extended reflector. They use Tubular fluorescent lamps in continuous or broken rows. The
lighting is Integrated with a/c system.
When using Lantern roof uses saw toothed roof, to allow more of day light Employs Reflector
type luminaires in a row perpendicular to work bench.
In High bays, where ceiling height h > 7m, light sources need to be mounted higher. This
facilitates avoiding obstruction to guide rails of cranes and tall machinery. Here, Dispersive
narrow beam reflector luminaries fitted with metal halide or high pressure sodium vapour lamps
that are color corrected are used.
Office lighting
As regards office lighting they can be categorized as General offices, Private offices, Conference
rooms. Here usually Limited well defined visual task are involved. Typically there are
Horizontal work planes at 0.75 – 0.85m from the floor. Typical Ceiling heights are 2.8 – 3m.
Illuminance
Recommended Illuminance levels in Small offices are 500 – 750 lx on the task and in Large
office 750 – 1000 lx on the task. General lighting at least equal to 50% of task illuminance with a
minimum of 400 lx is recommended.
Luminances
Recommended luminance values for Walls is 50 – 150 Cd/m2, for Ceiling 100 – 200 Cd/m2 and
for Tasks / Task area 100 – 300 Cd/m2. Color appearance should be agreeable. All this easily
obtained using Day light fluorescent lamps with louvers and diffusers.
Show case in a store must be lit such that it brings out special features of the product. Hardware
can use diffused fluorescent lamps. Jewellery best lit by incandescent lamps.
Hotels / Restaurants
In hotels and restaurants lighting must take care of Approach roads / car parks / main entrance.
They are lit by Columns – 30cm to 12m high. They are termed post top Lanterns. EH = 10 lx.
canopy EH = 100 lx. Entrance halls, foyers attention is to be drawn to reception. Desk Hence
increase illuminance around reception. Lighting system should be Flexible. In restaurants
Fluorescent lamps around the perimeter of dining area with local lighting at tables (lowered at
night times). This needs Dimming and partial switching. Eav = 100 lx is recommended. No doubt
at Cash desk, higher level of 300 lx is preferred.
In Bed Rooms or Guest rooms provisions must be there for General lighting, Reading lamp at the
table Bed head reading lamp in wall brackets mounted high. Mirrors should be lit by Fluorescent
lamps right above or on either side.
Standard Light.
Table lamp.
Bed head lamp.
Mirror lamp.
Lights recommended for Exam rooms are 4000ºK fluorescent lamps with 500 – 1000 lx.
Theaters should have shadow free lighting. ICU and X Ray rooms should have at least 10 – 30lx.
Before, we close this lesson some types of luminaries employed are illustrated. Figures 1 to 4
show various types of luminaries that may be used for various types of lamps shown in Fig.5
Fig. 3 Typical decorative Downlighters using CFL which can be recessed in ceiling
Fig. 4 Typical Commercial Luminaires using CFLs suitable for recessed mounting
Lecture Summary
• Industrial lighting is dictated by:
• nature of work
• shape of space
• ceiling structures
• Industrial lighting can be classified as:
• single storey without skylight
• multistorey
• single storey with skylight
• high bay light
• Additional lighting are used if general lighting doesn’t meet requirements viz. illuminated
magnifying glass, stroboscopic lighting, monochromatic light etc.
• Fluorescent lamps with louvres & diffusers are preferred for office lighting
• Vertical illumination becomes necessary for blackboards in educational institutions
• In hospitals lighting is done according to convenience of patients, technicians & doctors.
Operation theatres need shadow free lighting. ICU & X-ray rooms have low luminance
levels.
Tutorial Questions
• When do you need stroboscopic lighting?
• What care should be taken for auditorium lighting?
• How should be the line of luminaires be mounted in industries & why?
Physiology
Psychology
Economics
Art
(Aesthetic)
First lesson stressed the need for lighting .Good lighting aims so that our eyes clearly and
pleasantly perceive things. Invariably artificial lighting schemes use some form of physical
phenomena. All lighting sources today employ electrical energy. Electrical Energy sources may
be DC or AC single phase or three phases. Usual Sources of electrical energy are Hydro &
Thermal. Usually load is unbalanced for a practical 3-phase system.
Radiation
Second lesson deals with radiation. Light is the Radiant energy that provides visual sensation.
Human eye can sense over the 380nm (violet) to 700nm (red) wavelength.. Maximal relative
energy content of sunlight around 550 nm coincident with maximal luminosity of human eye.
Artificial light sources employed may be broadly categorized as Incandescent Lamps and Gas
Discharge Lamps. These are based on the following four Physical Processes:
• Incandescence
• Luminescence
• Fluorescence
• Phosphorescence
However, we learn as we go along that Good efficient lighting is obtained by combining
luminescence & fluorescence. Having learnt about necessity of artificial Illumination and
radiation characteristics, it is time to look at how the eye responds.
Laws of Illumination
Next lesson deals with quantification Illumination. Unit of luminous intensity is Candela (Cd), it
is the luminous intensity of a surface which is1/600,000 of a blackbody, at the solidification
temperature of Platinum (1773 °C) under standard atmospheric pressure. Luminous intensity
over 1 steradian solid angle by a source of 1 Cd is called as 1 lumen of light flux (lm). For a
point source one talks of MSLI or average intensity x solid angle (mean spherical Luminous
intensity). Hence, Luminous Flux = luminous intensity × solid angle. Illuminance is luminous
flux per unit area.
Frechner’s Law states that the same percentage change in stimulus calculated from the least
amount perceptible gives the same change in sensation. Inverse Square Law states that the
intensity of illumination produced by a point source varies inversely as square of the distance
from the source.
Photometry
The next lesson deals with Measurement issues. This is necessary before using any lamp source.
This involves comparing it with a primary standard (standard lamp) using a photometric bench.
This comparison may be carried out by varying position of standard lamp, by varying position of
test lamp or by varying position of the screen on the photometric bench. The lesson also
addresses issues pertaining to direction of light. Luminnaires are used for directing the light from
a source of light in the desired direction. Types of luminaires employed may be broadly
categorized as directed reflectors or diffusing.
Incandescent Lamps
Having covered generics, we take now each type of lamp in the subsequent lessons. As the name
suggests Incandescence employs radiation at high temperature. Incandescent Lamps called Type-
B employ tungsten / osmium / tantalum filament, in vacuum, where as those called Type-C:
tungsten filament, in inert gas (generally a mixture of Ar & N2). Tungsten being ductile in
nature, having high melting point & high radiation efficiency has been widely in use as filament
material. However, at higher wattages the filament tends to evaporate and darken the bulb known
as lamp darkening. Use of inert gas in incandescent lamps helps in decreasing the rate of
evaporation of tungsten & improves efficiency. Further it is observed that higher efficiency is
obtained when incandescent lamps are operated at low voltages. Filament characteristics depend
on filament length, filament diameter, coil spacing, lead wires, method of mounting, no. of
supports, properties of gas employed , gas pressure, bulb size and shape of bulb.
Usually Bulbs are designed for uniform radiation, accurate consumption of power, good
efficiency and reasonable rating of life. The most common lamps employed fall under the
category of Discharge Lamps, this is covered in the next three lessons.
Discharge Lamps I
This lesson introduces discharge lamps. They either use Luminescence which produces light
radiation by chemical / electrical action on gas / vapor or Fluorescence where in radiation is
absorbed at one wavelength & radiated at another wavelength with in visible spectrum. It is to be
noted that in lighting arrangements a combination of luminescence & fluorescence increase
efficiency far beyond incandescence. Efficiency is measured in terms of lumens per watt of
power consumed. Thus discharge lamps consist of discharge of electricity through a tube
containing a conducting medium. Conduction is by way of electrons. Types of electron emission
may be Electric Field Emission, Thermionic Emission or Photoelectric Emission. So in a
discharge lamp gas / vapor is made luminous by an electric discharge whose color / intensity are
dependent on gas / vapor used and intensity to some extent proportional to current. Broadly
discharge lamps are of two categories 1) Mercury Vapor Lamps, 2) Sodium Vapor Lamps.
Mercury vapor lamps tend to give a light bluish green color (deficient in red color). They have a
starting electrode provided to initiate the arc. After a run-up time of typically 2 min., mercury
vapor discharge starts. Gas at high pressure improves the CRI (color rendering index) of mercury
Discharge Lamps II
Low pressure Sodium vapor Lamp has outer envelope of inner surface is coated with Indium
Oxide & that acts as an IR reflector. While high pressure mercury vapor Lamp gives rise to
bluish white line spectrum, together with some phosphors improves color. If some luminescent
powder is put in the tubular lamps it enhances brilliancy of light Radiation from Low Pressure
Hg-vapor lamp (which is in the UV-region) is impinged on luminescent materials, they reradiate
at longer wavelength of visible spectrum. This is the principle of Fluorescent Lamps. Various
types of Fluorescent Lamps Day Light Lamp, Standard White Lamp and Soft White Lamp.
Factors deciding the dimension of fluorescent lamps are luminous efficiency, brightness, lumen
output, lumen maintenance and reliable starting. The voltage rating of the lamp is decided by arc
length, bulb diameter and lamp current.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) are compact, efficient, energy saving, having higher lifetime
with reasonably good CRI & near daylight illumination characteristics. Moreover they have all
the accessories inbuilt. Hence they are better than traditional fluorescent lamps in terms of
economy and efficiency.
Illumination Systems I
Now using the lamps discussed so far lighting system needs to be developed. These are termed
Illumination Systems. This lesson discusses the issue. Illumination system comprises of a lamp
(the artificial source of light), luminnaires & the control gear. Commercial luminnaires can be
categorized into general or industrial. Luminnaires are also characterized by the way they control
& direct light i.e. luminous intensity, luminous distribution and number of lamps. Although use
of mirrors in luminnaires are avoided as they cause glare modern luminairres do have properly
positioned mirrors to act as reflectors. Efficiency of a luminnaire is talked in terms of light
output ratio (LOR). This includes both downward as well as upward light. Practically DLOR
(downward LOR) is of importance. Luminnaires for hazardous areas should maintain
temperature and are hence encapsulated to resist pressure. Gasketted luminnaires which are
Illumination Systems II
The II part on Illumination systems addresses control gears. Control gears are the accessories
that help in controlling the requisite amount of light flux on the work plane. Gas discharge lamps
are constant current devices. Constant current is achieved by use of ballasts. Requirements for
good ballasts very less undue power loss, should offer high impedance to audio frequency,
should suppress EMI / RFI / TVI, should provide proper starting conditions and should have as
high power factor as possible. To improve power factor capacitors are used in series. Excepting
high pressure mercury vapor lamps, all lamps have starting voltage more than spark over voltage,
hence require starters & igniters to be used as starting devices. Igniters are small three electrode
devices which are fired by controlled pulses from small electronic circuits. Apart from local &
general lighting dimmers / timers are used in lighting systems to have good control and direction
of light.
Glare
This lesson discusses all important issue of glare, which affects the performance of lighting
system. By definition Glare is the brightness within the field of vision. Effects of glare injures
the eye, disturbs the nervous system, causes annoyance, discomfort & fatigue, reduces
efficiency of work, interferes with clear vision and risk of accident increases. Glare could be
direct bright luminaire in the field of vision or Reflected Glare due to reflection from a glossy
surface. Reflected glare causes more annoyance than direct glare. Direct glare can be minimized
by mounting luminaires well above the line of vision. When glare level impairs the vision, it is
said to be Disability Glare. If eye is subjected to glare for a long time results in Discomfort
Glare.
Glare Evaluation Systems in vogue are American system (VCP), British system (Glare Index)
and European system (Luminance Curves). Luminance angle limit for luminaires is between 45°
< γ < 85°. Other source of glare being windows. It is of two types i.e. veiling it can be prevented
by using curtains, blinds or louvers. Reflections and reflected glare. The Techniques employed
for minimization of glare from luminaires are not locating luminaires in the forbidden zone,
increasing light from sideways or using luminaires having large surface area.
In addition CRF (Contrast Rendition Factor) – influence of lighting on task contrast & task
visibility. By definition Task Visibility is the ratio of Given Emission and Sphere Illuminance.
Where Sphere Illuminance is the Illuminance by the source providing equal luminous intensity
in all directions. Also known as ESI (Equal Spherical Illuminance).
All this means three categories of lighting are required they are general lighting local lighting
and a combination of local & general lighting. Combination of general & local lighting are
preferred to avoid glare
Color
Next lesson deals with issues pertaining to color. Three Components of Color Perception are
Source of Illumination, Object Illuminated and detector. Source color tells us about spectral
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power distribution of the light source. Object Color denotes appearance of the object due to
selective appearance of incident light. Perceived Color is a result of object characteristics
together with viewing conditions. Color characteristics are assessed by Color Rendering Index
(CRI). CRI is appearance of an object under test source in comparison to appearance under
standard light conditions, like those under natural day light conditions. Color standards follow
Munsell system or CIE system.
Interior Lighting
Next lesson discusses recommendations pertaining to interior lighting. Good interior lighting is
governed by intensity (ample to see clearly & distinctly), distribution ( maintained nearly
uniform), using soft & well diffused light, color (depending on taste / purpose) with source
located well above plane of vision (to avoid glare). Although shadows are required for actuating
depth of the object. It shouldn’t be too apparent abruptly or dense. Also it shouldn’t be harsh &
needs to be toned down. General lighting controlled to suit psychological moods. Natural /
daylight illumination constantly varies with weather, time of day & season. We design the
window opening such that the minimum daylight illuminance is twice the artificial illuminance
that is sufficient for the required task Location of lamps depends on candle power, maximum
allowable spacing, height at which located, position of obstructions ( if any) and required
distribution of light. Color reflectance from the interior finishing affects utilization. With all this
like any other system interior lighting needs to be periodically checked & maintained. It is
advisable that lamps are replaced when they reach 70% of its life or when illumination level falls
below standard level. Moreover it is preferred to change lamps in groups rather than individually.
Next important issue pertains external lighting. This consists of Sports lighting and Road
Lighting.
Sports Lighting
This lesson details sport lighting recommendation. Sports Lighting has four user groups in mind
Players, officials, Spectators and Media. Category of sport is made as A, B or C depending on
the size of the ball/object and place of the game. “C” denotes fast paced game with small sized
object. Horizontal Illuminance, vertical illuminance and illuminance uniformity are crucial for
this category of lighting. Color appearance is very important for media coverage. Considering all
user groups a CRI of 65 and color temperature of at least 4000 K is recommended.
Road Lighting
This lesson looks into Road Lighting recommendations. The aim of the Road lighting is for safe,
quick and comfortable movement of traffic. From this view point, there are five categories of
Roads, A, B, C, D and E depending on the type and density of traffic. Mostly sodium vapor
lamps are preferred on the roads. At junctions mercury vapor lamps may be provided to highlight
the junction.. Tunnel lighting also needs to be carried out in such a way as to gradually change
the light level. Tunnels are lit during the day as well as night. Residential areas usually employ
post top lanterns
Lighting Application
Having had a look at all aspects of lighting this lesson looks at lighting applications. Industrial
lighting is dictated by nature of work, shape of space and ceiling structures. Industrial lighting is
classified as single storey without skylight, multi storey, single storey with skylight or high bay
light. Additional lighting is used if general lighting doesn’t meet requirements viz. illuminated
magnifying glass, stroboscopic lighting, monochromatic light etc. Fluorescent lamps with
louvres & diffusers are preferred for office lighting. Vertical illumination becomes necessary for
blackboards in educational institutions. In shops, restaurants & other commercial places, local &
color lighting is employed to highlight a particular place / product. In hospitals lighting is done
according to convenience of patients, technicians & doctors. Operation theatres need shadow free
lighting. ICU & X-ray rooms have low luminance levels. Some of the Indian Standards for
lighting application are also covered in this lesson. Details can be had from hand book of BIS.
Mostly adopted from CIE