ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE

1. Maxwells Equations and source densities

Maxwells Equations for the electric potential V and the magnetic (vector) po-
tential A in vacuum are the following:

(1) 2V =
0
(2) 2A = 0 J

where is the electric charge density, J the electric current density, 0 the vac-
uum electric permettivity, 0 the vacuum magnetic permeability. We are using
the Lorenz Gauge, meaning that the following condition is to be imposed on the
electromagnetic potentials for equations (1) and (2) to be valid (c is the speed of
light in vacuum, c = 10 0 ):

1 V
(3) A+ =0
c2 t
The charge and current densities for a single moving point charge q, whose
position vector with respect to some frame of reference is rS (t) and whose velocity
is vS (t), can be written as:

(4) (r, t) = q (r rS (t))

(5) J(r, t) = q vS (t) (r rS (t))

(r) is the Dirac Delta distribution evaluated at a generic point in space with
position vector r.

2. Li
enard-Wiechert Potentials
The equations for the electromagnetic potentials, derived solving Maxwells Equa-
tions (1) and (2) with Greens Lemma, are:
(r0 , t0r ) 0
Z
1
V (r, t) = dr
40 R3 |r0 r|

J(r0 , t0r ) 0
Z
0
A(r, t) = dr
4 R3 |r0 r|
Where t0r is the retarded time:
|r0 r|
t0r = t
c
1
2 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE

Substituting equations (4) and (5) we have:

(r0 rS (t0r )) 0
Z
q
(6) V (r, t) = dr
40 R3 |r0 r|
vS (t0r ) (r0 rS (t0r )) 0
Z
0 q
(7) A(r, t) = dr
4 R3 |r0 r|
Let us consider the electric potential first. In order to evaluate the integral, which
is not trivial due to the retarded times dependence on r0 , we rewrite it as a double
integral using a Dirac Delta with the time as argument, then exchange the order of
integration to obtain:
Z + Z
q (r0 rS ( ))
V (r, t) = ( t0r ) dr0 d
40 R3 |r0 r|
The integral over r0 simply picks out r0 = rS ( ):
Z +
q ( r )
(8) V (r, t) = d
40 |rS ( ) r|

|rS ( ) r|
(9) r = t
c
Now, to compute the integral over we use the general rule for the evaluation of
an integral with a Dirac Delta distribution with a function as argument:
Z + n
X f (xk )
f (x) (g(x)) dx =
|g 0 (xk )|
k=1

where the xk are the simple zeroes of g(x) (i.e. with g 0 (xk ) 6= 0, k [1, n]),
assuming g(x) has no multiple zeroes. In our case, the argument of the Dirac Delta
is r , which is zero only when = r . Taking the derivative of both sides of
equation (9) with respect to we have:
r vS ( ) rS ( ) r
=
c |rS ( ) r|

vS ( ) rS ( ) r
(10) ( r ) = 1 +
c |rS ( ) r|
The right-hand side of equation (10) is certainly positive and lower than or equal to
1, since |vS | < c and | |rrSS (
( )r
)r| | = 1. Therefore, evaluating the integral in equation
(8) results in:
q 1 1
(11) V (r, t) = vS (tr ) rS (tr )r
40 |rS (tr ) r| 1 +
c |rS (tr )r|

|rS (tr ) r|
(12) tr = t
c
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE 3

which is the explicit expression of the electric potential generated by a moving point
charge. Introducing the quantities:
R(tr ) = |rS (tr ) r|
rS (tr ) r
(13) (tr ) =
e
|rS (tr ) r|
R(tr ) = R(tr )
e(tr )
and since:
drS dR dR de
vS = = = +R
e
dt dt dt dt
d
e 1 d 1 d
e
= ee
( ) = (1) = 0
dt 2 dt 2 dt
equation (11) can be rewritten as:
q 1
(14) V (r, t) =
40 R(tr ) 1 + 1c dR
dt (tr )
Proceeding in the same way for the magnetic potential A we have (from equation
(7)):
0 q + vS ( ) (r0 rS ( ))
Z Z
A(r, t) = ( t0r ) dr0 d
4 R3 |r0 r|
0 q + vS ( ) ( r )
Z
= d
4 |rS r( )|
Therefore:
0 q vS (tr ) 1
(15) A(r, t) = vS (tr ) rS (tr )r
4 |rS (tr ) r| 1 +
c |rS (tr )r|

Or:
0 q dR 1
(16) A(r, t) = (tr )
4R(tr ) dt 1 + 1c dR
dt (tr )

3. Electric field
The electric field generated by the point charge is given by:
A
(17) E = V
t
In order to calculate the potentials derivatives with respect to the spatial coordi-
nates x, y and z and to the time t, it is convenient to first compute the gradient and
the time derivative of the retarded time tr ; from here on, primed variables will be
intended as evaluated at the retarded time (so rS 0 rS (tr )). Taking the gradient
of both sides of equation (12) we have:
rS 0 r rS 0 r
 
1
tr = vS 0 t r
c |rS 0 r| |rS 0 r|

1 1 rS 0 r
(18) tr = 0 0 r
c1+ vS
c rS
|rS 0 r|
|rS 0 r|
4 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE

While derivating equation (12) with respect to t brings to:

tr vS 0 rS 0 r tr
=1
t c |rS 0 r| t

tr 1
(19) = vS 0 rS 0 r
t 1+ c |rS 0 r|

Rearranging equation (11) as:

q 1 q
V (r, t) = 0 v 0
0

40 |rS r| + c (rS r)
S 40
and taking the gradient of both sides we find:
q
V = ;
40 2
so in order to determine the gradient of the electric potential we simply need to
calculate . We have:
vS 0
(20) = |rS 0 r| + (rS 0 r)
c
|rS 0 r| vS 0
 
0
= + (rS r) =
x x x c
0 0
(rS r) rS r 1 vS 0 vS 0 (rS 0 r)
= 0
+ (rS 0 r) + =
x |rS r| c x c x
2
rS 0 r tr xS 0 x aS 0 tr |vS 0 | tr vSx 0
= vS 0 + (r S
0
r) + =
|rS 0 r| x |rS 0 r| c x c x c
 0
vS 0 a0S xS 0 x vSx 0
  
tr rS r
= vS 0 + + (r S
0
r)
x |rS 0 r| c c |rS 0 r| c
Therefore (using equation (18)):
(21)
 0
vS 0 a0S rS 0 r vS 0
  
rS r
= tr vS 0 0
+ + (rS
0
r) 0
=
|rS r| c c |rS r| c
" ! #
2
rS 0 r |vS 0 | aS 0 vS 0 vS 0 rS 0 r

1 0
= 0 0 1 + 2 (rS r) 1+
1 + vcS |rrS 0 r
Sr|
|rS 0 r| c2 c c c |rS 0 r|
Finally, we have:
vS 0 vS 0 rS 0 r
  
q 1 1
(22) V = 1+ +
40 |rS 0 r|2
3
c c |rS 0 r|

vS 0 rS 0 r
1+ c |rS 0 r|
2
rS 0 r |vS 0 | aS 0
 
0
1 + (r S r)
|rS 0 r| c2 c2

From equation (15), the magnetic potential can be written as:

q vS 0 q vS 0
(23) A(r, t) = 2 v 0
0 0
40 c |rS r| + c (rS r)
S 40 c2
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE 5

Therefore:
vS 0 1 vS 0
 
A q
= 2
t 40 c2 t t
The charged particles velocity depends on the time t only through the retarded
times dependence on t; so, using equations (19) and (20):
vS 0 tr |rS 0 r| 0
= aS 0 = aS
t t
Likewise:
|rS 0 r| vS 0
 
0
= + (rS r) =
t t t c
(rS 0 r) rS 0 r 1 vS 0 0 vS 0 (rS 0 r)
= + (rS r) + =
t |rS 0 r| c t c t
|rS 0 r| rS 0 r vS 0 aS 0
   
= vS 0 + + (rS 0 r)
|rS 0 r| c c
The time derivative of the magnetic potential is then:

(24)
aS 0 0 vS 0 rS 0 r
  
A q 1 1
= |rS r| 1 +
40 |rS 0 r|2
3
t c2 c |rS 0 r|

vS 0 rS 0 r
1+ c |rS 0 r|
2
vS 0 |vS 0 | vS 0 rS 0 r aS 0
 
0
+ + (r S r)
c c2 c |rS 0 r| c2

We finally find the expression for the electric field by putting together equations
(17), (22) and (24):

(25)
aS 0 0 vS 0 rS 0 r
  
q 1 1
E(r, t) = |rS r| 1 +
40 |rS r|2
3
0 c2 c |rS 0 r|
 0 0
1 + vcS |rrSS 0 r
r|
 0 0 2
|vS 0 | aS 0
 
vS rS r 0
+ 1 + 2 (rS r)
c |rS 0 r| c2 c

4. Magnetic field
The magnetic field produced by the moving point charge is given by the curl of
the magnetic potential:
(26) B=A
Using equation (23), we have:
vS 0 vS 0 vS 0
   
0 q 0 q
(27) A= =
4 4 2
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE

Let us first compute the curl of the velocity vS 0 . Its dependence on the spatial
coordinates x, y, and z is only due to being evaluated at the retarded time tr ,
therefore:
1 rS 0 r aS 0
vS 0 = aS 0 tr = tr aS 0 = 0 0 r
1+ vS
c rS
|rS 0 r|
|rS 0 r| c

As for the second term in equation (27), using equation (21):

2
|vS 0 | aS 0
  0
1 rS r
vS 0 = vS 0 rS 0 r
1 + (r S
0
r) vS 0
1 + c |r 0 r| c2 c 2 |rS 0 r|
S

where we have used the fact that the cross product of two parallel vectors (in this
case vS 0 and itself) is 0.
Substituting in equation (27) we obtain:

(28)
 0
vS 0 rS 0 r
 
0 q 1 1 0aS 0
B(r, t) = 3 (rS r) |rS r| 1+
4 |rS r|2
0 c c |rS 0 r|

vS 0 rS 0 r
1+ c |rS 0 r|
2
|vS 0 | aS 0
 
0 0
vS 1 + 2 (rS r)
c2 c
Which, as it can be easily shown, is equivalent to:
1 rS 0 r
(29) B(r, t) = E(r, t)
c |rS 0 r|

5. Heaviside-Feynman formula
The expressions we have determined for the electric and magnetic fields generated
by the moving point charge can be rewritten in terms of the variables introduced
with equations (13). We have:
drS dR dR de
vS = = = e+R R e
+Re
dt dt dt dt
dvS
aS = =Re + 2 R e + R e

dt
vS 0 rS 0 r R 0
=
c |rS 0 r| c
0 2
|vS | = (R ) + (R )2 e
0 2 0
0 e
0
aS 0 (rS 0 r) = (R 0 e
0 + 2 R 0 e 0 + R0 e 0 ) R0 e
0 = R0 R 0 + (R0 )2 e 0 =
0 e
 
= R0 R 0 + (R0 )2 d ( e0 e 0 ) e
0 e
0 = R0 R 0 e
0 (R0 )2 e 0
dt
Substituting in equation (25), after some calculations, results in (from now, the 0
on quantities evaluated at the retarded time will be omitted for simplicity: in the
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING POINT CHARGE 7

and their derivatives are always intended as calculated at

following formulae, R, e
t = tr ):
1 R

q 1 1 1 1 1
(30) E =
e +
e
e
40 R2 1 + R R2 c 1 + R Rc 1 + R
c c c
1

1
R 1

+ 2 

 e

 e
c 2 c 3

1 + Rc 1 + Rc
Now:
d dtr d 1 d
= =
dt dt dtr R dtr
1+ c
!
d2 e
(tr ) d 1 1
= (tr )
e = R 
2 e
1

3 e
dt2 dt r)
R(t c
1+ R R
c 1+ c 1+ c

R R
   
R d
e R 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 3
e =
e 2 2
e
e
c dt R2 c R2 1 + R R 1+ R
Rc 1 + R R c 1+ R
c c c c
Thus, substituting in equation (30) and simplifying:
1 d2 e
   
q
e R d
e
(31) E= + +
40 R2 c dt R2 c2 dt2
This is the Heaviside-Feynman formula for the electric field of a moving point
charge. An analogous formula can be found for the magnetic field simply by sub-
stitution of the above into equation (29):
d2 e
 
1 q 1 d
e 1
(32) B= e E=
e + 2e 2
c 40 c Rc dt c dt
In each of the above two equations, R and e are meant calculated at the retarded
time tr .