Linked lowstand delta to AUTHORS

Arthur H. Saller
Unocal Corporation,

basin-floor fan deposition, Sugar Land, Texas; asaller@unocal.com

offshore Indonesia: An analog Art Saller currently works as a sedimentologist

and stratigrapher for Unocal in Sugar Land,
Texas. He received geology degrees from the
for deep-water reservoir systems University of Kansas (B.S., 1974 1978), Stan-
ford University (M.S., 1980), and Louisiana State
Arthur H. Saller, Jesse T. Noah, Alif Prama Ruzuar, University (Ph.D., 1984). From 1984 to 1986, he
and Rhys Schneider worked for Cities Service Oil and Gas in Tulsa,
Oklahoma, and joined Unocal in 1986.

Jesse T. Noah
Unocal Corporation, Sugar

Land, Texas
ABSTRACT
Jesse Noah has been with Unocal for 22 years
In offshore East Kalimantan, Indonesia, three-dimensional seismic and is currently Unocals chief geoscientist for
reflectors can be traced downslope from a lowstand delta to a basin- the Deep-Water Gulf of Mexico. Initially, he
floor fan, giving insight into depositional processes controlling the worked on the United States mid-continent and
distribution of sands that serve as hydrocarbon reservoirs in many Gulf of Mexico shelf. He has worked on deep-
ancient deep-water settings. The studied interval includes the last water exploration and development projects in
three Pleistocene cycles (10 330 ka; each
110 k.y. in duration). the Gulf of Mexico and Indonesia since 1996.
Cycles on the shelf are dominated by progradational packages Jesse received his B.S. degree in exploration
geophysics from the University of Oklahoma.
deposited during highstands and falling eustatic sea level. Prograda-
tional packages are separated by parallel reflectors and carbonate Alif Prama Ruzuar
Unocal Indonesia,
buildups of the transgressive systems tracts. During the last two Balikpapan, Indonesia
lowstands of sea level (
18 and
130 ka), coarse clastics were not Alif Ruzuar graduated from the Bandung Institute
deposited in deep-water environments because growth faults and of Technology, Indonesia, in 1998 with a B.S.
regional subsidence prevented lowstand deltas from reaching the degree in geology. He earned an M.Sc. degree
slope. During the lowstand of sea level that ended at about 240 ka, a in petroleum geoscience from the University of
delta prograded over the previous shelf edge, and sand-rich sedi- Brunei Darussalam (1999). Alif joined Unocal
ments spilled onto the slope. Indonesia in 2000 as a deep-water exploration
Strata on the slope and basin floor show how a deep-water depo- geophysicist and is currently working as a de-
sitional system evolved during a single cycle of eustatic sea level. A velopment geophysicist for fields on the East
canyon on the slope connects the 240-ka lowstand delta to a coeval Kalimantan shelf.
basin-floor fan. The canyon has a sinuous, bipartite fill that consists Rhys Schneider
Unocal Indonesia,
of a lower, amalgamated channel complex and an upper channel- Jakarta, Indonesia
levee complex. The basin-floor fan formed at the toe of the slope
Rhys Schneider received his B.S. degree in geo-
also has two parts. The stratigraphically lower part of the basin-floor logical engineering from the Colorado School of
fan has broad lobes with relatively continuous reflectors. The Mines in 1978. He joined Unocal in 1980 and
stratigraphically higher part has a sinuous channel-levee complex has worked as an exploration and development
that prograded over the lower fan and fed sheetlike lobes on the geologist in the Anadarko basin, Permian basin,
outermost fan. The amalgamated channel fills on the slope and and many other basins throughout the world.
sheetlike lobes on the basin-floor fan have moderate- to high- He currently specializes in detailed, seismic-
amplitude reflectors and are inferred to represent sand-rich, early defined, reservoir characterization for deep-
lowstand deposits. The channel-levee complexes on the slope and water systems of the Kutei Basin, Indonesia.

Copyright #2004. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received January 9, 2003; provisional acceptance May 5, 2003; revised manuscript received
August 18, 2003; final acceptance September 3, 2003.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 1 (January 2004), pp. 21 46 21


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people helped us in this study and the
assembly of this manuscript, including John
Decker, Phil Teas, Tim Nicholson, Phil Johnston,
Joel Alnes, Gary Christenson, Yusri, Jim Wau-
gaman, Jim Friberg, Dave McGee, John Dun-
ham, Tom Elliott, Mike DiMarco, Richard Armin,
Garry Jones, and Art Trevena. We thank AAPG
Bulletin reviewers Peter Webb and Gregory
Nadon for their helpful comments. We thank
WesternGeco (PT WesternGeco Indonesia) for
permission to use data from their Makassar
Straits multiclient 3-D survey in this publication.
High-resolution biostratigraphic analysis of
core samples (Table 1) was supplied by P. R.
Thompson and W. H. Abbott. We thank Unocal
Indonesia, ENI/Lasmo, and BP-Migas for per-
mission to publish this study.
22 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
basin floor are dominated by low-amplitude reflectors and are in-
ferred to be mud-rich strata deposited during the late lowstand.
Unlike classic sequence-stratigraphic models, these lowstand strata
do not onlap the slope; instead, deep-water clastics extend from the
last clinoforms of lowstand deltas. In this system, lowstand deltas
determined when and where sand-rich sediments entered preexist-
ing canyons on the slope to feed basin-floor fans.
INTRODUCTION
In the 1970s, improved seismic imaging allowed large cross sections
of strata to be viewed in ways that were impossible from outcrop or
well data alone. As a result, seismic stratigraphy and then sequence
stratigraphy were born (Mitchum et al., 1977; Payton, 1977; Vail
et al., 1977; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Stratigraphic models have
evolved during the last 25 yr as outcrop, and additional subsurface
data have been analyzed in a sequence-stratigraphic framework.
During the last 10 15 yr, three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data
have allowed observations of the lateral distribution of depositional
systems that were previously impossible (Prather et al., 1998;
Demyttenaere et al., 2000; Posamentier et al., 2000; Posamentier
and Kolla, 2003). Spectacular images of deep-marine depositional
systems have been created by geoscientists throughout the world,
of which only a small fraction have been published (Dean et al.,
2000; Pirmez et al., 2000; Prather et al., 2000).
Factors controlling the distribution of deep-marine sands are
important for explorationists around the world. Although most
basin-floor fans are assumed to have been fed from conduits that
crossed the shelf, the actual feeders for that sediment are commonly
difficult to identify. In many Tertiary deltaic basins, it is unclear
whether deep-water fans were fed by lowstand, shelf-edge deltas or
by incised valleys that crossed the shelf and transported sediment
onto the slope (presumably during lowstands), but without deltas.
Many deltaic basins are characterized by growth faults on the shelf
and toe-thrust anticlines on the slope (Morley and Guerin, 1996;
Sandal, 1996; McClay et al., 1998). The effects of the syndeposi-
tional structures on the distribution of reservoir sands are critical in
exploration for slope and basin-floor reservoirs.
North of the Mahakam Delta in the Kutei Basin (Figure 1), six
different 3-D seismic surveys (
7265 km2 [2805 mi2] total) have
been acquired that allow continuous coverage from the middle
shelf to the basin floor (Figures 1, 2). Although acquired for deeper
objectives, these data show Pleistocene stratigraphy and provide
insight into lowstand depositional systems extending from fluvial
environments to a basin-floor fan. An exceptionally well-developed
basin-floor fan can be correlated upslope to the lowstand delta that
fed it (Figure 1). The main purposes of this paper are to use the
3-D seismic data to describe and interpret (1) Pleistocene depo-
sitional and sequence-stratigraphic systems that operated on the
shelf; (2) depositional patterns on the coeval channelized slope; (3) a
well-developed basin-floor fan; and (4) the linkage
between the lowstand delta and the basin-floor fan.
Insight gained from this Pleistocene system can be used
to interpret older, less clearly imaged deltaic, slope, and
basin-floor strata that serve as major hydrocarbon
reservoirs throughout the world.
GENERAL SETTING, NORTHERN KUTEI BASIN
Oil has been produced from Tertiary sands in the Kutei
Basin for more than 100 yr (Figure 1) (Allen and
Chambers, 1998). Ultimate recovery from the Kutei
Basin should exceed 28 tcf of gas and 2.5 billion bbl of
oil (Paterson et al., 1997). The vast majority of hydro-
carbons found to date occur in Miocene fluviodeltaic
and shallow-marine sands on the shelf and onshore near
the coastline. However, oil and gas discoveries have
recently been made on the slope in water depths of
1000 2000 m (3281 6562 ft) (Redhead et al., 2000;
Dunham and McKee, 2001; Sherwood et al., 2001).
The Kutei Basins history began with Paleocene and
early Eocene extension, apparently associated with
rifting (van de Weerd and Armin, 1992; Moss et al.,
1997). The Oligocene was characterized by tectonic
quiescence and regional subsidence, with carbonate
shelves and platforms on the south, southeast, north,
and northeast margins of the basin (van de Weerd and
Armin, 1992; Saller et al., 1993; Wilson et al., 1999).
Many areas between carbonate shelves and platforms
became relatively deep during the Oligocene. Eastward
progradation of deltaic sediments began in the late
Oligocene in the westernmost Kutei Basin in central
Kalimantan (Saller et al., 1993; Moss et al., 1997).
Huge amounts of deltaic sediment (> 10,000 m
[32,808 ft] thick) were deposited in the Kutei Basin
from the Miocene to the present. Basinward prograda-
tion of more than 150 km (93 mi) occurred during the
Miocene, pushing shelf edges to near their easternmost
positions by the end of the Miocene (Moss and Cham-
bers, 1999). North of the Mahakam Delta, the terminal
shelf edges of Pliocene and Pleistocene cycles have
stepped back landward from the underlying terminal
shelf edges. This backstepping is apparently caused by
(1) a decrease in clastic sediment supply and (2) rapid
subsidence (regional, 300 m/m.y. [984 ft/m.y.], plus
local fault related, 500 m/m.y. [1640 ft/m.y.]; Roberts
and Sydow, 1996; Unocal regional data). In contrast,
terminal shelf edges in the central and southern part of
the basin have remained in the same approximate geo-
graphic location during the Pliocene and Pleistocene.
Deposition and stratigraphy associated with these sys-
tems have been discussed by van de Weerd and Armin
(1992), Moss et al. (1997), Moss and Chambers (1999),
and Peters et al. (2000).
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Previous studies have been conducted on the late Pleis-
tocene and Holocene shelf around the Mahakam Delta.
Roberts and Sydow (1996, 2003) reported the results
of a study that involved shallow two-dimensional
(2-D) seismic lines, bottom samples, shallow cores,
and older, deeper cores. Their focus was on the latest
Pleistocene sequence and the Holocene around the Ma-
hakam Delta. Among many other findings, they docu-
mented carbonate buildups growing on transgressive
surfaces following the 18-ka lowstand of sea level and
progradation during falling sea level. D. Nummedal
(1993, personal communication) also studied shallow,
high-resolution seismic data for Unocal and saw similar
features. Suiter (1996) briefly described Holocene and
latest Pleistocene seismic stratigraphy in the area around
the modern Mahakam Delta from 3-D seismic data.
Several recent publications have described deep-
water depositional systems in the northern Kutei. Mus-
grove et al. (2000) used part of our 3-D seismic data to
describe and interpret channels and other features on
the slope. The geology of West Seno field with its res-
ervoir in Miocene deep-water sands was described by
Redhead et al. (2000). The basin-floor fan, which is a
part of this paper, has been discussed by Posamentier
et al. (2000) and Posamentier and Kolla (2003). Fowler
et al. (2001) illustrated the depositional architecture
of late Pleistocene slope-channel and basin-floor fan
complexes in our study area north of the Mahakam
Delta. This paper builds on the previous work and pres-
ents data that link the shelf, slope, and basin floor.
We also present age control that previous deep-water
studies lacked.
METHODS
Seismic horizons were picked on a 20-line-by-20-trace
grid (approximately 0.25  0.25-km [0.16  0.16-mi]
grid). Finer grids were picked in areas of greater in-
terest. Those grids were interpolated spatially to give
continuous surfaces. Coherency maps were made by
putting seismic time surfaces in a seismic coherency vol-
ume. Seismic coherency volumes were made using 40-ms
Saller et al. 23
24 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
windows. Seismic amplitude maps are based on root
mean square averages of amplitudes between interpo-
lated horizons or windows around seismic horizons.
Different surveys have systematic differences in seis-
mic amplitude because of variations in acquisition and
processing. Scalers were applied to normalize the am-
plitudes of different surveys. In this paper, water depths
were calculated from seismic data using a water veloc-
ity of 1520 m/s, and shallow sediment thicknesses were
calculated from seismic data using a sediment velocity
of 1730 m/s. In this paper, all stratal thicknesses given
in seismic time are in two-way traveltime. Water and
sediment velocities are given in one-way traveltime.
DEFINITION OF DEPOSITIONAL CYCLES
The stratal geometries in our seismic data do not fit
the classic models of Haq et al. (1988), Posamentier
et al. (1988), and Van Wagoner et al. (1988). Those
authors describe several stratigraphic relationships for
defining depositional sequences, including (1) onlap of
lowstand strata on the slope, (2) coastal onlap, (3)
erosional truncation, and (4) toplap. Toplap is the only
one of these relationships commonly displayed in
seismic data from upper Tertiary deltaic strata in the
Kutei Basin. Many of the systems tracts of Haq et al.
(1988), Posamentier et al. (1988), and Van Wagoner
et al. (1988) are difficult to distinguish in our data.
Regional onlap of the slope associated with a lowstand
systems tract was not observed; instead, slope and
basin-floor strata are dominated by reflectors that are
generally parallel on the slope. Those slope reflector
packages locally contain channel and fan geometries.
Three distinct cycles are imaged in the upper 600
ms of seismic data on the middle to outer shelf north of
the Mahakam Delta (Figures 1, 3). Pleistocene cycles
are dominated by progradational packages separated by
parallel reflectors or mounded features. Strata between
progradational packages (above toplap and below the
downlap surfaces) are interpreted as transgressive sys-
tems tracts (similar to Van Wagoner et al., 1988). The
transgressive systems tracts are dominated by parallel
reflectors, but also include carbonate buildups that pref-
erentially accumulated on toplap surfaces. The trans-
Figure 1. (A) Maps showing the location of the northern Kutei Basin, offshore East Kalimantan. (B) Map of the northern Kutei Basin
showing major depositional features, location of wells used for high-resolution biostratigraphy (N, S, 7), and location of figures in the
later part of the paper. (C) Seismic profile from the shelf to the basin floor showing upper Pleistocene horizons, shelf edges, and
depositional areas. Vertical exaggeration is about 3.
gressive systems tracts are generally thin, except for car-
bonate buildups.
Progradational clinoforms occur below toplap and
above downlap surfaces. Three distinct progradational
packages are imaged in the upper 600 ms of seismic data
on the middle to outer shelf north of the Mahakam
Delta (Figure 3). Each progradational package contains
foresets that downlap to the east and pass updip to the
west (landward) into topset reflectors with sigmoidal
and/or toplap geometries. The tops of progradational
intervals are picked where the youngest, most basin-
ward clinoform toplaps or rolls over to a topset bed.
These would be the transgressive surfaces of Van Wa-
goner et al. (1988). These progradational packages in-
clude the highstand systems tract and shelf-margin
systems tract of Van Wagoner et al. (1988). How-
ever, we cannot objectively separate the two. These
progradational packages also include strata put into
highstand, falling-stage, and lowstand systems tracts as
defined by Nummedal et al. (1995), Allen and Cham-
bers (1998), and Roberts and Sydow (2003); however,
we cannot objectively separate those systems tracts be-
cause they all occur in the same progradational pack-
ages bounded by the same toplap and downlap surfaces
without clear, regionally correlative breaks.
Cycles were numbered from the top down (14),
and horizons at the tops of those cycles (tops of prog-
radational cycles) were given corresponding numbers
(P1P4; Figure 3). Surfaces P2, P3, and P4, as well as
the water bottom were mapped across the shelf and
down the slope to the basin floor north of the Mahakam
Delta. One additional surface, P3.2, was mapped on the
slope and basin-floor fan between P3 and P4 (Figures 1,
3). On the slope, surface P3.2 separates high-seismic-
amplitude channel fills (below) from low-amplitude
channel-levee complexes above. On the inner basin-floor
fan, surface P3.2 separates moderate-seismic-amplitude,
relatively continuous reflectors from overlying low-
amplitude reflectors with a channel-levee morphology.
Ages of Depositional Cycles
The Pleistocene cycles defined above are interpreted to
be related to Pleistocene eustatic sea level fluctuations
(Roberts and Sydow, 1996, 2003), and hence, their
Saller et al. 25
26 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
ages are inferred using Pleistocene eustatic sea level
curves based on the stable-oxygen isotopic composi-
tion of certain foraminifera (Le et al., 1995; Figure 3).
Our model infers that the age of a seismically defined
transgressive surface (P2, P3, and P4) on the East Kali-
mantan shelf should coincide with a rapid sea level rise
following a glacioeustatic lowstand. Therefore, the age
of the end of each lowstand can be approximated by
the age of the end of the d18O maximums on global
curves of foraminifera during the Pleistocene (Le et al.,
1995; Figure 3D). Hence, the tops of the three north-
ern Kutei cycles are correlated with the end of the last
three lowstands of sea level (18, 130, and 240 ka).
The tops of cycles 2 and 3 (P2 and P3) were seis-
mically traced into three shallow boreholes (N, S, and
7) drilled on the middle slope (Figure 1B). The three
boreholes were cored 0 150 m (0492 ft) below mud-
line, but all that remained of those cores after engi-
neering tests were samples at approximately 10-m (33-
ft) spacing. Those samples were analyzed for fora-
minifera, calcareous nannoplankton, and palynology
and interpreted for high-resolution biostratigraphy
(Table 1; P. R. Thompson and W. H. Abbott, 2001, per-
sonal communication). High-resolution biostratigraphic
interpretation of those samples indicates an age of
128 195 ka for the top of cycle 2 (inferred to be 130
ka) and an age of 240 297 ka for the top of cycle 3
(inferred to be 240 ka) (Figure 3) (Table 1; P. R. Thomp-
son and W. H. Abbott, 2001, personal communication).
Hence, the high-resolution biostratigraphic ages are
consistent with ages inferred from isotope-derived sea
level curves. Characteristics of these three Pleistocene
cycles will be described and interpreted on the shelf,
slope, and basin floor. The three areas will be linked at
the end of this paper.
SHELF
The three Pleistocene cycles on the northern Kutei
shelf display many similarities and some differences.
Cycle 1 is the most clearly imaged. It is 120 150 ms or
100 130 m (328 427 ft) thick on the downthrown
side of the Serang fault and thins basinward along its
final clinoform to less than a wavelet ( < 20 ms or 17 m
[56 ft]; Figure 3A). On the upthrown side of the fault,
cycle 1 is 40 80 ms (35 70 m [115 230 ft]) thick, and
distinct clinoforms are difficult to resolve on the low-
frequency exploration seismic data (Figure 3A). How-
ever, high-resolution seismic lines on the inner shelf
and Mahakam Delta show these as progradational cy-
cles with foresets overlain by flat topset reflectors
(Roberts and Sydow, 1996). Channels are cut into the
topset reflectors. On the inner shelf, the channels are
filled with sediment (Roberts and Sydow, 1996), but
they remain largely unfilled on the modern middle and
outer shelf (Figure 4). On the inner shelf, cycle 1 is
approximately 35 ms (30 m [98 ft]) thick, and channels
at the top are approximately 10 15 ms (8 12 m [26
39 ft]) deep.
Cycle 2, which is approximately 150 ms (130 m
[427 ft]) thick on the upthrown side of the Serang fault,
thickens to approximately 200 ms (175 m [574 ft]) on
the downthrown side and also shows substantial pro-
gradation (Figure 3). The final shelf edge of progra-
dational package 2 ends basinward of the final shelf
margin of the overlying cycle 1. Thick limestone build-
ups in the lowest part of cycle 1 occur over the ter-
minal shelf margin of cycle 2 (Figures 3, 4). Wells and
high seismic velocities confirm the limestone lithology.
The final downlap of cycle 2 is just landward of the
underlying shelf edge of cycle 3 (Figure 3B, C).
Cycle 3 contains a lobe that prograded over the
underlying shelf edge, and its clinoforms continue
down the slope (Figure 3B, C). This prograding lobe
thins along depositional strike, from more than 500 ms
(
430 m [1411 ft]) at its center to less than 100 ms (85
m [279 ft]) on both flanks (Figures 3B, 5A). That
progradational lobe also thins downslope from 500 to
less than 100 ms on the middle slope. Part of the ter-
minal shelf edge of progradational cycle 3 is at or very
near the modern sea floor (Figures 2, 3), because shelf
sedimentation during cycles 1 and 2 remained to the
west. Narrow high-amplitude features radiate out from
the progradational lobe and converge into a single chan-
nel farther downslope (Figure 6).

Figure 2. Coherency map superimposed on a 3-D perspective image of the water bottom from the outer shelf to the basin floor. In
coherency displays, dark areas indicate high lateral variation in seismic data, commonly caused by steep slope or chaotic signal.
White areas indicate low lateral variation in seismic data, commonly caused by horizontal and laterally continuous seismic reflectors.
The basin floor is about 2000 m (6562 ft) deep. Most canyons on the slope are straight or gently curving, except one that has sharp
sinuous bends and connects the cycle 3 lowstand delta to a contemporaneous basin-floor fan. Sediment waves are common on the
upper slope, upslope from the deep canyons, and on the lower slope. See Figure 1B for location.

Saller et al. 27
28 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
Table 1. Correlation of the Borehole Samples*

Oxygen Well N Well S Well 7

Foraminifera Nannoplankton Isotope Depth of Depth of Depth of
Age (ka)** Zone Zone Stagey Interval (m)yy Interval (m)yy Interval (m)yy

013 N23 NN21/CN15 1

Top cycle 1 13 32 (LS) N23 NN21/CN15 2
32 64 N23 NN21/CN15 3
64 75 N23 NN21/CN15 4 1 2 315
75 128 (HS) N23 NN21/CN15 5 6 18 25 54
Top cycle 2 128 195 (LS) N23 NN21/CN15 6 711 30 48 62 96
195 240 (HS) N23 NN21/CN15 7 13 59 56 57 108 109
Top cycle 3 240 297 (LS) N23 NN21/CN15 8 68 69 71 72 122 153
297 347 (HS) N22 NN20/CN14b 9 76 100 79 80
346 367 (LS) N22 NN20/CN14b 10 110 145 94 107
367 440 (HS) N22 NN20/CN14b 11 115 133
440 472 (LS) N22 NN20/CN14b 12 139 140
*From P. R. Thompson and W. H. Abbott (2001, personal communication). Key references for chronostratigraphy and biozonations include Berggren et al. (1995a, b),
Blow (1979), Bolli and Saunders (1985), Chaproniere (1991), Chaproniere et al. (1994), Hardenbol et al. (1998), and Martini (1971). The numerical ages in the
literature are based on a direct calibration of microfossil bioevents to paleomagnetic chronostratigraphy in deep ocean cores and Ocean Drilling Program
boreholes.
**LS = times of generally low eustatic sea level; HS = times of generally high eustatic sea level.
y
Oxygen isotopic stages are from Shackleton and Opdyke (1976).
yy
Depths are in meters below mud-line. Location of wells is shown in Figure 1B.

The 3-D seismic image of the water bottom shows Interpretation

many depositional features from the last Pleistocene
lowstand (cycle 1; 18 ka), as well as the location of
active growth faults (corroborated by seismic lines;
Figure 4). Channels were incised approximately 25 ms
(19 m [62 ft]) into the upthrown side of the Serang
growth fault (Figure 4). Those incised channels pass
basinward into lobate progradational packages on the
downthrown side of the Serang fault (Figure 4). Three
distinct lobes can be seen on the downthrown side of
the Serang fault, connected by arcuate progradational
highs (Figure 4). The tops of the lobes and connecting
arcuate highs are currently at depths of approximately
140 ms (
105 m [344 ft] below sea level).
Pleistocene cycles 1 3 are interpreted as having been
deposited during the last three major fluctuations of
eustatic sea level (Figure 3D). In the two upper cycles
(1 and 2), shelf-edge progradation did not reach the
terminal shelf edge of cycle 3, and hence, the foresets
did not spill over the underlying shelf edge. Foresets of
cycle 3 (associated with the 240-ka lowstand) spilled
over the underlying shelf edge and onto the slope in one
area, but not across the entire shelf edge. Backstepping
of progressively higher packages indicates that accom-
modation (sum of subsidence and eustatic sea level rise)
on the shelf has generally exceeded sediment supply

Figure 3. Seismic lines and diagrams showing shelf stratigraphy. (A) Dip-oriented seismic profile showing progradational packages
and cycles 13 with basinward-dipping clinoforms separated by roughly horizontal reflectors. See Figure 4 for location. (B) Seismic
profile showing a backstepping of final shelf edges. Cycle 3 prograded over the underlying shelf edge and spilled sediment down the
slope. See Figure 4 for location. (C) Schematic cross section showing mapped horizons, progradational packages, and cycle numbers.
P1, P2, P3, and P4 are transgressive surfaces. Ages of the transgressive surfaces are inferred from the curve in (D). (D) Generalized
curve of the oxygen isotopic composition of certain foraminifera during the late Pleistocene. This curve is used as a proxy for a
Pleistocene eustatic sea level curve with higher values (left), indicating lower eustatic sea level. Data and curve are modified from Le
et al. (1995). Numbers along the side are the oxygen isotope stages from Shackleton and Opdyke (1976). Inferred ages of seismic
horizons P2, P3, and P4 are shown.

Saller et al. 29
Figure 4. Map showing depth
of water bottom for the middle
to outer shelf, north of the Maha-
kam Delta from 3-D seismic data.
Lavender is about 400 ms below
sea level (
300 m [
984 ft],
assuming water velocity of 1520
m/s [4987 ft/s]). Light blue depth
range is about 250 300 ms
(
190 230 m [
623 755 ft]).
Green is about 140 ms (
106 m
[
348 ft]). Red is
70 ms (
50
m [
164 ft]). The eastern side
of the Serang growth fault is
downthrown. The terminal shelf
edges for cycles 1 3 are shown.
Lowstand deltas of cycle 1 occur
on the downthrown side (right)
of the Serang fault. Most iso-
lated highs are carbonate build-
ups which preferentially grew
on lowstand shelf margins and
upthrown side of growth faults.
See Figure 1B for location. Seis-
mic profiles AA0 and BB0 are in
Figure 3.

during the last two Pleistocene cycles. Eustatic sea
level fluctuations have different amplitudes, and some
of the backstepping might be related to progressively
higher eustatic sea level. However, isotope curves of
Le et al. (1995) suggest that the last three eustatic sea
level fluctuations had similar magnitudes (Figure 3D).
The 3-D water bottom image of the outer shelf
illustrates depositional environments at the end of
the last Pleistocene lowstand (18 ka). Incised sinuous
features (25 ms or 19 m [62 ft] deeper than adjacent
areas) on the upthrown side of the Serang growth fault
are interpreted as stream valleys that fed lobes on the
downthrown side of the Serang fault (Figure 4). The
tops of the lobes are currently at a depth of about 105
m (344 ft) (Figure 4). Because sea level was approx-
imately 110 m (361 ft) lower during the last Pleisto-
cene lowstand of sea level (18 ka; Goldhammer et al.,
1987), the three distinct lobes east of the Serang fault

30 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia

Figure 5. Strike-oriented seismic profiles on the slope showing cycles 1 3. Location of lines is shown in Figure 6. (A) Profile CC0
through the foresets of the cycle 3 lowstand delta. Note that the cycle 3 section between P4 and P3 thickens greatly in the middle
of the profile, which is the axis of the delta front. Discontinuous, high-amplitude reflectors are interpreted as sand-rich channel fills.
(B) Profile DD0 through the slope channel complexes of the cycle 3. The lower canyon fill (P4 to P3.2) has high amplitudes,
suggesting that it is sand rich. The upper part is a channel-levee complex (P3.2 to P3) whose levees have low amplitudes, suggesting
mud-rich deposits.

Saller et al. 31
 A SLOPE
5 km N
Delta Front
C Channel

Channel and Levees

Antic hrust
line
D'

T
Toe-
P3 She
Lo lf E
w s dg
tan e
d

Levee
D
Levee

Lowstand
Delta
C'

B N
5 km SLOPE
C

Amalgamated
Slope Channels

Antic hrust
line
D'

T
Toe-
P3
.
Sh 2 Lo
el w
f E st
dg and D
e

Delta Front
Low elta

Channels
D
stan

C'
d

Figure 6. Interval root mean square amplitude maps through the lowstand delta front and slope of cycle 3. Intervals were 50 ms thick.
Higher seismic amplitudes are green to blue, and low amplitude areas are yellow. Slope and flow would have generally been from left
(west) to right (east). See Figure 1B for location. (A) Uppermost (youngest) part of cycle 3 (immediately below P3). Sediments spilling off
the lowstand delta have generally low amplitude and are inferred to be shaly. Only a few channels have higher amplitudes and are
inferred to be sand rich. On the slope, this interval contains an aggrading channel-levee complex. Low-amplitude levee deposits
(interpreted as shale) occur on both sides of higher amplitude channel deposits (interpreted as sand rich). Large variations in amplitude
of the channel deposits suggest large variations in amounts of sand deposited in the channel. (B) Stratigraphically lower part of the cycle
3 lowstand (about half-way between P4 and P3.2). Channels with high-amplitude reflectors radiate off the delta front and then converge
downslope. The delta-front channels are interpreted as having sand-rich fills that coalesce into a single channel complex downslope.
Note the sinuous shape of some delta-front channels. This interval represents the lower canyon fill on the slope. A large high-amplitude
area to the right of DD0 is inferred to represent amalgamated sand-rich channels upslope (west) of a toe-thrust anticline.

32 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia

are interpreted as lowstand deltas connected by ar-
cuate progradational highs interpreted as lowstand
coastlines (Figure 4; similar to interpretations of Rob-
erts and Sydow, 1996, 2003).
Our study area is north of the modern Mahakam
Delta, and most of the sediments appear to be coming
from smaller rivers instead of the main Mahakam River.
The incised channel associated with the southernmost
lowstand delta lobe trends to the southwest, toward the
main Mahakam Delta (Figure 4); however, the small
size of that lowstand delta suggests it did not involve the
main Mahakam River discharge. The incised channel
feeding the large northern lowstand delta trends toward
the modern Santan River (Figures 1, 4), suggesting that
the ancestral Santan River was the main feeder of
sediment for that lowstand delta.
Depositional patterns recognized in the last eu-
static lowstand and transgression (20 ka to the present)
help in interpreting cycles 2 and 3. A rapid, eustatic sea
level rise and associated transgression have just been
completed, and we are in the early part of a highstand,
as seen by Holocene progradation of the modern Ma-
hakam Delta (Roberts and Sydow, 1996). Most of the
current shoreline occurs adjacent to high coastal areas
related to relatively recent tectonic uplift. Therefore,
the modern coastline (except at the Mahakam Delta)
coincides with the approximate location where late
Pleistocene cycles started to prograde. The eastern (ba-
sinward) shelf edges of cycles 2 and 3 are at locations
similar to the cycle 1 lowstand shelf edge; hence, the
easternmost shelf edges of cycles 2 and 3 are interpreted
as having formed during previous eustatic lowstands of
sea level (Figure 7).
Carbonate buildups of many sizes and shapes grew
during rapid eustatic sea level rises when clastic dep-
osition shifted to the west (Roberts and Sydow, 1996,
2003). Carbonate buildups preferentially accumulated
on lowstand shelf margins and on structural highs, es-
pecially the upthrown sides of faults (Figure 4). Most of
the carbonate buildups drowned, probably because of
very rapid eustatic sea level rises, although sediments
and nutrients associated with deltas may have also de-
graded the carbonate environment. Progradational
clastic strata have buried many older carbonate build-
ups; hence, the contacts between carbonates and over-
lying clastics are generally downlap surfaces.
The stratigraphic patterns that were observed on
the northern Kutei shelf are related to asymmetric eu-
static sea level fluctuations superimposed on high sub-
sidence rates (300800 m/m.y. [9842625 ft/m.y.])
(Figure 7). Late Pleistocene eustatic sea level fluctua-
tions are characterized by rapid rises (100 m [328 ft] in
10 k.y.) and more gradual eustatic sea level falls (100 m
[328 ft] in 100 k.y.; Figure 3D). As a result, trans-
gressions are characterized by carbonate buildups and
thin clastic sediments. In contrast, thick progradational
packages accumulated as slowly falling sea level oc-
curred coincident with subsidence. The observed dep-
ositional geometries can be formed using observed
subsidence rates (30 m [98 ft]/100 k.y. on the inner
shelf and 80 m [262 ft]/100 k.y. on the outer shelf) and
asymmetric eustatic sea level fluctuations (Figure 7).
These progradational, highstand to lowstand cycles are
very similar to those described in the late Pleistocene
of offshore Brunei Darussalam by Hiscott (2001).
SLOPE
In the northern Kutei Basin, the modern slope starts at
about 200 m (656 ft) below modern sea level and
continues to the basin floor at about 2000 m (6561 ft)
below sea level, with an average slope angle of about
2.1j. A variety of geologic features have bathymetric
expression on the slope, including toe-thrust anticlines,
sediment ridges, sediment waves, and canyons (Figure
2). Much of the channelized slope is underlain by a
series of toe-thrust anticlines. Toe-thrust anticlines in
the east (basinward) are generally younger than in the
west. The most prominent bathymetric expression of
toe-thrust anticlines is the youngest toe-thrust anti-
cline on the lower slope (Figures 1C, 2). The upper-
most slope displays some rotation associated with the
Serang fault and other outer-shelf to upper-slope listric
growth faults (Figure 3B). Cores and well logs indicate
that most of the upper 200 500 m (656 1640 ft) of
slope strata is siliciclastic mud.
Sediment Waves and Ridges
Sediment waves and ridges are widespread on the
upper slope, at the margins of canyons, and locally on
the lower slope (Figure 2). Where penetrated by wells,
the waves and ridges are mud. Sediment waves are
abundant at water depths of 500 900 m (1640 2953
ft), but are independent of the steepness of the slope.
The upper-slope waves are large (as much as 150 m
[492 ft] high, 1 km [0.62 mi] wide, and 3 5 km [1.9
3.1 mi] long) and have inclined reflectors that were
added to the upslope flanks of the waves, causing their
crests to migrate upslope. Sediment waves and ridges
Saller et al. 33
34 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
have complex distributions and orientation patterns
relative to various canyons on the upper slope (Figure
2). Current-meter data from one of the canyons in-
dicate that currents move up and down the bottom of
canyons twice per day, with maximum velocities of
0.35 m/s (1.1 ft/s), and hence are deep tidal currents.
Mud deposited on the waves and ridges was probably
transported by deep tidal currents moving up and down
canyons and across the upper slope. Similar sediment
waves have been described in upper slope environ-
ments (500 1500 m [1640 4921 ft] deep) offshore
west Africa (Seranne and Abeigne, 1999), where they
were interpreted as being deposited by bottom currents
moving upslope, perhaps related to upwelling.
The lower slope sediment waves (southeast part of
Figure 2) are also apparently related to deep marine
currents; however, the origin of those currents is less
clear. A general southward current flows through the
Makassar Straits (Roberts and Sydow, 2003), and that
flow includes deep bottom waters (B. Singh, 2002,
personal communication), which would impinge on
the lower slope of the Mahakam Delta (southeast part
of Figure 2). Similar sediment waves have been de-
scribed in a lower slope environment off the northeast
coast of South America (Ercilla et al., 2000).
Canyons
Most of the canyons on the modern slope north of
the Mahakam Delta are fairly high relief (50 300 m
[164 984 ft] deep), straight to slightly sinuous, flat-
bottomed, 10 20 km (6.2 12.4 mi) long, and coalesce
in a basinward direction (Figure 2). Chaotic seismic
intervals occur downslope of many canyons. With one
exception, canyons are not associated with lowstand
fluvial channels or deltas on the shelf edge, nor do they
pass downslope into basin-floor fans. Most canyons
appear to be related to processes originating on the
slope and are not associated with currents derived from
the shelf (e.g., channels and flows coming off rivers).
Chaotic seismic intervals are interpreted as debris flows
derived from slumps and slides on the slope (Posa-
mentier et al., 2000; Fowler et al., 2001). Many can-
yons probably originated by that type of erosion;
Figure 7. Model for deposition of cycles 13 with rapid eustatic sea level rises (transgressive systems tracts) alternating with slowly
falling eustatic sea level (prograding packages). Eustatic fluctuations of 100 m (328 ft) are superimposed on the observed late
Pleistocene subsidence rates (80 m [262 ft]/100 k.y. on the outer shelf; 30 m [98 ft]/100 k.y. on the inner shelf ). This model produces
geometries very similar to those observed north of the Mahakam Delta.
however, much of the canyons relief is the result of
deposition of mud on the margins of the canyons. Tidal
currents moving up and down canyons apparently kept
mud from settling on the canyon floor and deposited
the mud adjacent to the channel. Slump features are
uncommon in the canyons, perhaps because they were
modified by the tidal currents. These processes could
be active during lowstands or highstands of sea level.
Highstand mudstones in well N indicate accretion of
channels during highstands and as well as lowstands of
sea level (Table 1).
Sinuous Channel Complex
One modern canyon system is sinuous with sharp
bends, and hence is different from other canyons on the
slope, north of the Mahakam Delta (Figure 2). That
canyon connects a cycle 3 lowstand delta to a basin-
floor fan. The sinuous nature of that canyon developed
as sediment was deposited in the canyon during cycle 3
(Figure 6). The canyon fill has two parts: lower (P4 to
P3.2) and upper (P3.2 to P3; Figure 5B).
The lower (older) part partially fills an incised can-
yon and has a relatively flat top. Much of the fill has
discontinuous, high-amplitude reflectors that truncate
against the channel margins (Figure 5B). Amplitude
displays indicate sinuous to curvilinear sediment bodies
in that lower fill (Figure 6B). The high-amplitude areas
of the lower canyon fill broaden onto the landward limb
of a toe-thrust anticline, and amplitudes in the channel
complex dim over the crest of the anticline (Figure 6B).
Levees associated with this lower canyon fill are min-
imal (Figure 5B). No wells have penetrated the middle
of the lower channel-fill complex. One well penetrated
the edge of the lower channel fill, and well logs indi-
cate that it had some sand.
The upper (younger) part of the slope canyon fill is
an aggrading channel-levee complex. The channel is
relatively narrow and contains variable, but commonly
high-amplitude, sinuous fills (Figures 5B, 6). The levees
are much thicker than the adjacent channel. Levees are
commonly 100 ms (approximately 85 m [279 ft])
above the contemporaneous channel (Figure 5B). Chan-
nels are about 300 m (984 ft) wide at their bases, and
Saller et al. 35
about 500 m (1640 ft) wide at the crest of levees. The
margins of channels have slopes (base of channel to
crest of levee) of 25j. The upper channel complex is
dated as oxygen isotope stage 8 (240 297 ka; Figure 3;
Shackleton and Opdyke, 1976) by high-resolution
biostratigraphy in well 7 (Table 1).
The lower canyon fill is inferred to be sand-rich
because of its high-amplitude reflectors, which are sim-
ilar to sand-rich high-amplitude reflectors on the Ama-
zon fan (Damuth et al., 1988; Pirmez et al., 1997), as
well as many other places. This interpretation is sup-
ported by small amounts of sand in the one well that
penetrated the edge of this lower canyon fill. Channel
complexes that transported shelfal sediments down-
slope commonly cut and fill to attain a graded profile as
described by Beaubouef and Friedman (2000); how-
ever, the thickness of this northern Kutei canyon fill
is fairly consistent downslope. This is probably be-
cause the preexisting canyon had a relatively contin-
uous basinward inclination, similar to those on the
modern slope. During cycle 3 (240 ka lowstand), sand-
rich turbidites apparently came off the front of the
lowstand delta and into a preexisting canyon that
extended to the basin floor (Figure 6B). Coarser (sand-
rich) sediment preferentially dropped out in areas of
slightly lower depositional slope on the landward side
of toe-thrust anticlines, whereas dimmer seismic re-
flectors in channel fills over anticlines suggest they are
mainly mud (Figure 6). The sinuous internal character
of these fills is apparently characteristic of turbidite dep-
osition, in contrast to the relative straight, flat-bottom
canyons formed by slumps and deep tidal currents.
The upper canyon fill has well-defined channels
and levees (Figures 5B, 6A). The levees became pro-
gressively higher and more sinuous with time. The dim
(low-amplitude) seismic character of the levees indi-
cates mud-dominated sediments, which is confirmed
by well penetrations. Higher amplitudes suggest that
the channel fills contain sand or silt layers; however, the
great variability in strength of the amplitudes (Figure
6A) suggests large variations in amount of sand and/or
silt filling former channels.
BASIN-FLOOR FAN
Three dimensional seismic data show a shallow basin-
floor fan in great detail (Posamentier et al., 2000;
Posamentier and Kolla, 2003). This is the only upper
Pleistocene fan along a 60-km (37-mi)-wide stretch of
the basin floor in the northern Kutei. The basin-floor
fan is approximately 22 km (14 mi) wide (along strike),
extends 22 km (14 mi) into the basin, and occurs at the
modern toe of slope, where the slope angle decreases
from 2.1 to 0.3j (Figure 2). Unfortunately, no wells
have been drilled in the fan to support the seismic
interpretations. The basin-floor fan is bounded by
seismic horizons P4 and P3, and hence was deposited
during cycle 3. The basin-floor fan can be divided into
two main parts: (1) a lower, moderate-amplitude re-
flector package with relatively continuous reflectors
(P4 to P3.2) and (2) an upper, low-amplitude reflector
package with a channel-levee morphology (P3.2 to P3;
Figure 8). The lower fan overlies a chaotic seismic
interval (Figure 8); however, chaotic intervals are not
unique to this interval and area, but are observed in
many other parts of the Kutei Basin floor.
Lower Part of the Basin-Floor Fan (P4 to P3.2)
The stratigraphically lower part of the basin-floor fan
is dominated by moderate-amplitude, relatively con-
tinuous reflectors that extend eastward (basinward)
from the slope-channel complex on the western mar-
gin of the basin floor (Figure 2). The lower part of the
fan is broadly lens-shaped, being approximately 22
km (13.6 mi) across, along both strike and dip, with a
maximum thickness of about 60 m (197 ft). The lower
fan thins to almost zero along strike (north-south; Fig-
ure 8). Internally, the lower fan is characterized by

Figure 8. Seismic profiles of the cycle 3 basin-floor fan. See Figure 9 for location of seismic profiles. A chaotic interval is below the fan
(below P4) and to the left of the fan. The lower fan (P4 to P3.2) is characterized by more continuous, relatively horizontal reflectors.
Strata between P3 and P4 thin markedly in both directions away from the axis of the fan. (A) Shelfward strike line with a thick
aggradational channel-levee complex. Short, high-amplitude reflectors represent channel deposits. Adjacent low-amplitude intervals
were shale-rich levees. (B) Strike profile through the middle fan. The upper fan (P3.2 P3) contains a relatively thin channel-levee
complex above more continuous reflectors of the unconfined lower fan. (C) Basinward strike profile. The upper fan (P3.2 to P3) is
thin and dominated by more continuous reflectors of the outer unconfined fan. (D) Dip profile. The upper part of the fan (P3.2 to P3)
changes from a thick channel-levee complex in the west (left) to a thinner interval dominated by flatter reflectors in the distal,
eastern part of the fan (right). The meandering channel complex in the upper fan is cut several places.

36 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia

Saller et al. 37
Figure 9. Coherency maps. A E' F' G'
See caption of Figure 2 for ex-
planation of coherency displays.

E
LIN
(A) Lower basin-floor fan at a

TIC
slice 16 ms below P3.2. The light

AN
color indicates generally good

ST
continuity and low dip angles.

RU
Bifurcating channels are appar-

-TH
ent in lobes. Seismic profiles EE0, H'

E
FF0, GG0, and HH0 are in Figure 8.

TO
See Figure 1B for the area of this
map. (B) Upper basin-floor fan
about 4 ms below horizon P3.
The sinuous, meandering chan- H
nel of the inner basin-floor fan
passes into the unconfined outer
basin-floor fan. Ridges outside of
meander loops (a few shown by
green arrows) are sediment N
waves.
Unconfined
Basin-Floor Fan

2 km E F G
B E' F' G'
E
LIN
TIC
AN
ST
RU
-TH

H'
E

Levee
TO

Levee
Channel

N
Unconfined
Outer Basin-
Inner Basin- Floor Fan
Floor Fan
2 km E F G

moderate-amplitude, relatively continuous reflectors fied in the lower part of the basin-floor fan. Coherency
that display apparent downlap basinward (to the east) and amplitude displays of the lower part of the fan
and away from the middle of fan lobes (Figure 8). suggest that the relatively continuous reflectors contain
Three different compensating lobes have been identi- low-relief, bifurcating channels (Figures 9A, 10A).

38 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia

Upper, Channel-Levee Part of Basin-Floor Fan (P3.2 to P3)
The upper (younger) part of the fan is dominated by a
sinuous channel-levee complex. The channel-levee com-
plex aggraded and prograded basinward over the flat-
ter, more continuous reflectors of the lower fan (Fig-
ure 8). The channel-levee complex passes basinward
into moderate-amplitude, more continuous reflectors
similar to the lower fan, but these are stratigraphically
equivalent to the channel-levee complex (Figures 8D,
9B, 10B). Reflectors in the levees are dim (low
reflectivity), and internal reflector geometries indicate
that the levees aggraded, building higher relief, while
staying in the same general geographic location (Figure
8). Approximately 150 m (492 ft) of levee deposits
accumulated in the western (proximal) part of the fan
(Figure 8A, D), and they thin to the east (basinward),
where they pass into relatively continuous reflectors at
the channel mouth (Figure 8C, D).
The channel fill is characterized by discontinuous to
sinuous, high-amplitude reflectors (Figures 8, 9B). The
channels were confined by the aggrading levees. During
deposition of the upper fan, relief between channel and
levees increased from less than 20 to more than 50 ms
(< 17 to > 42 m [ < 56 to > 138 ft]) in the proximal
(western) part of the fan (Figure 8A). Channel width
decreases downslope from 300 m (984 ft) on the inner
fan to less than 100 m (328 ft) on the middle and outer
fan. Coherency displays show that the sinuous channel
reflectors aggraded and migrated or meandered through
time. Sediment ridges with a roughly east-west ori-
entation occur on levees beyond the outside bends of
meanders (Figure 9B; Posamentier et al., 2000).
Interpretation
This data set illustrates the evolution of a basin-floor
fan and especially the relationship between moderate-
amplitude, more continuous reflector packages and
overlying channel-levee complexes, similar to systems
described by Posamentier et al. (1988) and Prather et al.
(1998). The more continuous, moderate-amplitude
package of the lower fan is inferred to be sand-rich
based on analogs with the Amazon Fan (Pirmez et al.,
1997; Piper and Normark, 2001). These moderate-
amplitude reflector packages were deposited in a series
of overlapping lobes during the early part of the 240-ka
lowstand of sea level. Coherency displays (Figure 9A)
suggest that these relatively continuous layers were fed
by low-relief distributary channels.
During the late lowstand, the channel-levee com-
plex developed on the inner fan after the moderate-
amplitude reflector package of the lower fan; however,
more continuous, probably sand-rich strata were still
deposited in unconfined areas at the mouth of the
channel as the channel-levee complex prograded across
the basin floor (Figures 8D, 9B). The channel thalweg
migrated through time, but it always remained be-
tween the same aggradational levees. Sediment waves
(ridges) on the levees may have formed when the upper
parts of turbidite flows spilled over levees at channel
bends (flow stripping) and deposited fine sediment
(Posamentier et al., 2000; Posamentier and Kolla,
2003). The waves or ridges may have also formed by
nonturbiditic, deep-marine currents, similar to those
forming mud waves on the upper slope and sediment
waves (ridges) on the lower slope 30 km (19 mi) to the
south (Figure 2). Alternatively, the ridges may have
resulted from a combination of the two processes, with
turbidite muds being modified later by deep-marine
currents.
Posamentier et al. (2000) interpreted the chaotic
seismic interval under the fan (Figure 8) as debris flows
that were a systematic part of fan development. Cha-
otic intervals were probably associated with slumping
on the middle and lower slope and that helped form
the canyon through which shelf-derived sediments
were transported (Posamentier et al., 2000; Fowler
et al., 2001). However, the presence of many slumps
and debris flows away from basin-floor fans indicate
that slumps and debris flows are not necessarily pre-
cursors to fan development.
LINKED DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM
This Pleistocene depositional system illustrates the
interaction between eustatic sea level fluctuations,
sedimentation, and tectonics on the shelf, slope, and
basin-floor fan. Late Pleistocene sea level fluctuations
had amplitudes of about 100 m (328 ft) (Bloom,
1983; Sydow and Roberts, 1994) and frequencies of
about 110 k.y. (Le et al., 1995). The three different
cycles are clearly imaged in our data, but a lowstand
delta prograded over the underlying shelf edge only
once during the late Pleistocene in this area. When it
did so, about 430 m (1411 ft) of sediment accumu-
lated in the lowstand delta front in the last part of
cycle 3 (Figures 3B, 5A).
The location of lowstand rivers determined the
location of lowstand deltas, sand-filled slope channels,
Saller et al. 39
40
Early Lowstand: Sand-Rich Late Lowstand: Mud-Rich
5 km 5 km N
N
Shelf Edge Delta Shelf Edge Delta

Delta Front 2000

Channels

3000 3000

4000 4000
Amalgamated 500 m
Slope Channels 660 ms
5000 5000

Channel-Levee
6000 Complex
2100 2100

Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia

2800 2800
3500

Sand-rich
Unconfined
Basin-Floor Fan
Unconfined
Basin-Floor Fan
A B
and basin-floor fans. When the cycle 3 lowstand delta
prograded over the underlying shelf edge, sediment
poured out of the delta and moved down delta-front
channels into a preexisting slope canyon (Figures 3, 6,
10A). That preexisting slope canyon extended to the
basin floor like many modern slope canyons (Figure
2). A basin-floor fan developed at the end of the can-
yon (Figure 10A). The early part of the lowstand was
characterized by deposition of sand-rich sediment in
amalgamated channel complexes on the slope and un-
confined lobes on a basin-floor fan (Figures 6B, 10A).
During the late lowstand, sediment coming out of the
lowstand delta became muddier, and very sinuous chan-
nel complexes with high levees accumulated on the
slope and basin floor (Figures 6A, 10B). Small amounts
of sand were still apparently deposited on the floor of
channels and in unconfined areas at the mouth of the
leveed channel (outer basin-floor fan) during the late
lowstand (Figures 6A, 10B).
The decrease in proportion of sand coming off the
lowstand delta at the end of cycle 3 could be related
to a combination of the following: (1) a slow eustatic
sea level rise that caused sand to be preferentially
deposited on the shelf and inland stream valleys during
the late lowstand (similar to Posamentier et al., 2000);
(2) accelerated movement on outer-shelf growth faults
that preferentially captured sand on the shelf; or (3)
erosion of sand from river beds concentrated sand dur-
ing the early lowstand, and that was followed by more
shale-dominated sediments typical of modern Kutei
Basin rivers during the remainder of the lowstand. Our
observations do not conclusively support any one of
these options. Most Pleistocene transgressions appear
to be very rapid, so option 1 is not preferred. If throw
on the Serang and/or other outer-shelf faults acceler-
ated during the late parts of the 240-ka lowstand, sand
could have been preferentially captured on the shelf,
causing mud-dominated deposition on the slope and
basin-floor fan. However, isochron maps show little
thickening of cycle 3 on the downthrown side of the
Serang fault, suggesting that throw on the growth fault
was minimal during the 240-ka lowstand. The third
option is the most viable because this system could be
Figure 10. Root mean square (RMS) amplitude maps superimposed on perspective image of structure. Dark blue and purple areas
are high seismic amplitude. Yellows are low-amplitude areas. (A) RMS of the lower part of cycle 3 (P4 to P3.2) on P3.2 structure.
Lowstand delta-front channels fed sand-rich amalgamated slope channels and the lower unconfined basin-floor fan. (B) RMS of the
upper (late) part of cycle 3 (P3.2 to P3) on a structural image of P3. A major delta-front channel fed an aggrading channel-levee
complex on the slope, and the channel-levee complex continued onto the inner basin-floor fan. The channel-levee complex fed
unconfined lobes of the outer basin-floor fan.
analogous to a delta in an artificial lake described by
Kostic et al. (2002). When lake level dropped, fluvial
channels incised into the sandy delta plain. That in-
cision resulted in a large amount of sand being delivered
to the lowstand coastline and then transported into
deep water by turbidites (Kostic et al., 2002). This
appears very analogous to the early part of the cycle 3
lowstand of sea level in the northern Kutei.
In many ways, this outer-shelf, slope, and basin-
floor system fits the general depositional model of
Galloway and Hobday (1996, figure 8.13). Rapid rises
of eustatic sea level apparently cause transgressive
surfaces (terminology of Van Wagoner et al., 1988) to
be the best regional correlation horizons, a conclusion
similar to that of Galloway (1989). Galloway (1989)
preferred using transgressive surfaces for correlations,
in part because the overlying strata are more open
marine, allowing better biostratigraphic control.
IMPLICATIONS TO HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION
Prediction of reservoir sands is required at many times
during exploration for and development of deep-water
(turbidite) reservoirs. In frontier exploration, sand pre-
diction is regional in scale, as explorationists try to
predict what parts of a deep-water basin will be sand
prone. When prospecting, prediction of sand at specific
locations is required. During field delineation and
development, prediction of sand-body geometries is
desired. Because the entire shelf-to-basin-floor depo-
sitional system is clearly imaged in the Pleistocene of
offshore East Kalimantan, it can serve as an analog for
deep-water systems on a variety of scales, including (1)
a regional scale of hundreds of square kilometers, (2) a
prospect scale of 10 100 km2 (3.86 38.61 mi2), and
(3) development scale of less than 1 10 km2 (0.39
3.86 mi2).
Sands are not distributed evenly across the slope and
basin floor on a regional scale, either stratigraphically or
areally. As is seen in our study area, not all lowstands of
eustatic sea level are associated with sand deposition on
Saller et al. 41
the slope and basin floor. Sand was transported to the
slope only when lowstand deltas prograded over the
shelf edge of a previous cycle. This required either (1)
a relatively long-lived lowstand of eustatic sea level,
(2) an increased supply of sediment during a partic-
ular lowstand, or (3) a larger amplitude sea level drop.
The Pleistocene of East Kalimantan shows how iden-
tification of a lowstand delta that prograded over the
underlying shelf edge could help predict sand-rich
slope channels and basin-floor fans in the absence of
deep-water data.
Identification of sand architecture is important in
prospecting for hydrocarbon reservoirs, as well as in
delineation and development. Three types of sand archi-
tecture are common in deep-water hydrocarbon res-
ervoirs in many parts of the world: (1) sheet sands, (2)
amalgamated channel sands, and (3) channel-levee com-
plexes (Mahaffie, 1994; Prather et al., 1998; Sikkema
and Wojcik, 2000; Sherwood et al., 2001). The Pleis-
tocene of the northern Kutei Basin illustrates the
vertical and lateral relationship of these types of sand
architecture and shows how they can occur in predict-
able relationships relative to eustatic sea level fluctua-
tions and lowstand deltas (Figure 10).
Sheet sands are commonly the most productive
reservoirs in deep-water fields (Mahaffie, 1994; McGee
et al., 1994). The Pleistocene basin-floor fan lobes de-
scribed here are somewhat analogous to many sheet-
sand reservoirs. In the Pleistocene of the north Kutei
Basin, sand-rich sheetlike strata were deposited at the
toe of slope during the early lowstand and were fed
by conduits that were partially filled with sand at ap-
proximately the same time (amalgamated channel
sands). Three individual sheet-sand lobes, each approx-
imately 8 by 14 km (5 by 9 mi) and 50 m (164 ft) thick,
coalesce into the lower basin-floor fan, which is 22 by
22 km (14 by 14 mi) and 60 m (197ft) thick (Figure
10A). These sheetlike fan lobes are interpreted to be
formed when turbidites originating on the lowstand
delta front traveled 30 40 km (98 131 ft) basinward
to the basin floor. Many sheet sands filled with oil and
gas were deposited in similar toe-of-slope settings (Mor-
ris and Normark, 2000, figure 31; Sherwood et al., 2001),
as well as ponded minibasins that are also associated
with a decrease in slope angle (Mahaffie, 1994; McGee
et al., 1994; Prather et al., 1998; Fugitt et al., 2000;
Sikkema and Wojcik, 2000).
Amalgamated channel sands are important reser-
voirs in deep-water fields in the Gulf of Mexico
(McGee et al., 1994; Rafalowski et al., 1994; Harrison
et al., 2002; Meckel, 2002). In our study area, sands
42 Linked Lowstand Delta to Basin-Floor Fan Deposition, Offshore Indonesia
filled channels in a previously formed canyon on the
slope during the early lowstand. Those channels were
closely juxtaposed in an incised canyon, causing them
to become amalgamated during deposition (Figures 5B,
6B, 10A). This amalgamated channel complex in the
Pleistocene of the Kutei ranges from 1 to 4 km (0.62 to
2.50 mi) wide, and is 100 m (328 ft) thick. The amal-
gamated channel sands thicken upslope of toe-thrust
anticlines which locally decreased slopes (Figures 6B,
10A). These amalgamated channel sands are similar to
some offshore west Africa reservoir sands (Sikkema and
Wojcik, 2000; Wonham et al., 2000) and reservoir
sands in the Nile Delta (Samuel et al., 2003).
Sands in channel-levee complexes were documen-
ted clearly in the Amazon Fan (Damuth et al., 1988)
and are recognized as important reservoirs in deep-
water fields of the Gulf of Mexico (Shew et al., 1994;
Fugitt et al., 2000; Bramlett and Craig, 2002), west
Africa (Sikkema and Wojcik, 2000), and the Kutei
Basin (Redhead et al., 2000). In our study area, channel-
levee complexes occur above the amalgamated chan-
nel complex on the slope and above sand-rich lobes on
the basin floor. Channel-levee complexes represent
late lowstand deposition (Figure 10B). Individual chan-
nel sands in this Pleistocene channel-levee complex are
a maximum of 0.5 km (0.3 mi) wide. Levees are very
mud rich. The increase in relief on levees suggests that
the vertical separation of channel sands from levee
sands should increase from early levee formation to late
in the levees development. Hence, early, lower levee
sands may have a greater chance to connect with chan-
nel sands than sands in the upper part of the levee.
CONCLUSIONS
Linking depositional systems from lowstand deltas to
the basin floor gives insight into depositional processes
and geometries that occur during eustatic sea level
fluctuations in a rapidly subsiding deltaic area. Several
conclusions can be drawn from this data set. These con-
clusions can be applied to older depositional systems
that serve as hydrocarbon reservoirs around the world.
1. In the late Pleistocene of the northern Kutei Basin,
seismically defined progradation and lowstand depo-
sition are associated with eustatic sea level cycles
that are about 110 k.y. in duration.
2. This deltaic system does not fit the classic sequence-
stratigraphic model of Van Wagoner et al. (1988).
On the shelf, highstand systems tracts could not be
 clearly separated from falling-stage systems tracts
and prograding lowstand systems tracts. Instead, late
Pleistocene deposition on the shelf was dominated
by progradational packages, which include the high-
stand systems tracts, falling-stage systems tracts, and
lowstand systems tracts of other workers. Lowstand
strata show no clear onlap of the slope. Clinoforms
of the most distal lowstand delta pass directly into
relatively parallel slope and basin-floor strata. These
depositional geometries are the result of three main
factors: (1) rapid rises and gradual falls of eustatic
sea level, (2) relatively rapid subsidence, and (3)
robust supply of clastic sediment. These character-
istics are common in many deltaic settings. Perhaps,
the sequence-stratigraphic model of Van Wagoner
et al. (1988) needs to be modified for some deltaic
settings.
3. Carbonate buildups developed during transgressions,
preferentially occurring over lowstand shelf mar-
gins and on the upthrown sides of faults on the
middle to outer shelf.
4. Coarse, sand-rich sediments did not cross the shelf
and get deposited on the slope and basin floor during
all lowstands of sea level. Accommodation created
by growth faulting helped prevent sand-rich sedi-
ments from reaching the slope and basin floor during
the last two lowstands of eustatic sea level, although
sea level dropped about 100 m (328 ft) during the
latest eustatic fall. Coarse, sand-rich sediments only
reached the slope and basin floor when lowstand
deltas prograded over the underlying shelf edge.
5. In the northern Kutei Basin, most modern slope
canyons (1) are relatively straight, (2) were formed
by deep-marine processes, and (3) have carried little
or no coarse clastic sediment. Sharply bending (sin-
uous) canyon fills are associated with lowstand sed-
iment being transported off the shelf. Hence, sinuous
morphologies may be indicative of channels carrying
sand-bearing sediment off the shelf.
6. Sand-rich clastics preferentially thicken in amalga-
mated slope-channel complexes and channel-levee
complexes upslope from active toe-thrust anticlines
because of slightly decreased slope gradient. Com-
pletely closed, ponded basins did not form in the
northern Kutei because deep canyons cut through
toe-thrust anticlines.
7. The location of the river feeding the lowstand delta
determined where sediment entered a preexisting
slope canyon to form a basin-floor fan.
8. The basin-floor fan contains two temporally distinct
parts. The lower (early) part has sand-rich, sheet-
like layers deposited as lobes in an unchannelized to
slightly channelized setting. The upper (late) part
of the fan has an aggrading channel-levee complex
with low-amplitude (shale-dominated) levees and
scattered high-amplitude (sand-rich) deposits along
the channel axis. The upper channel-levee complex
fed more continuous, sand-rich lobes farther out on
the basin floor.
9. The composition of sediment moving downslope
from the lowstand delta evolved through time. Dur-
ing the early lowstand, sediment coming out of the
lowstand delta was sand rich, resulting in deposition
of sand-rich amalgamated channels on the slope and
sand-rich unconfined fans on the basin floor. During
the late lowstand, sediment coming out of the low-
stand delta was muddier, causing slope and basin-
floor fan deposition to be dominated by mud-rich
channel-levee complexes.
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