S M. Govorushko
Director of EIA Centre, Pacific Geographical Institute, 7 Radio St.,
Vladivostok, 690041, Russia; e-mail: sgovor@tig.dvo.ru
Human impact on rivers is large-scale process that leads to diverse negative con-
sequences. There are following ways of such impact: 1) river flow redistribution in
time; 2) river flow redistribution in space; 3) river flow withdrawal; 4) physical dis-
turbance of river-beds; 5) pollution; 6) water clogging; 7) thermal pollution. First way
mainly occurs in case of reservoir creation, it is characteristic for the USA, Russia,
Canada, Brazil, and China. Run-off redistribution in space used for water supply,
navigation, hydropower generation, irrigation, etc. The most large-scale water trans-
fers are typical for Canada, USA, Turkmenistan, and India. Irretrievable water con-
sumption currently constitutes approx. 150 km3/year, which equals 1% of normal
run-off of fresh water. Agriculture uses 70.1% of fresh water, industries take 20%,
and municipal sector 9.9%. Under physical disturbance of river-beds we mean any
man-made changes of water level (cut-offs, changes in depth of the river by excava-
tion or covering of ground, etc.). Open pits in river-beds for extraction of building
materials and excavation works for navigation purposes are the most frequent ex-
amples of such impact. Water contamination is tremendous and ever-increasing
challenge. By its origin, three chief water pollutant groups may be distinguished: 1)
municipal waste; 2) industrial waste; 3) agricultural waste. Under water clogging we
mean accumulation of foreign substances, mainly insoluble. Thermal pollution con-
nects mainly with cooling water released from electricity generating stations. Further
research of human impact on rivers is necessary in order to minimize negative con-
sequences of such impact in the future.
Key words: rivers, water transfers, pollution, water use, river flow
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 465
INTRODUCTION
Human impact on rivers is large-scale process that leads to diverse negative con-
sequences. Human activity impacts on rivers in the following ways: 1) river flow
redistribution in time; 2) spatial river flow redistribution; 3) river flow withdrawal; 4)
physical disturbance of riverbeds; 5) pollution; 6) water clogging; 7) thermal pollu-
tion.
River flow redistribution in time mainly occurs in case of reservoir creation (fig.
1). Later on those reservoirs are used for various purposes, specifically water-supply,
flood protection, recreation, power generation, fish industry, water transportation,
etc. The first reservoir was made 5 thousand years ago in Egypt [Goudie, 1997]. Pres-
ently, there are approx. 37-38 thousand reservoirs increasing 1 million m3 in volume.
The aerial view of Hoover Dam on The Colorado-River, Nevada, USA. This dam
was constructed between 1930 and 1936. A height of its water level is 170 m. The
reservoir is used for flood and silt control, power, irrigation, and industrial and do-
mestic water supplies. Photographer Bruce Molnia
Today there are about 50,000 dams in the world whose height exceeds 15 meters.
These dams can retain more than 6.5 trillion m3 of water that constitutes approx. 15 %
of annual global river flow. The fact that the largest free-flowing river in the world
(the Yukon in Alaska) is on the twenty-second position in terms of annual mean flow
proves that impact made by dams on rivers is widespread world-wide [Dams ,
2006].
466 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
Abrupt alteration of ice regime occurs due to unevenness of daily and weekly
water flow. In areas with cold climate it frequently brings about jams which cause
raising of water level. Reservoirs creation affects ihtiofauna, in particular modifies
the rates of fish growing, amount and structure of populations, as well as life span,
conditions of fish reproduction and growing. Dams construction on the majority of
large rivers of the world created the barrier on the migration ways of valuable ana-
drom and semi-anadrom fish (sturgeons, salmons, herrings). Their spawning sites
became unapproachable for species. Fish perishes when passing through turbines
and dams during migration. Fish dies when swims through high-pressure junctions.
Those losses take place due to barotraumas of swimming-bladders when fish leaves
the reservoir for lower pool of the dam. However, one should also mention positive
impact of dams creation on ichtiofauna, since the area of biotopes favorable for fish
fattening and spawning considerable increases. Commonly, fish hauls in reservoirs
increase those made before reservoir creation. To the utmost river flow redistribution
in time is typical for the USA, Russia, Canada, Brazil, and China.
Spatial river flow redistribution is usual as well (fig. 2). Under the notion spatial
river flow redistribution we imply the process of water withdrawal from one source
(rivers, reservoirs, lakes, etc.) and its further transportation by riverbed, channel,
tunnel or pipeline to consumers. One can subdivide such water transportations into
transfers for water-supply, providing navigation, hydro-power engineering, irrigated
farming, drainage of over-humid lands. The channel which connected the Tiger River
and the Euphratus River was dug approx. 2400 B.C. and became one of the earliest
examples of channel-building. It was dug with a view to ameliorate irrigation sys-
tem, since water rise in the Tiger River did not coincide with that one in the Euphra-
tus River [Anderson, Trigg, 1981]. The volume of transported water and the distance
it is transported to are the crucial parameters of river flow transportation system. The
most widespread index to estimate the scale of river flow modification is calculated
as multiplication of annual river flow transported (km3 per year) by the distance of
transportation way (km). Presently, majority of river flow transfers are carried out
for irrigation needs and classified as small or average (up to 1000 km3 per year). So
far Karakum Channel in Turkmenistan remains the largest channel, judging by this
index. It transports 1100 km3 per year over a distance of 1100 km. Still, creation of a
new channel in China has already started. This channel will transfer 44.8 km3 per
year over a distance of 1300 km from the Yandzy River to Northern-Chinese plain
[Govorushko, 2005].
468 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
2000]. Decrease of the Jordan River flow caused lowering of the Dead Sea [Goudie,
1997].
The measures, aimed at water losses decreasing in the zone of transportation,
are very important. Quite often sizeable volumes of transported water are lost be-
cause of ground leakage. Thus, in the first years after Karakum Channel creation 3
km3 per year (out of 11) were lost in that manner; nowadays, those losses reduced to
1 km3 per year due to silting of the leakage [Gorshkov, 1992]. Altogether, more than
2200 channels with total length of 170 thousand km have been built in the basin of
the Aral Sea; but for all that no measures to mitigate filtration were taken in most
cases [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Water losses in irrigation system of Pakistan
amount to 55-65 % [Shiklomanov, Markova, 1987]. In the zone of water usage, river
flow considerably increases. Thus, the annual river flow of the Berntvood River,
inflow of the Nelson River, which transports water to the Nelson River increased
from 3.3 to 27.3 km3 per year, or by 800% [Shiklomanov, Markova, 1987]. The most
large-scale river inflow transfers are typical for Canada, the USA, India, and Turk-
menistan.
Irrevocable water consumption presently totals approx. 150 km3 per year, or 1%
of sustainable river flow [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Most water is taken for needs
of agriculture (70.1%), industries (20%) and residential areas (9.9%) [Comprehensive
Assessment , 1997]. It takes 1500 m3 of water to produce a ton of wheat; 7000 m3
and 10000 m3 to produce a ton of rice and cotton respectively [Rudskiy, Sturman,
2005]. Production of a ton of meat requires averagely 20000 m3 of water [Stadnitskiy,
Rodionov, 1996].
In industry, intensive water consumption is typical for heat-and-power engi-
neering, petrochemistry, pulp and paper industry. Altogether they account for 80-
90% of total industrial water usage [Merkulov et al., 1994]. Production of synthetic
caoutchouc (2000-3000 m3 per ton) and capacitor paper (1300-6000 m3 per ton) are the
most water-consumptive manufactures [Stadnitskiy, Rodionov, 1996]. Production of
chemical fiber (2000-3000 m3 per ton) and cellulose (400-500 m3 per ton) also require
much water [Milanova, Ryabchikov, 1986]. Considerable water consumption also
distinguishes a number of light industries, namely spinning, weaving and trimming
manufactures which averagely require 300-330 m3 per ton of output [Marinich et al,
2000]. In housing and communal services water is mainly used for hygiene and sani-
tary purposes (baths, laundries, etc.), food cooking, sewerage system, etc.
470 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution constitutes ever-increasing problem. By its origin, it is advisable
to subdivide water pollutants into three groups [Goudie, Viles, 1997]: 1) municipal
wastes; 2) industrial wastes; 3) agricultural wastes.
Municipal wastes mainly consist of human faeces and contain relatively few
chemical pollutants; yet, they are notable for high concentration of pathogenic organ-
isms. Communal wastes, or sewage, make approx. 20% of all effluents volume, and
their share constantly increases as the amount of industrial effluents decreases. They
have more or less permanent structure. A person daily produces 65 gram of sus-
pended matter, 8 gram of ammonia nitrogen, 3.3 gram of phosphates, 9 gram of chlo-
rides, 60-75 gram of organic matter [Rudskiy, Sturman, 2005].
BASIN WATER MANAGEMENT 471
The impact of communal wastes upon rivers varies from country to country. Out
of 3119 cities and towns of India only 209 possess structures for partial purification of
sewage, and only 8 of them have total cycle purification systems at their disposal.
Commonly, sewage comes directly to rivers. For instance, the Gang River is being
daily polluted by unpurified sewage waters and cremation remains from 114 cities
and towns [Pimentel et al., 1999]. Naturally, this situation is not so grave in devel-
oped countries, though river pollution is a sensitive issue there as well. For instance,
the New York Metropolitan area alone produces 6.8 billion littres of sewage per
day of which about 16% is raw. Much of this enters the Hudson and East Rivers
around New York [Goudie, 1997].
Industrial wastes (fig. 4) are subdivided into [Stadnitsky, Rodionov, 1996]: 1)
waters of reaction, polluted both by parent substances and reaction products; 2)
waters coming from raw materials and raw products; 3) scourage which appears
after ablutions of raw materials, packages, equipment, etc.; 4) water extractants and
absorbents; 5) sewage waters; 6) atmospheric precipitation, flowing down on indus-
trial enterprises territories.
for river habitats. For example, a 378,000 liters spill of wet manure in Minnesota
killed almost 700,000 fish along 30 kilometres of a major stream. American agricul-
ture now discharges 1.16 million tons of phosphorous and 4.65 million tons of nitro-
gen into waterways annually. Agriculture also exerts indirect influence on rivers.
Ploughing intensifies soil erosion that increases amount of different substances enter-
ing rivers. Early soil discharge from agricultural land to waterways in the United
States is estimated at over 1 billion tons of sediments and 447 million tons of total
dissolved solids. The Mississippi River alone carries 331 million tons of topsoil to the
Gulf of Mexico annually [Ruhl, 2000].
WATER CLOGGING
THERMAL POLLUTION
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