Original Publication:
Mikael Axin, Bjrn Eriksson and Petter Krus, Flow versus pressure control of pumps in
mobile hydraulic systems, 2014, Proceedings of the Institution of mechanical engineers. Part
I, journal of systems and control engineering, (228), 4, 245-256.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959651813512820
Copyright: SAGE Publications (UK and US)
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/home.nav
Abstract
This work studies an innovate working hydraulic system design for mobile applications, referred to as flow control.
The fundamental difference compared to load sensing systems is that the pump is controlled based on the operators
command signals rather than feedback signals from the loads. This control approach enables higher energy efficiency
since the pressure difference between pump and load is given by the system resistance rather than a prescribed
pump pressure margin. Furthermore, load sensing systems suffer from poor dynamic characteristics since the pump
is operated in a closed loop control mode. This might result in an oscillatory behaviour. Flow control systems have no
stability issues attached to the load pressure feedback since there is none. This allows the pump to be designed to meet
the response requirements without considering system stability. Pressure compensators are key components in flow
control systems. This study addresses the flow matching problem which occurs when using traditional compensators
in combination with a flow controlled pump. Flow sharing pressure compensators solve this problem since the pump
flow will be distributed between all active functions. Simulation results and measurements on a wheel loader application
demonstrate the energy saving potentials and the dynamic improvements for the flow control system.
Keywords
Hydraulics, flow control, load-sensing, mobile systems, energy efficiency, dynamic characteristics, compensators
Figure 1: Different system designs commonly used for the working hydraulics in mobile applications.
These concepts provide a higher degree of freedom as all eration has been reported [30].
four orifices are separated and can be controlled individu- The main component in electrohydraulic actuator sys-
ally. The main benefit of this increased freedom is that the tems, often referred to as EHA, is a fixed displacement
flow paths can be changed during operation. Four differ- bidirectional hydraulic pump. An electric motor is usu-
ent operational cases can be identified; normal, regenerat- ally used to power the pump, enabling active control of
ive, energy neutral and recuperative [22]. the rotational speed and thereby the flow to the actuator.
One hot research topic in the area of mobile hydraul- A conventional EHA requires a symmetrical actuator in
ics is systems in which the control valves are eliminated order to ensure flow balance, but solutions for handling
along with the metering losses. Multiple concepts have asymmetrical cylinders have been proposed [31]. In EHA
been developed, including pump controlled actuators, hy- systems, the pump only operates when control action is
draulic transformers and electrohydraulic actuators [23]. needed.
Such systems are not yet common commercially in mo- When more than one load is actuated, often only the
bile applications but can be found in, for example, the heaviest load can be operated efficiently in single pump
aerospace industry [24]. systems. This issue is resolved in valveless systems.
Instead of using one pump to supply all actuators, every When all loads have their own dedicated pump, the pres-
actuator has a dedicated pump in pump controlled actuator sure can always be matched against the present load.
systems. To control the speed, the pump displacement set- However, one has to bear in mind that valveless sys-
ting is used as the final control element. All losses are tems may require several valves to handle, for example,
thereby ideally eliminated. In reality, the losses are heav- asymmetric cylinder actuation and meet safety require-
ily dependent on the efficiency of the system pumps [23]. ments [23] [27].
These systems can principally be differentiated in two dif- Furthermore, since all actuators have their own dedic-
ferent circuit layouts, either with the pump arranged in a ated pump in the valveless concepts, each has to be sized
closed circuit [25] [26] or in an open circuit [27]. to handle maximum speed. A typical example of a dimen-
A hydraulic transformer converts an input flow at a cer- sioning motion is the lowering boom motion in a wheel
tain pressure level to a different output flow at the expense loader. The lowering flow can be several times higher than
of a change in pressure level, ideally maintaining the hy- the maximum pump flow in a similar valve controlled sys-
draulic power. One way of realizing a transformer is to tem. The difference is that all flow has to be handled by
combine two hydraulic machines, where at least one has a the pump in valveless system layouts. In single pump sys-
variable displacement. However, the efficiency is limited, tems, the pump can be downsized since not every load is
mainly because at least one of the machines will operate actuated at full speed simultaneously very often. For these
under partial loading [28]. In recent years, an innovat- reasons, the total installed displacement tends to be high
ive transformer concept has been developed by the Dutch in valveless systems.
company Innas BV [29]. The conventional transformer When improving energy efficiency in fluid power sys-
with two hydraulic machines has been replaced by one tems, the trend is to use additional components and more
axial piston unit, thereby avoiding partial loading condi- sophisticated control algorithms [32] [33]. Meanwhile,
tions. A mean efficiency of 93% in a broad region of op- basic constraints such as space requirements, initial cost
and control complexity are often overlooked. This work a valve and increase the displacement of the pump. Pres-
investigates how far it is possible to improve traditional sure is built up in the pump hose and when the pump pres-
load sensing systems by changing the pump controller sure becomes higher than the load pressure there will be a
from a closed loop pressure control mode to an open con- flow to the actuator. When stationary, the flow delivered
trol mode where the pump displacement setting is con- by the pump will go to the load. The pump pressure will
trolled based on the sum of all requested load flows. Only therefore adapt itself to a level needed by the system, res-
one electrically controlled pump and conventional spool ulting in efficiency improvements compared to load sens-
valves are needed. Sensors are not required to achieve ing systems.
the desired functionality and all components needed are If more than one load is activated, all actuators will
available on the market [8]. In this work, the system will suffer from both load interference and load dependency.
be referred to as flow control. This can be resolved by introducing sensors to the system.
Stenlund [1] and Zhe [2] used the velocities of the ac-
tuators as the main feedback signals for pump and valve
The flow control concept
control. Jongebloed et al. [3] used pressure sensors at all
In mobile hydraulic systems, the actuation of different load ports for the valve control. To optimize energy effi-
loads is controlled by joystick signals. These signals pose ciency, the valve at the highest load can be opened to its
either a flow or pressure demand from the operator. In ap- maximum while lighter loads are controlled by their valve
plications with high demands on controllability, the sig- openings.
nals from the operator often correspond to flow demands. These controllability issues can also be resolved by us-
An example is load sensing systems equipped with pres- ing pressure compensators. There will, however, be differ-
sure compensators. Nevertheless, the pump in these kinds ent demands on the compensator functionality compared
of systems is still often pressure controlled. to load sensing systems, but it also opens up new possib-
In systems where the operators signals correspond to ilities regarding the valve control.
flow demands, it seems more natural to also control the
pump by flow. This approach has some benefits regarding
energy efficiency, dynamic characteristics and increased Pressure compensators
flexibility compared to load sensing systems. It also Pressure compensators are commonly used in mobile ap-
presents some challenges, for example the compensator plications to improve the controllability characteristics.
design. Basically, two different types of compensators can be real-
The idea of flow control is to use the joystick signals ized: traditional and flow sharing. Both these types can
to control the pump flow and the valve openings simul- be realized by placing the compensator either upstream or
taneously. The pump displacement setting is controlled downstream of the directional valve, see figure 2.
according to the sum of all requested load flows. Traditional compensators control the absolute flow
When no function is activated, the pump is de-stroked, through the directional valve by reducing the pump pres-
delivering no flow to the system, and all directional valves sure relative to the load pressure of its own load. This
are closed. Activating a joystick will simultaneously open works fine as long as the pump pressure is actively con-
As qL As qL
pr
ps pr pL ps pL
Fs Fs
(a) Traditional compensator placed upstream of (b) Traditional compensator placed downstream of
the directional valve. the directional valve.
pLmax
Fs
As qL As qL
ps
pr pL ps pr pL
Fs
pLmax
(c) Flow sharing compensator placed upstream of (d) Flow sharing compensator placed downstream
the directional valve. of the directional valve.
Figure 2: Four different ways of realizing a pressure compensator. Traditional compensators control the absolute flow
through the directional valve while flow sharing compensators distribute the entire pump flow relative to the valve open-
ings.
trolled, for instance with a load pressure feedback. In until the system relief valve opens. The throttle
case of the pump being saturated, the supply pressure will losses will be huge and the system will emerge as a
drop, resulting in the heaviest load losing speed or even constant pressure system.
stopping.
Flow sharing compensators act as relief valves instead The reason for this is that both the pump and the valves
of reducing valves, which means that all functions will be control the absolute flow, resulting in an over-determined
given the same priority. The entire pump flow will thus be flow situation. A lot of research solving this flow match-
distributed relative to the individual valve openings also ing problem has been presented. Djurovic and Held-
when the pump is saturated. A pressure controlled pump user [4] introduced a position sensor placed on the dir-
which has been saturated cannot control the pressure and ectional valve. This gives precise knowledge of the flow
can therefore be seen as a flow controlled pump. Flow expected by the valve. It is also possible to equip the com-
sharing compensators are therefore appropriate to use to- pensator with a position sensor [5]. If no compensator is
gether with a flow controlled pump. close to fully opened, the pump flow is too high. In case
of the pump flow being too low, the compensator at the
highest load would be completely opened. A bleed-off
Pump and valve control approaches valve to tank is proposed by several authors [4] [5] [34].
In flow control systems, the operators joystick signals A small overflow is then acceptable, which could be used
control the pump flow and the valve opening simultan- in closed loop control if a position sensor is added. Fedde
eously. For this to work properly, the system software and Harms [9] discuss the pros and cons of overflow and
needs knowledge about every flow consumer. However, underflow when using a bleed-off valve. Grsbrink et
solutions for attaching auxiliary functions have been pro- al. [35] [36] propose a system design where the pump
posed [7] [34]. Different control approaches are possible is pressure controlled for low pump flows and flow con-
whether traditional or flow sharing compensators are used. trolled for high flow rates. It is also possible to shift from
When using traditional pressure compensators, see fig- flow control to pressure control in case of an undesirable
ure 3a, the absolute flow through the valve is determined pressure build-up [37].
by the valve opening. This means that the pump flow has There are alternatives to address this flow matching
to be matched against the sum of all expected load flows. problem without adding additional components or sensors
If this is not the case, two situations may occur. to the system. The key is to implicate the highest load
pressure into the compensator and thus get the flow shar-
The pump flow is too low This is the same case as when
ing behaviour described in the previous section, see fig-
the pump is saturated in load sensing systems. The
ure 3b. The entire pump flow will then be distributed
compensator spool at the highest load will open com-
relative to all active functions and there will be no flow
pletely, resulting in a decrease in speed for that load.
matching issues. Instead of controlling the flow, the valves
The pump flow is too high Both compensator spools will serve as flow dividers. This has been studied in, for
will close more and the pump pressure will increase example, [8] and [38].
(a) Simplified schematic of a flow control system using traditional com- (b) Simplified schematic of a flow control system using flow sharing
pensators. The system can also be realized with traditional compensators compensators. The system can also be realized with flow sharing com-
placed downstream of the directional valves. pensators placed downstream of the directional valves.
Figure 3: Two different flow control system designs. The operator joystick signals control the pump displacement setting
and the valve openings simultaneously.
Using a flow controlled pump in combination with flow worst case to ensure it is high enough at all operating
sharing pressure compensators opens up new possibilit- points.
ies in terms of controlling the directional valves independ- The pressure drop between pump and load can be di-
ently of the cylinder velocities [11]. One control approach vided into three different losses:
is to open the valve section at the load with the highest
flow demand to its maximum [39] [40]. Other active func- Losses between pump and valve There will be a pres-
tions must always be opened in proportion to its flow re- sure drop between the pump and the valve. The
quest. This control approach will minimize the pressure magnitude will depend on the internal and external
drop across the directional valves and thus save energy. properties mentioned above, but most importantly
Another control approach would be to use the valves to the flow rate. A simplified model is that the losses
increase the system damping. There is an optimal valve increase with the square of the flow rate.
opening where the damping is maximized [41]. For ex-
Losses across the compensator There will be a pressure
ample, when a function is oscillating the valve opening
drop across the compensator. High losses occur if
could be reduced temporarily in order to dampen the oscil-
the supply pressure is much higher than the load
lations. When no oscillations are present, a more energy
pressure. This is the case at partial loading condi-
efficient control strategy can be used.
tions. The smallest possible loss occurs when the
compensator is fully opened. In that case, the re-
Energy efficiency quired pressure drop increases with the square of the
flow rate.
The energy efficiency of flow control systems is similar to
that of load sensing systems. The pump pressure is ad- Losses across the directional valve Typically, the com-
justed according to the highest load and high losses might pensator ensures that the pressure drop across the dir-
occur when loads with different pressure demands are op- ectional valve is constant. However, the smallest pos-
erated simultaneously. However, instead of a prescribed sible pressure drop occurs if the valve is fully open.
pressure margin, as in load sensing systems, the pressure The pressure drop will then follow the flow equation,
drop between pump and load is given by the resistance in similar to the compensator pressure drop.
the hoses and in the valves. Furthermore, it is also possible
to lower the pressure drop across the directional valve by In figure 4a, these three different losses are shown. If
opening the valve at the load with the highest flow demand the pressure margin is set perfectly, there will be no unne-
to its maximum. cessary losses at maximum flow rate in load sensing sys-
In load sensing systems, the pump pressure margin is tems. However, at lower flow rates, unnecessary losses
set to overcome the losses in the pump hose, the com- will occur. In flow control systems, these losses will be
pensator and the directional valve. These losses are sys- eliminated since the pump pressure is set by the resistance
tem dependent and will change with internal and ex- in the hose and the valve.
ternal conditions such as temperature, oil properties, hose It is possible to further reduce the losses in flow control
length, etc. The pressure margin is set according to the systems. This is done by opening the valve section with
compens
compens
sses ents
ar y lo pr ovem
ces s y im
unne ienc
effic
ator los
ator los
ses
ses
es es
s e loss s e loss
ho ho
Figure 4: Classification of the losses between pump and load. Three different losses occur; hose, compensator and
directional valve losses. At lower flow rates, unnecessary losses occur in load sensing systems. No unnecessary losses
occur in flow control systems.
the highest flow demand to its maximum, in which case Dynamic characteristics
the pressure drop across the directional valve is minimized The only difference between load sensing and flow control
and additional energy savings are possible, see figure 4b. is the absence of the feedback to the pump controller in
A flow control system without pressure compensators flow control systems. Nevertheless, there are fundamental
would increase the efficiency even further. In that case, dynamic differences between the two system layouts.
the valve section at the highest load might be opened com- The dynamic behaviour of load sensing systems can
pletely. However, its functionality requires closed loop be described by equations (1)-(4) [44]. By reducing the
control and is therefore sensor dependent [3]. block diagram in figure 6a, the open loop transfer func-
As can be seen in figure 4, the two system layouts have tion from desired pump pressure margin Ppre f to actual
the same efficiency at maximum flow rate if the pump pressure difference Pp = Pp PL can be derived accord-
pressure margin is set perfectly in the load sensing system. ing to equation (5).
Flow control systems have higher efficiency for smaller
Qp 1
flow rates. However, it is important to consider the power Gp = = (1)
losses rather than the pressure losses. For low flow rates, Ppre f Pp Lps
the power loss will be small even for high pressure drops. Pp 1
Hs = = (2)
Figure 5 shows the power saving opportunities for flow Q p QL Cp s
control systems. The largest power savings occur in the QL
medium flow rate area. If the directional valve is opened Gv = = Kc (3)
Pp PL
completely, even more power can be saved.
P mL s + B p
ZL = L = (4)
QL CL mL s2 +CL B p s + A2c
Hs
fully opened G p Go = G p (5)
1 + Gv (ZL + Hs )
directional valve
By closing the control loop, the pump controller, G p ,
is a part of the loop gain, G p Go , as shown in figure 6b.
To achieve a stable system the loop gain must be kept
Power [-]
Figure 5: Power savings in flow control systems com- Table 1: Parameter values used in figure 7.
pared to load sensing systems. More power can be saved
if the directional valve is completely opened. No power is Parameter Value Unity
saved at maximum flow rate if the pressure margin is set
Ac 0.005 m2
perfectly in load sensing systems.
Bp 10000 Ns/m
CL 41012 m3 /Pa
Flow control systems have no unnecessary losses for Cp 51012 m3 /Pa
the highest load. All losses that occur are necessary and Kc 1109 m5 /Ns
limited by, for example, the diameter of the hoses and the Lp 5108 Pa s2 /m3
maximum opening areas in the valve. However, flow con- mL [6000 12000 30000] kg
trol systems still have high losses under partial loading
conditions. To increase efficiency even further, individual The dynamic behaviour of flow control systems can be
metering valves or additional hydraulic machines are re- described by almost the same set of equations, (1)-(4).
quired. The only difference is the absence of the feedback to the
A flow control system with two hydraulic pumps has pump controller, see figure 8. This results in a funda-
been studied in [42] and [43]. The aim is to reduce the mental dynamic difference between load sensing systems
losses under partial loading conditions without increasing and flow control systems. Since there is no closed loop for
the total installed displacement. This is achieved by con- the pump controller, the stability issues described above
necting the two pumps when high flow rates are required are eliminated. The pump and its controller can thereby
by one load. Connecting several pumps at high flow rates be designed to meet the response requirements without
is a common solution for more simple systems, for ex- considering system stability. This has been verified by
ample, in excavators. experiments in [8] and [38].
Pp,re f +
Qp + Pp +
Pp QL
Gp Hs Gv b
PL Pp,re f +
Pp
ZL b
Gp Go b
b
1
Gv
(a) Block diagram of a load sensing system derived from equations (1)-(4). (b) Rearranged block diagram with the loop gain
G p Go .
0
log10 (G p Go ) [-]
2 1.4
3
mL increasing 1.2
Pump pressure margin [-]
4
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
1
0.8
90
0.6
Phase [ ]
0.2
mL = 30000 kg
270
mL = 6000 kg
0 1 2 3 0
10 10 10 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Frequency [rad/s] Time [-]
(a) Bode plot of the open loop gain in figure 6b, G p Go . (b) Step response of the closed loop gain in figure 6b, G p Go .
Figure 7: Dynamic characteristics of load sensing systems. The parameter values are shown in table 1. At specific points
of operation, load sensing systems may become unstable. Flow control systems have no such stability issues due to the
absence of the feedback to the pump controller.
Q pre f Qp + Pp Pp QL
+
Gp Hs Gv b
PL Q pre f Pp
ZL b
Gp Go
(a) Block diagram of a flow control system derived from equations (1)-(4). (b) Rearranged block diagram with no feed-
back present.
0.9
0.24
0.85
Velocity [m/s]
0.8
0.22
0.75
0.7 0.2
0.65
0.18
0.6
0.55
0.16
0.5 External force Load sensing
Valve opening area Flow control
0.45
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) A step is made in the valve opening area after 3 seconds and (b) Cylinder velocities as a function of time.
in the external force after 6 seconds.
150 0.62
0.58
140
0.56
Pressure [bar]
135
0.54
130 0.52
125 0.5
0.48
120
0.46
115 Load sensing 0.44 Load sensing
Flow control Flow control
110 0.42
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time [s] Time [s]
(c) Cylinder pressures as a function of time. (d) Pump displacement settings as a function of time.
Figure 9: Simulation results of a load sensing system model and a flow control system model. The load sensing system
model is more oscillative due to its closed loop pressure control.
50 30
150
45
25 Load sensing
40
35
Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]
Flow [l/min]
100 20
30
25 15
20 ol
10 ntr
50
15 co
w
10 Flo
5
5
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [s] Time [s] Flow [l/min]
(a) Measured flow for both systems. The flow is (b) Measured pump pressure margin for both (c) Measured pump pressure margin as a func-
increased from zero to maximum. systems while the flow is increased. tion of measured flow. Load sensing systems
have a constant margin while flow control sys-
tems have a margin given by the system resist-
ances.
Figure 10: Experimental results showing the potential of reducing the pump pressure margin in flow control systems
compared to load sensing systems.
Simulation results pared to load sensing systems. This is because the pres-
sure difference between pump and load is given by the
A nonlinear simulation model has been built in
system resistance rather than a prescribed pump pressure
Hopsan [45] [46] to illustrate some of the differences
margin. The two system layouts have the same efficiency
between load sensing and flow control. The model con-
when the pump is saturated. However, at all other oper-
sists of a pump, a directional valve and a cylinder load.
ational points, flow control systems have higher energy
A step is made in the valve opening area and also in the
efficiency than load sensing systems. There are also po-
external force according to figure 9. The load sensing sys-
tential energy savings tied to the absence of active control
tem model is more oscillative in both cases. It can also
of the pump.
be noted that the pump displacement setting for the load
It is possible to combine flow control with other work-
sensing system is oscillating when a step is made in the
ing hydraulic systems. For example, flow control could
external force, although the velocity should remain con-
be used as a complement to pump controlled actuators.
stant.
Some high power consumers could have one dedicated
pump while other, low power, consumers share one com-
Experimental results mon pump. In that case, the total installed displacement
could be kept at a reasonable level while all pumps could
To verify the energy efficiency improvements in the flow
be displacement controlled. Another possibility might be
control concept, measurements were performed on a
to use an electric motor in combination with a fixed dis-
wheel loader application with an operational weight of
placement pump, like in EHA systems, but share it with
6900 kg. The machine was equipped with a pump that
several loads.
can be operated in both pressure and flow control modes
and a valve prepared for use with both traditional and flow
sharing compensators, placed upstream of the directional Funding
valve. This research was supported by Parker Hannifin, Bors,
In figure 10c, the pump pressure margin for both the Sweden.
load sensing and the flow control system can be seen. The
measurements agree with the theoretical pressure margin
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