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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

Levels of Organization

Biology - The systematic study of life. Atomic Level. Atom fundamental building block of all
- The science that deals with the study of living things. matter
Organisms living things Molecular level. Molecule association of 2 or more
Biosphere the part of earth that sustain life atoms.
Cellular Level - Cell is the smallest unit of life capable of
Importance carrying out all the functions of living things.
Food. All foods are made directly from living things, or Tissue Level. -Tissue is a group of cells performing a
indirectly from the products of organisms. specific function in a multicellular organism.
Biotechnology the use of organism to produce Organ Level. -An organ is a group of different tissues that
things that people need. function together for a special purpose.
Clothing. Most Clothing is made from biological products. Organ System Level. Organ system several organs
Shelter working together to perform a function.
Health Population Level. Population -a group of organisms of the
Fuel same species that live together in particular location.
Community Level. Community - all the population of
Characteristic of Life different kinds of organisms living in the same place.
All living things are made up of cells. Ecosystem. Ecosystem a community of organisms in an
Living things are highly organized. area, as well as the non-living factors of the environment.
All living things respond to the environment.
All living things use energy for growth and maintenance. Area of Study in Biology
Living things reproduce.
Living things grow and develop. Anatomy - Physical structure of humans or other animals.
Living things adapt to their environment for survival. Botany - Structure and function of plants.
Cytology - Structure and function of cells
Energy Ecology - Relationships among organisms and their
The capacity to do work environments.
Nutrient Ethology - Animal behavior.
Substance that is necessary for survival, but that an Genetics - Heredity.
organism cant make for itself Immunology - The bodys defenses against disease and
Producers foreign substances.
Organisms that make their own food using energy and Microbiology - Microscopic organisms.
Molecular Biology -The chemical processes within cells.
simple raw materials from the environment Ex: plants
Physiology - The functions of organs and organ systems.
Consumers
Taxonomy (Systemics) - The scientific classification and
Organisms that get energy and carbon by feeding on
naming of organisms.
tissues, wastes, or remains of other organisms Ex: animals Zoology - The structure and function of animals.

NOTE: Organisms sense and respond to change to keep conditions Variety of Organism
in their internal environment within a range that favors cell survival Kingdom Monera the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.
(homeostasis) Kingdom Protista include the plantlike protist and the
Homeostasis animal-like protists.
Set of processes by which an organism keeps its Kingdom Plantae
internal conditions within tolerable ranges. Kingdom Fungi unlike true plants, lack chlorophyll and
Receptor therefore cannot manufacture their own food.
Molecule or structure that responds to a stimulus. Kingdom Animalia

Growth Nature of Science


Increase in size, volume, and number of cells in multicelled Science is uncertain.
species, Science is always changing.
Development Science is collaborative.
Multistep process by which the first cell of a new individual
becomes a multicelled adult. Methods in Science
Reproduction Observing and Questioning.
Process by which parents produce offspring Designing an Experiment.
Inheritance Collecting and Analyzing Data.
Communicating Conclusions.
Transmission of DNA from parents to offspring
Finding Out More
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
Molecule that carries hereditary information about traits
4. Habitat: Major component of internal (organism) & external
Tools in Biology environments
Microscope are used to study organisms that are too Water is highly polar : shape, bond angle allow charge separation
small to be seen with the unaided eye. Hydrogen Bonding - bond forming between the positive pole of one
Light microscope focuses light onto specimen water molecule and the negative pole of another
using a mirror or a light bulb that can magnify up Organic Molecules - Any compound containing C (except CO2 and
to 1500x those containing CO3).
Electron microscope uses beam of electron to Hydrocarbon - Any compound with a C-H bond.
create an image that is about 1000 time better Monomer - building blocks of larger molecules
than a light microscope. Polymers - repeating subunits (monomers) bonded together
Computers have revolutionized the work of biologists by Dehydration Synthesis - Reactions to form most large organic
its ability to store and use large amounts of information and molecules. Molecule of water removed from bond area as monomers
analyze data. are linked.
Hydrolysis (Digestion) - Large organic molecules are broken up.
Techniques in Biology Molecule of water added to help remove the monomers.
Field Studies
Laboratory Studies
Separation Techniques Organic Molecules Found in Living Organisms
Electrophoresis molecules of mixture are
separated according to their shape, size and 1. Carbohydrates
electrical charge. Carbos = Sugars: C, H, O in 1:2:1 ratio (roughly
Cell Fractionation a centrifuge is used to CH2O)
separate mixtures by spinning them at various Types
speeds. MONOSACCHARIDES
Chromatography the components of a mixture simple sugars (The building block of all larger
of gas or liquid can be separated. sugars.)
Tissue Culture Examples of Monosaccharides:
a) Glucose - Form of simple sugar used by all
cells. From grapes & honey. (sweet!)
CHAPTER 2 : CHEMISTRY OF LIFE b) Fructose - Fruit sugar (sweet!)
Note: Glucose and fructose are isomers ( formula the same, but the
ATOMS: make up all matter O is on different Carbon atoms)
Protons (+) and neutrons (0) in nucleus Glucose and galactose are stereoisomers ( OH groups in same
Electrons (-) in orbits around nucleus spots, but in 1 spot they are mirror image of ea. other)
Atomic number = number of protons
DISACCHARIDES
Mass number = # protons + # neutrons
Double sugar // Formed by dehydration synthesis
Atomic mass = mass of protons + neutrons
In Neutral atoms: electron # = proton # (removal of water as the 2 monosaccharides
bond)
IONS charged particles Examples of Disaccharides:
# of electrons & protons differ a) Maltose = glucose + glucose
Cation: positive charge, electron(s) lost b) Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose
Anion: negative charge, electron(s) gained c) Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose

CHEMICAL BONDS POLYSACCHARIDES
starches, chains of sugars
1. IONIC BOND - atoms donate or receive electrons from Formed by dehydration synthesis (removal of water as all
other atoms. Example: NaCl the monosaccharides bond)
2. COVALENT BOND - two atoms share one or more pairs of Examples of Polysaccharides:
valence electrons. Ex: diatomic hydrogen a) Amylose: simple plant starch
b) Pectins: branched plant starch
WATER c) Glycogen: branched animal starch
constitutes two-thirds the mass of most organisms & 75% earth's d) Cellulose: component of plant cell walls, undigestible by
surface. most organisms, human dietary fiber

IMPORTANCE IMPORTANCE OF CARBO


1. Coolant: Has high heat of vaporization, aids body cooling. Glucose - key metabolic fuel (energy source) of all cells.
2. High specific heat: ( H20 = 1 cal / g / degree C ) - bodies of Animal Starch (Glycogen)- long term energy storage for animal cells
water stay constant temp. (stores the glucose molecules in a form not easily used!).
3. Transport: polarity - dissolves many substances.
Plant Starch (Amylose) - long term energy storage for plant cells NOTE: Dehydration Reactions (Building of larger molecules) add
(stores the glucose molecules in a form that is not easily used!) energy to organic molecules.
Cellulose - Structural polysaccharide of cell walls. Hydrolysis Reactions (those that tear apart molecules) release
Chitin - Structural polysaccharide of exoskeletons of insects and energy from the molecules.
crustaceans.
2. Proteins Saturated: all single bonds (many C-H bonds), hard, animal fats
They are organic molecules consisting of many Unsaturated: some double bonds (less C-H bonds), liquid, plant oils
amino acids bonded together.
Amino Acids Phospholipids
- Monomers or building blocks of all proteins. comprise cell membranes, soaps = glycerol, 2
PARTS fatty acids, 1 phosphate
a) Amino group (NH2) Polar head region faces outward
b) Carboxyl group (COOH) Non-polar tails face inward
c) R-group: variable- 20 R-groups, so only 20 amino
acids. Waxes
Peptide Bonds - Bond formed when 2 or more amino acids Compound composed of fatty acids and certain
bond. alcohols
Dipeptide- 2 amino acids joined by peptide bond. Some wax secretions form coatings that help
Polypeptide- many amino acids bonded together. protect, lubricate and maintain pliability of skin
Denaturaion - protein shape altered with changes in pH, and hair
temperature.
- Change in shape alters activity of enzyme. Lipids with no fatty acids
- Enzymes function within a narrow range of
these factors. Steroids
a) lipid hormones helps regulate the bodys growth and
FUNCTION OF PROTEINS development and reproduction
1) Enzyme catalysis: Enzymes help reactions occur more easily. b) cholesterol key component of animal cell membranes;
Example- Amylase (Converts starch to simple sugar.) used in the synthesis of Vitamin D
2) Defense: Antibodies - Globular proteins that "recognize" foreign c) vitamins (Vit. D)- development of bones and teeth
microbes. Terpenes
3) Transport- Hemoglobin (red blood cell protein). major biosynthetic building blocks within nearly every living
4) Structure / Support- Collagen, which forms the matrix of skin, creatures
ligaments, tendons and bones. many are aromatic hydrocarbons produced by plants
5) Motion- Actin, a muscle protein responsible for muscle contraction. with strong odor and with protective function
6) Regulation- Hormones which serve as intercellular messengers. STEROIDS derivative of triterpene sqalene
Example - Insulin (blood sugar regulation)
Prostaglandins
3. Lipids Physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse
Organic molecules insoluble in water due to hormone-like effect on animals
numerous non-polar C-H bonds. Derived enzymatically from fatty acids
Fats, oils, & waxes Found in every tissue in human and animals
FUNCTION OF LIPIDS
Nucleic Acid
1. Energy storage- Fats store glucose energy for long time periods.
-Hereditary Material
2. Chemical messengers- Steroid hormones (testosterone &
estrogen)
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA, master molecule, stores
3. Lipid bilayers of cell membranes
hereditary information
2. Ribonucleic acid: RNA, template copy
TYPES OF LIPIDS NUCLEOTIDES - monomers of nucleic acids.
Lipids with fatty acids Parts:
Has a long unbranched carbon backbone with 1. Sugar: 5-carbon ribose or deoxyribose
COOH group at the end. 2. Phosphate group
GLYCERIDE bodys most abundant lipids and the richest source of 3. Nitrogen base
energy
Triglycerides (fats) DNA Nucleotides
glycerol + three fatty acids a) Sugar = deoxyribose
They are nonpolar (don't dissolve well in water). b) Double helix form: two intertwined chains (double stranded)
ends of the fatty acids can be attracted to water. Specific base pairing, complementary
They tend to form circular blobs in water Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C)
Adenine(A) - Thymine (T)
RNA Nucleotides They are usually very small (less than 5m in length) with
a) Sugar = ribose relatively simple structure.
b) Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in RNA have no nuclei (prokaryotic means before a nucleus)
Uracil (U) - Adenine (A) EUKARYOTIC CELL
Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C) Plants, animals, protists, and fungi cells
c) Single stranded helix Larger cells (usually more than 10m in diameter)
Contains variety of membranous organelles
cells do have true nuclei ("eukaryotic" means "possessing a
true nucleus." )
CHAPTER 3 : CELL THEORY AND STUCTURE
THREE COMPONENTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cytology the study of cell structure and its functions
1. Plasma Membrane
Cell - the basic functioning unit of living things.
Also called the cell membrane
Scientist A double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids
It separates the cell from the surrounding
Rorbert Hooke (18 July 1635 - 3 March 1703) environment and act as selective filter for
1. He discovered cells in cork in 1665 materials attempting to pass into or out of the cell
2. Described elements of magnified cork as cells. involved in intercellular communications.
3. Wrote Micrographia 2. Nucleus
The most prominent organelle which is spherical
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) or ovoid in shape enclosed within two
4. He had a specific way of creating lenses membranes to form the double-layered nuclear
5. He could get his lenses up to 270x. envelope, the NUCLEAR MEMBRANE.
It contains CHROMATIN and one or more dense,
Theodore Schwann (18101882) granular structure, the NUCLEOLI.
6. He stated that cells are elementary particles of both plants The nucleus regulates all cell activity.
and animals (1830). Nucleolus
7. He also believed that fermentation granules (yeasts) were
- Within the nucleus are found
cells, and that cells were units of metabolism.
chromatin and a structure called the nucleolus.
- Chromatin is DNA in its active form.
Rudolf Virchow
- It consists of DNA looped around
First wrote that Every animal appears as a sum of vital
histone proteins.
units, each of which bears in itself the complete
- The nucleolus is a knot of chromatin.
characteristics of life.
- It is the nucleolus that manufactures
all cells come from cells.
ribosomes
He proposed cellular pathology, and described tumors,
healing of tissues etc.
3. Cytoplasm
He described all diseases as diseases of cells, and that it is
merely modified life, or modified cellular function. The substance between the cell membrane and
Three Principles of Cell Theory the nucleus.
Every living organism is made up of one or more cells Two Main Components
The smallest living organisms are single cells, and cells are Cytosol - A jellylike mixture that consists mostly
the functional units of multicellular organisms of water,
All cells arise from preexisting cells. Organelles - Membrane bound structures that
work like miniature organs, carrying out specific
MICROSCOPE functions in the cell.
Light Microscope the most common type of microscope
Electron Microscope use beams of electrons instead of ORGANELLES
light. 1. Mitochondria
Two Kinds of Electron Microscope Powerhouse of the cell because of the enzymes
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) passes located on the CRISTAE carry out the energy
electrons through a thin specimen, and can reveal minute yielding steps of anaerobic metabolism.
subcellular structures 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) bounces electrons A series of interconnected membranous tubes
off specimen that have been coated with metals, and and channels in the cytoplasm.
provide three dimensional images. SEMs can be used to Synthesize proteins and lipids
view structures ranging in size from entire insects down to There are two forms of ER:
cells and even organelles. a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
PROKARYOTIC CELL 3. Ribosomes
Mostly bacteria The rough E.R. has ribosomes attached to it.
This gives it its texture. - It anchors the microfilaments of actin muscle
These ribosomes manufacture proteins for the cells, ensuring that the cells do not tear themselves apart
cell. during strong contractions.
4. Golgi Complex or Golgi Apparatus 2. Specialty Structures
A specialized set of membranous sacs derived a. Centrioles
from ER Centrioles are found only in animal cells.
They function in cell division.
b. Vacuoles
3 MAJOR FUNCTIONS Sacs bounded by single membrane
1. Separates proteins and lipids received from ER storing of food or wastes, eliminating water
according to their destinations. and supporting the cell
2. It modifies some molecules c. Cell Walls
3. It packages these materials into vesicles that are the rigid structure found surrounding plant
transported to other parts of the cell or the plasma cells.
membrane for export They provide support for the plant .
5. Lysosomes d. Plastids
Membranous vesicles that contain enzymes for large organelles found on plants and some
digestion of food. protists but not in animals or fungi.
The major function of lysosomes is to digest food They can easily be seem through a light
particles microscope.
1. Cytoskeleton
Chloroplasts represent one group of plastids
Network of protein fibers wherein most of the
called chromoplasts (colored plastids).
organelles are attached.
The other class of plastid are called
Several types of protein fibers, including thick
leucoplasts (colorless plastids); they
MICROTUBULES, medium-sized usually store food molecules. Included in
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS, and thin this group are amyloplasts or starch
MICROFILAMENTS make up the skeleton. plastids shown here in potato root cell.
These provide support and maintain the form of e. Cilia and Flagella
the cell, and in many cells, they provide a means These are hair like extensions off of the cell
of locomotion and translocation of organelles membrane.
within the cells.
Their structures are similar except that cilia
tend to be small and numerous and flagella
o Microfilaments
tent to be large and fewer.
- Thin linear structures, where they are
Their they beat back and forth rythmically. In
responsible for the ability of the cell to contract.
- They are made of protein called ACTIN unicellular organisms their job is locomotion.
- Some proteins bind with actin and determine In large multicell organisms their role is to
the configuration and behavior in particular cells. One of move fluid past the cell.
these is MYOSIN, the interaction of which with actin causes Notice the 9+2 arrangement of the
contraction in muscle and other cells. microtubles.

o Microtubules Membrane Structure and Function


- Larger than microfilaments. Functions of cell membrane
- Tubular structures composed of proteins called Isolates the cell cytoplasm from the external
TUBULIN. environment
- They play a vital role in moving the Regulates the exchange of essential substances
chromosomes toward the daughter cells during cell between the cytoplasm and the external
division. environment to maintain internal balance called
- They are important intracellular architecture, homeostasis.
organization and transport. Communicates with other cells
- Essential parts of the structures of CILIA and Identifies the cell as belonging to a particular
FLAGELLA. species and particular individual member of that
- They radiate out from a microtuble organizing species.
center called the CENTROSOME. Within the centrosome Basic Structure of Cell Membrane
are found pair of CENTRIOLES, which are themselves 1. Phospholipids
composed of microtubules. Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of phospholipids
1. Phosphate head is polar (water loving)
o Intermediate Filament 2. Fatty acid tails non-polar (water fearing)
- Normally found in only one or a few cell types 3. Proteins embedded in membrane
2. Proteins
Floating around in the cell membrane are different kinds of o Hypotonic: lower concentration of solutes
proteins. and a higher concentration of water than
These are generally globular proteins. inside the cell. (Low solute; High water)
They are not held in any fixed pattern but instead float Result: Water moves from the solution
around in the phospholipid layer. to inside the cell): Cell Swells and bursts
open (cytolysis)
o Hypertonic: higher concentration of solutes
Three Categories of Protein.
TRANSPORT PROTEINS - Proteins that regulate transport and and a lower concentration of water than
diffusion inside the cell. (High solute; Low water)
RECECEPTOR PROTEINS - allow the cell to receive instructions Result: Water moves from inside the
RECOGNITION PROTEINS - serve as identification tags and cell- cell into the solution: Cell shrinks
surface attachment sites. (Plasmolysis)
o Isotonic: The concentration of solutes in the
4. Steriods solution is equal to the concentration of
a component of cell membranes in the form of cholesterol. solutes inside the cell.
Water moves equally in both directions
When it is present it reduces the fluidity of the membrane.
and the cell remains same size! (Dynamic
Not all membranes contain cholesterol. Equilibrium)
About the Cell Membrane Active Transport
Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it cell uses energy (ATP)
a. Selectively permeable: Allows some molecules in and
actively moves molecules to where they are
keeps other molecules out
b. The structure helps it be selective! needed
Types of Cellular Transport Movement from an area of low concentration
Passive Transport to an area of high concentration
cell uses no energy (Low High)
molecules move randomly
Molecules spread out from an area of high Types of Active Transport
1. Protein Pumps
concentration to an area of low concentration.
-ransport proteins that require energy to do work
(HighLow)
Example: Sodium / Potassium Pumps are important in
nerve responses.
Types of Passive Transport
1. Diffusion 2. Endocytosis
random movement of particles from an area The process wherein large molecules enter the
of high concentration to an area of low cell
concentration. (High to Low) Three Types
Diffusion continues until all molecules are o Pinocytosis (Cell Drinking) the tiny
evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached)-
droplets of extra cellular fluid with all its
Note: molecules will still move around but stay
contained solutes are taken in by engulfing.
spread out.
o Phagocytosis (Cell Eating) the large
particles of whole cells are ingested
2. Facilitated Diffusion
o Receptor Mediated Endocytosis the
diffusion of specific particles through
transport proteins found in the membrane specific substance are ingested by binding
Transport Proteins are specific they to receptor proteins located in coated its on
select only certain molecules to cross the the membrane.
membrane 3. Exocytosis
Transports larger or charged molecules Forces material out of cell in bulk
3. Osmosis membrane surrounding the material fuses with cell
The diffusion of water across semi- membrane
permeable membrane Cell changes shape requires energy
OSMOTIC PRESSURE - the physical EX: Hormones or wastes released from cell
pressure that exactly balances the osmosis
of water
TONICITY - Refers to the strength of a
solution in relation to osmosis.

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