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    Saurabh Tomar
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    Techniques of Integration

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    17 tayangan72 halaman

    Techniques of Integration

    Diunggah oleh

    Saurabh Tomar
    Techniques of Integration

    Hak Cipta:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Unduh sebagai PDF atau baca online dari Scribd
    Tandai sebagai konten tidak pantas
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    TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION | Simpson's Rule estimates i Integrals by approximating i ‘raphe with parabolas, I Because of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we ean integrate a function if we know an antiderivative, that is, an indefinite integral. We summarize here the most important integrals that we have learned so fa: | frac ee on-y fter=tnjxi+e ! fe Jouagiee fsinxde= -coss +6 fowsdee sin +c | fecrdr=tans+¢ fewsde= cots +c | fucsunsds=seox46 foscxcotxds— cer +c f sth xde= cosh n+ Jeo ede sine + frmsac= infses| +c fords —in|sin x] 4.6 (s)+e Jyprersn(E)+e Inti chapter we develop tacaigus fr usng these basic negation formulas ob indefinite imtgrls of more complied fnctions. We ered the mest imptant meth of integration, the Substitution Roe, n Sesdon 3.3. Te other general ecnigu, integration by pans is presented in Section 7.1 Then we lam methods at ae speci opatiular Cases of functions, sch 8 igononerc functions and raion functions i Integration i not a straightforward a diferentation; thee are no rales that absolutely guaran obisning an indefinite integral of fiction Therefore we discuss a strategy fo interaton in Seton 73, ry INTEGRATION BY PARTS Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule, For instance, the Substi- ‘ution Rule for integration corresponds to the Chain Rule for differentiation. The rule that corresponds to the Product Rule for differentiation is called the rule for integration by arts, ‘The Product Rule states that if f and g are differentiable functions, then 4 Clog] = Fog") + 9d) In the notation for indefinite integrals this equation becomes [Ue + KP Clde = fa) or Jres9'o ds + f gaye) ae = fogs) ‘We can rearrange this equation as, o Jesiata) de = peaiate) = f obey) ae Formula 1 is called the formula for integration by parts, I is perhaps easier to remem- ber in the following notation. Let w= f(x) and » = g(x), Then the differentials are du = f'(a) dx and do = g'(x) ds, so, by the Substitution Rule, the formula for integration by parts becomes a Judo wo ~ [ode EXAMPLE ind fen xe SOLUTION USING FORMULA | Suppose we choose f(x) = x and g'(x) = sin x. Then f(x) = 1 and g(x) = —e0s x. (For g we can choose any antiderivative of g',) Thus, using Formula 1, we have [sin xde = fladoo ~ f atarax = x(-008.2) ~ f (—e08 2) ax manson t feos eae = nreoss + sins + C It’s wise to check the answer by differentiating it. If we do so, we get x sin x, as expected. 3 454 ||| CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION ‘© Rishpu suse he pate “0 @#=0 wo eo fe cantar towite 1 es fe. Check the nse by ifertiirg it SOLUTION UsiNG FORMULA 2 Let wex dv = sin vdx Then du= de v= =cosx and so ew mY ed (Geos x) — [(-e083) ax Jrsinsée~ fF tnzat a -nom nt fens xd = -xoosx+ sing + C a HDTE] Our aim in sing integration by parts isto obtain a simpler integral than the one ‘we started with, Thus in Example I we started with [.xsin xd and expressed itin terms, of the simpler integral f cos x ds. If we had instead chosen u = sin x and de = x ds, then d= cox dx and v = x'/2,s0 integration by parts gives Jxsinxax = Gina) ~ 5 f xtcos.rds Although this is ru, {cos x dis a more difficult integral than the one we started with In general, when deciding on a choice for w and dv, we usually try to choose w = (x) 0 be a function that becomes simpler when differentiated (or atleast not more eomplicated) as long as do = g/(s) dx can be readily integrated to give v. (1 AMPLE? alte fax SOLUTION Here we don’t have much choice for « and dv, Let winx do=dx Then duntdc one Inegating by pans, we et Jude sine~ fr& ! sn ~ fa wsmsnnte by parts is effective in this example because the derivative of the function Integrati o ‘S(8) = In xis simpler than f, q e s a h 9 Anas method tng camplex umber, i sienna 0 in Aapndic. a SECTION 7.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS [|| 455 EXANPLE 9 Find [ee SOLUTION Notice that? becomes simpler when differentiated (whereas eis unchanged When differentiated or integrated), so we choose uae dv ede Then du= Udi ume! Integration by parts gives B [Petar = Pe = 2) rede The integral that we oblained [re' dis simpler than the original integeal but is il not abvious. Therefore, we use integration by pats a second time, this time with = 1 and do = e'dt. Then du = dt, » = e', and * Jwamwe- fed aware Poting thin Eguton 3, we et Jed =e area = Pe — Ate! — e+ C) Pe — Die! + Qe! + Cy where Cy = ~2C o U2 exanPAs 4 Evaluate fsa x SOLUTION Neither e* nor sin x becomes simpler when differentiated, but we try choosing, w= and d= snd anya. Tends = sand 0 = eon oincnonty Parts gives a fetsinxde= Yoon. + [ereossdr ‘The integral that we have obiained, [e*cos x dx, is no simpler than the original one, but at least it's no more dificult. Having had suceess inthe preceding example integrating by parts vce, we persevere and integrate by parts again. This time we use u =e" and da = cos xdx. Then du = e*ds, 0 = sin x, and 8 Jetcos.sds = o'sin x ~ fe'sinvds At first glance, it appears as if we have accomplished nothing because we have arrived st {e'sin.x dx, which is where we started. However, if we put the expression for {e*eos xd fiom Equation 5 into Equation 4 we get Jesinede= cos Jetsin xa 456 |Il|_ CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION | Fey 1 stats Exley show loge hs of f(x) = ein and a) = fsa = cos»). Asa visu chest cur wat, rots tat fs) = O when Fas FIGURE | Sie anc > O fx = 0, he ing in Example Scan ba terete he tof the region shown i Fu yt Figure 2 “This can be regarded as an equation tobe solved forthe unknown integral. Adding {fe sin x dr to both sides, we obtain 2[ etsinxdx = ~e*cos x + e*sinx Dividing by 2 and adding the constant of integration, we get e"(sin x — 6083) + C a fe'sinxas If we combine the formula for integration by parts with Part 2 of the Fundamental ‘Theorem of Caleulus, we can evaluate definite integrals by parts. Evaluating both sides of Formula 1 between a and b, assuming J" and g’ are continuous, and using the Fundamental Theorem, we obtain o [[eateyas=scomtol ~ ff ocirter ar } EXANPLE 5 Caen fn“ sOuUTION Let ‘Then So Formula 6 gives arte = at T+ star! = 0-0 = f “a lite dx To evaluate this integral we use the substitution ¢ = I + x? (since w has another meaning in this example). Then dt ~ 2x ds, so xdx = $ dt, When x = 0,¢ = 1; when x= 1, 250 Therefore al f al 1s atin 7 calla veiconfmula eas the exponent n has teen eae ne tanda 2 SECTION 7.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS. Ill 457 EXAMPLE 6 Prove the reduction formula a Jsintede= Lessin le 221 [sinter where & 2 is an integer. du = sin xdx SOLUTION Let ‘Then duc = (n ~ 1) sin x-c08 xd v= ~cos x so integration by parts gives [sins a = ~cos xsint™'x + (n ~ 1) f sine costeds ‘Since cos*x = 1 — sin®x, we have J sinrs ts = —cos sine + (n= 1) [sated ~ (9 ~ 1) fsinte ds i AAs in Example 4, we solve this equation for the desired integral by taking the last term ‘on the right side to the eft side. Thus we have viet t= 0 [intra mf site de = con S fated a ‘The reduction formula (7) is useful because by using it repeatedly we could eventually ‘express [ sin'x dx in terms of {sin x ds (i nis od) or f (sin !"dx = f dx (i mis even). ExeRcises 12 Bre te ep si neptiony rns wih ie 1 facta seat 2. fornpap Dl fitisds: on ts dose ts freee fore | §focssnes; w= a de= odo ga jour 16 fiesaeaa 2 bate be meg fe snaeas 1a fetcos20dn BW freossede sede Jrsssna 4 fara 1 [Srsinsra Wort nena DB fone & fossa ; 21. [ reosh td n. Pa, i 8 feenmeae en Ire Pas o [fveisede * Jars nae ie fares 458 CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 5. (ay 26, [arcane ¢) Us po oo ent [7 sabe drand sn’. be s {6 Use part (te show tha, For odd powers of sie, Pog 2 (ins a7, [cor eae wo (Oa [Caeser 1? 9, [ cos. insin) dx 30. loan ‘46. Prove that, for even powers of sine, ee - thong pee ES = a. fisttnae 2. [fern 9s [Pawar PESOS Sao eae 433238 First make a substitution and then vse integration by parts 47-50 Use tegration by pars to prve the reduction fom. toca tenes Bf twsrde xen f (marae 33. [cos ve dr 3a fret ar fa foreracn ite nferiede G5) [Ee costo a0 36, [Temm'sin 2dr ye eR) a, {xm +24 , fin 9 ae " a ee ee ; tan x soot 0, [ metrde = Ai2 feerteas me fe agc Erte ns rr Mt A | ‘far answer is reasonable, by graphing both the function and its antierivatve (take C= 0 Si. Use Exercise 47 0 find f (in) a. i 9 fore seed (0, [20 nae $2. Use ace 4 ff de | 53-54 Find the area ofthe region bounded bythe given cues, | an [eye ds aa, [tsinzrde eae me } sa yaxe™, yod, x5 1 sa yoSing, yo sing 7 43, (@) Use the redotion Formals in Example 6 10 show that Byshs a Jawcar-Z- Be Els5-56 Use graph on approximate coors of be 27 4 pnts of intersection ofthe given curves. Then find (2PPO {(b) Use porta) and the reduction formula to evaluate mately the area ofthe epfon bounded by the ues Jsinted. ss yaasinn, yo (s~2F 44, (a) Prove the seduction formula 56. y=wcan3y, y= ie 1 ee (irene 1-60 Us the meted of clinical shel t find he vlane overated By coating the region bounded by the given cures (b) Use part (a) 0 evaluate j cos" dx shout the specified axis. {o) Use parts (a) end (6) 10 evaluate f cos" ds. Ey = cos(ns/2). 9 = 45, (a) Use the reduction formula in Example 6 vo show that osx< 1; about the y-axis sa yee yoet xt about the axis (P sincas seater shows sayresy 60. yeh, x= 0, y= about te xanis where n = 2 isan integer SECTION 7.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS |_ 459 61. Find the average value of f(x) = x? Inon the interval [1,3]. parts on the resulting integral to prove that 62. A rocket accelerates by buming its onboard fuel, so its mass. v= [i aes dr decreases with ime. Suppose the ital mass ofthe rocket at lift Gncluding is fue) ism, the fue i consumed at rate r, tnd the exhaust gases are ejected with constant velocity #¢ seb) y= fu) (relative to the rocket). A model for the velocity ofthe rocket atime is given by the equation oft) = ~gt ~ ven 3 where g isthe acceleration due to gravity and 1 i not too large. fg = 9.8 m/s, m = 30,000 ky, r= 160 kg/s, and = 3000 mys, ind the height of the racket one minute 68, Leth, = [oP sinc, after tof (8) Show thet fsa 5 loots & fw (0) Use Buercse 46 10 show that BIA particle that moves along a straight tine has velocity (2) =e meters per second after 1 seconds. How far will : os In h ittravel during the first» seconds? cn aes 4. IF (0) ~ o(0) = Oand 7” ang” are continuous, show that (0 Use ei a a show de » Siow" e) de = flog) ~ Fado) + [°F Ueto) ax 6. Suppose that (1) = 2, /()= 7, $1) = 5, 7") ~ 3, and 1s continues, Find tho value of ff 31°) dx, (& (@) Use imegration by parts to show that fst ds = afte) ~ [arenas (©) FF and g are inverse Functions and J" is continuous, = prove that [rerae= 70) ~ afta) ~ ainay and is called the Wallis produc. Unt: Use part (2) and make the substitution y = /(x).) (©) We consrut rectangles as follows, Stet with «square of (©) Inthe case where f and gare positive functions and area 1 and attach rectangles of area 1 altematly beside or > a > 0, draw a diagram to give a geometric intespre- ‘on top ofthe previous rectangle (see the figure). Find the = tation of part (0). limit ofthe ratios of width (0 height of these rectangles. (8 Use part (b) to evaluate ff In xd. 61, We arved at Formula 63.2, ¥= jt 2nf(a) dx, by using 1 «plindricl shells, but now we ean use integration by parts to 1 Drove it using the slicing method of Section 6:2, atleast for I the eae where fis one-one and therefore has an inverse Funetion g, Use the figure to show tat V= abla ~ wae — | ala(y)Pay soealgns| 1 Make the substitution y = f(x) and then use integration by 4460 |Il|_ CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS ‘eFige 1 shows the graf hs integrons Sin’ costs it amp 2 ands indent ine pal nth C= O, Wich is ih? 02 =02 FIGURE | In this section we use trigonometr identities to integrate certain combinations of trigo- rometric functions. We start with powers of sine and cosine. xr 4 Evin ose Solurion Simply substituting u = cos x isn't helpful, since then die = ~sin.xd. In order to integrate powers of cosine, we would need an extra sin xfactor. Similarly, a power of fine would require an extra cos x factor. Thus here we ean separate one cos ye factor and ‘convert the remaining cos'x factor to an expression involving sine using the identity sin?x + costs = 1: cos" = cos + cos. x = (I~ sin®x) cos x We can then evaluate the integral by substituting w = sin x, so due = cos xdx and [ew'eae= fos Jeeas xd [ (1 ~ sneos xd = Jd ydum ume ee =sinx In general, we try to write an integrand involving powers of sine and cosine is where we have only one sine fact = fins + C a ‘form (or (and the remainder of the expression in terms of Soeine) or only one cosine factor (and the remainder of the expression in terms of sine. ‘The identity sin'x + cos'x = | enables us to convert back and forth between even powers of sine and cosine. pas 1 Find fared Soyurion We could convert cos" to 1 — sin*x, but we would be left with an expression in terms of six with no extra cos x factor. Instead, we separate a single sine factor and rewrite the remaining sin‘r factor in terms of cos x: sin’x costx — (sin?s)! cos*x sin x = (I~ €0s?x)?cos"x sin x Substituting u — cos x, we have du = —sin x dx and so J sintx costzalx = f(sints cost sin xx -ja =ja costs + Zcos*x — $eos’x + C — cos'x)*costx sin x dx = uP (aay = —f 0 = 2 + we s Bample shows that te rao th rein ‘how in gu 28/2. FIGURE 2 SECTION 7.2 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS lll 461 In the preceding examples, an odd power of sine or cosine enabled us to separate a single factor and convert the remaining even power. If the integrand contains even powers (of both sine and cosine, this strategy fails. In this ease, we can take advantage of the fol- lowing half-angle identities (see Equations 17b and 17a in Appendix D): sin?x=4(1 — cos 2x) and —_cosv = 4(1 + 0s 2x) (2 EXAMPLE 3. Evaluate [* sin’x dx. SOUUTION If we write sin? = 1 — cos the integral is no simpler to evaluate. Using the half-angle formula for sin’, however, we have ( sds = 3 {" (1 ~ cos 2x) de = [x — fsin 20) = (m7 —4sin 2x) - (0-4 sin0) = br Notice that we mentally made the substitution w= 2x when integrating cos 2x. Another ‘method for evaluating this integral was given in Exercise 43 in Section 7.1 o EXAMPLE 4 Find J snc ds. SalUTION We could evaluate this integral using the reduction formula for [sin'x dx (Equation 7.1.7) together with Example 3 (asin Exerise 43 in Section 7-1), but a beter method is to write sin‘x = (sin*x)* and use a half-angle formula: J sin'sas = [ (sintsPade 1 = cos 2x \* ~ [a <1 = 20052" + cos*2x) dx Since cos?2x occurs, we must use another half-angle formula cos"2x = 3(1 + cos 4x) This gives fointeae=4] [1 - 200822 + + cos dx)]dx = Ef = 2e082x + 4 cos 4x) de ~ sin 2x + f sin 4x) + © o To summarize, we lst guidelines to follow when evaluating integrals of the form J sin eos"x ds, where m > 0 and n > O ae integers. 40 | | \ | \ | [CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION STRATEGY FOR EVALUATING fin costed (a) I the power of cosine is odd (n= 2k + 1), save one cosine factor and use cost = 1 ~ sin'x to express the remaining factors in terms of sine: f srccnst nae fit oocon eds J sints (1 ~ sin's)'cos xd ‘Then substitute « = sin x (©) Ifthe power of sine is odd (m = 2k + 1), save one sine fator and use sin’x = I~ cose to express the remaining factors in terms of cosine: J sin™*1x cos"x dx = f (sinx)'cos"x sin x dx = Jd ~ costaytcosts sin x ae “Then substitute u = cos x. [Note that ifthe powers of both sine and cosine are ‘odd, either (a) or (b) can be used.] (©) Ifthe powers of both sine and cosine are even use the hal-angle identities sin’x =4(1 — 0s 2x) costx = (1 + cos 24) It is sometimes helpful to use the identity sin x cos x = }sin 2x ‘We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals ofthe form { tan" see"x a. Since (aja) tan.x-= seo", we can separate a sec* factor and convert the remaining (ves) power of secant to an expression involving tangent using te ident secs = | tas Or since (d/ds) see x= see «tan x, we can separate a Sec-x tan. factor and convert the remaining (even) power of tangent 0 secant, ca exe 5 Erle fn ssa SOLUTION If we separate one sects factor, we can express the remaining secix factor in terms of tangent using the identity sec®x = 1 -+ tan*x. We can then evaluate the integral by substituting w = tan x so that die = sectx dx: fant sects = fn sete ee = [tante (I + ants) sectx as fut +i )du = fut + udu Fran?x + jtan?x + C g¥ee SECTION 7.2 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS |] 469, EXAMPLE 6 Find fn es SOUWTION IE we separate a sec*6 factor, as in the preceding example, we are left with 8ec*O factor, which isn’t easily converted to tangent. However, if we separate a sec tan 8 factor, we can convert the remaining power of tangent to an expression involving only secant using the identity tan@ = sec? — 1, We can then evaluate the integral by substituting u = sec 6, 50 duu = see 0 tan 0 d0: Js sco 0 [toss seco an odo = J (ee'a — 1see%6 sec tan 0.46 = fe war = fe = au udu J wsec"@ — 3 sec@ + 4 sec’a + C o ‘The preceding examples demonstrate strategies for evaluating integrals of the form J tan" sec"x dx for two cases, which we summarize here. STRATEGY FOR EVALUATING tans sed (a) If the power of secant is even (u = 2k, k = 2), save a factor of sec" and use secix = 1+ tant to express the remaining factors in terms of tan x: Jeans seotsax = f tants (secs) sec%e dx = f tants (1 + tanta) secede ‘Then substitute w = tan x, (0) IF the power of tangent is odd (mm = 2k + 1), save a factor of see x tan x and use tan’x = sec? ~ 1 to express the remaining factors in terms of see x: Jane seorede= [Gaiters see en rd = fle Neon see tn cs ‘Then substitute w = see x, For other cases, the guidelines are not as clear-cut, We may need to use identities, inte- ‘ration by parts, and occasionally alittle ingenuity. We will sometimes necd to be able to 464 || CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION intograte tan x by using the formula established in (5.5.5): Jranxdx = In|see.x| + C We will also need the indefinite integral of secant: oa Joccxds = In|seex + tans] + ¢ ‘We could verify Formula | by differentiating the right sie, or as follows. First we muli- ply numerator and denominator by sec x + tan x: frecade~ {cost t Eas secx + sec x tan = pst ae wee + tan x If we substitute w = seo.x + tan x, then du = (see x tan x + sec%x) dx, so the integrl ‘becomes | (1/1) die = In | + C. Thus we have Jsecxds= In|scex + tan] + C xan 7 Find cds Soustion Here only tan.x occurs, so we use tan?x = sec"x ~ | to rewrite a tans factor in terms of sec*x: aos ae = fn tances = fn x Gee's ee é = funssectede~ frunzas | eK — infsee x] +e In the frst imteprl we mentally substituted w = tn xs0 that d= sect ds. oa ‘fan even power of tangent sppears with an odd power of secant its helpful to exr the integrand completely in terms of secs. Powers of see may require integration PY parts, as shown in the following example, anus © id feed ; SOUUTION Heere we integrate by parts with wm seox du = seox tan xdx us 2a pres on ty Tas roduc ete er cuss in Pont. EXERCISES il ‘49 Evaluate the integral 1 fun costeds Df site covea 8 sina) cos") ds I" caroae SECTION 7.2 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS ||| 465 J sectx ds = see.x tan x~ [ see. tans dx = see xtanx — f see x (Gee's — 1) dr = secxtanx— faccteds + f reeds Using Formula 1 and solving for the required integral, we get Jsce’sdx = ceo x tan.x + In|sec x + tan |) + a Integrals such as the one in the preceding example may seem very special but they ‘occur frequently in applications of integration, as we will sce in Chapter 8. Integrals of the form fcot"x ese'rdx can be found by similar methods because of the identity 1 + cot’x = csc*x, Finally, we ean make us of another set of trigonometic identities: 2 To evaluate the integrals (a) f sin mx cos nx ds, (b) f sin ms sin nx dx, oF (© § cos mx cos nx dx, use the corresponding identity: (a) sin A cos & = {fsin(A — B) + sin(a + B)) (b) sin sin B HTeos(A ~ B) ~ eox(A + B)) (©) cos A cos B = Sfeos(A ~ B) + cos(A + By) EXAMPLE 9 Evan sin dso Sed SOLUTION ‘This integral could be evaluated using integration by parts, but it's easier to use the identity in Equation 2(a) as follows: J sin dx cos Sex =f S[sin(—x) + sin Ox] ax =] (csinx + sin gx) ae = i(c08 x — $c0s 9x) + a 9. [F sinta0 ae to. [*costado 2. f sits cos'eae Uf (+ cos oF ao 12, [ cose 1 J int ota 14. [Sse costa 8. [1 snr00 a0 16 fcos9costsin)o 15 [aw 466 Ill [CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION. 1, f costs tan ede cate sinto d6 ost SE yy 20, f costx sin 2x dx 1 21, fees neds na, [27 seoti/2) ae toned 24, { (ant + ants) de 25, [ sectrdr 26, [sect wntodd 27, (7? tans see's dx 28, { tn'(2a) see'(20) dx (B) J tans see xdx 30, J" tante see*x dx ai. J un’s ax 2, [ tntey dy za. [a0 34, [ante soca @ 35, [ xeecxtnxdr ws BS aa a7, [eatde 38, (eatae 39, f cot’a cre’a da 40, J csetx cottx ds sh. Joona a [eed (43) J sin 8x cos Sx dx 44. ‘cos 4rx de 4s. [sins sous ao [PEEL af tae a 449, feseo*(") tan) de a ce eee 50, If tants seexdx pl tants oe in terms of ‘express the value of i 51-54 Evalunte the indefinite integral. llustrate, and check that Your answer i reasonable, by graphing both the integrand and its “amtiderivaive (aking C = 0). x costed a) de sa, finden ede 4 foot Lae i (55] Find the average value ofthe function /(3) the interval [=7, 7]. 56, Evaluate [sin x cos x dx by four methods: (4) the substitution u = 05 (8) the substitution u = sin. {e) the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x e08 x (4) integration by parts Explain the different appearances ofthe answers. 157-58 Find the ares of the rogion bounded by the given curves, Sh yesints, y=eos's, —a/texs a/4 n/a Salt 159-60 Use a graph of the integrand to guess the value of the integral. Then use the methods of this section to prove that your guess is corect. gn, [cored to, [sinter essere ee {61-64 Find the volume obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified axis. [i y= sins, y= 0, 9/2 tame oe | 7.3|_ TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION In finding the area ofa cite or an ellipse, an integral ofthe form { Ya? =a? dv arises, where a0 were frat dete sabaion woud be effective but, as it stands, f Va?” — 3? dx is more difficult, If we change the variable from xto 6 by the substitution = a sin @, then the identity 1 — sin@ = cos*6 allows us to get rid ofthe 100K sign because lak <3 = Ja? = at ain = Ja — sin*®) = a?cos"® = alcos 6] Notice the difference between the substitution = a* — x? (in which the new variable is 4 function of the old one) and the substitution x = a sin @ (the old variable isa function of - the new one). In gencral we can make a substitution of the form x = g(t) by using the Substitution Rule in reverse. To make our calculations simpler, we assume that g has an inverse func- tion; that is, gis one-to-one. In this case, if we replace u by x and x by 1 in the Substitution Rule (Equation 5.5.4), we obtain J 16) ax ~ [ fatoyg'o ar ‘This kind of substitution is called inverse substitution, ‘We can make the inverse substitution x = a sin @ provided that it defines a one-to-one q function. This can be accomplished by restricting 0 to lie in the interval (~ 7/2, 7/2]. In the following table we list trigonometsic substitutions that are effective forthe given ridical expressions because of the specified trigonometric identities. In each case the restric- tion on 0 is imposed to ensure that the function that defines the substitution is one-to-one. (These are the same intervals used in Section 1.6 in defining the inverse functions.) TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS apelin Sebtaon Tey erasing Zags 1 = s'o= one are wna —Eeoed + ao= se8 2 3x - si re ase O because —n/2 < @-< 1/2.) Thus the Inverse Subsiuion Rule ives er ed =f a0= | covoae = J (eto 1) a0 = cota 9+ Since this san indefinite integral we must return 1 the original variables, This can be sae ne by using trigonometric Kents to expres cot 6 in terms of sin = 3/3 oF So craing a agra as in Figure 1, where @ is nerpreted as an angle of 2M oe Sncosn 0 1/3, we abel he opposite ideand he hypotense ashaving ens ‘and 3. Then the Pythagorean Theorem gives the Iength of the adjacent side as v9 =“ eve can simply ead the value of cot @ from he igre: cot = {atthough 0 On the diagram, his expression for et 0 is valid even when #< 0.) Cee awe have 0 = sn""73) and 80 pea wie (S) +e o 4 EXAMPLE 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse Because the ellipse is symmetric with respect to both axes, the total area Ais four i Paras inthe fst quadrant (see Figure 2).The part of the ellipse inthe first quadrant given by the function SECTION 73 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION jl] 489 ‘To evaluate this integral we substitute x = a sin @. Then dx = a cos @ dé. To change the nits of integration we note tit when x =, sin 6 = 0,80.0 = Os when os sin = 1.30 6 = 9/2 Ako Vat HF = fa? =a sin'G = Ja? c05°O = a|cos O| = acos 0 since 0 < 0°< 1/2. Therefore ana Para H ar 42 [acon 0+ cos 040 = 4ab [" cos70d0 = dab [°° 4(1 + cos 26) do = 2a8lo + fsin 202" = 2ai( +0-0)= mab We have shown ht he sof an elise with eniaes aan 6 sab, npc, : ‘aking a = b = r, we have proved the famous formula tha the area of acirte with rads ris a Since the integral in Example 2 was a definite integral, we changed the limits of integration and did not have to convert back to the original variable x wa ear Find fh a SOLUTION Let x = 2 tan 6, 77/2 < @< 7/2. Then dx = 2 sec?@d and VE FE = ViianOF Ty = (TRG = 2| see 0| = 2500 0 Thus we have 2 seo d6 sec alae Sgr I ratte a So To vate his wigoometi tral we put everything in ems of sn and cos sec 1 costo _ tan*@ cos @ sin’@ ‘Therefore, making the substitution w = sin 0, we have Saeed ‘We use Figure 3 to determine that ese 0 = Jf 4/x and so EEE laa He a 470 All FIGURE 4 sec =F CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION. exampue 4 Find | oepy de Souuniow 1 would be possible to use the trigonometric substitution + —~ 2 tan @here (asin Example 3) But the direct substitution « =x? + 4is simpler, because then de = 2rd and X_ gpot [Mn fotcn erate 0 eee a) Ye Example 4illsates the fact that even when trigonometric subsituons ae ble they may nt give the eset solution, You shoud Tok or asimpler method rs. cxtwnes endo | zce ston > 0 souurion | We let x — a see 8, where 0 < 0 < 1/2 or < 6 < 3a7/2, Then dx = asec 6 tan 0.d0and LET a = leSTHT) = VaF a7 = aan 6] = a tan d ‘Therefore asec 0 tan 4 4 [ye lta” =f sec @d9 = In|seo 9+ tan 0] + C ‘The triangle in Figure 4 gives tan @ = Vt" — a?/a, so we have fee X + +c as Sern" = infxt Yea | Ina $C C= Ina, we have o Jair eh rele Sowiow 2 For x > 0 the hyperbole substitution x = a cosh ¢ can also be used. Using the identity eoshy — sinh?y = 1, we have Jaa = Jat(eosht — 1) = Ya" sinh = a sinh t Since dx = a sinh ¢ dt, we obtain asin rdt Spe Dns aor Since cosh t = x/a, we have f = cosh” "(x/a) and | o [qigereom (2) +e are SECTION 7.3 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION Il] 471 Although Formulas 1 and 2 look quite different, they are actually equivalent by Formula 3.11.4, o ‘As Example illustrates, hyperbolic substitutions canbe used in place of igo- nnomitrie substitutions and sometimes they lead to simpler answers. But we usually use teigonometric substitutions because trigonometric identities are more familiar than hyper- bolic identities. pana Gee SOUMTON First we note that (4x2 + 9 = (V4R=F5) so trigonometic substitution is appropriate, Although y/4x* + 9 is not quite one of the expressions in the table of trigonometric subsiations, it becomes one of them i we make the preliminary sbstia- tion u = 2x, When we combine this withthe tangent substitution, we have x = }tan @ which gives dx = soc" and ERED = (tan +9 = 3 s00 9 EXAMPLE 6 Find ‘When x = 0, tan @ = 0, so @ = 0; when x = 33/2, tan 0= V3, s0 0 = n/3. [BSH tetoao a pe tan poe int aT oe a oot <1 1 — cost 2 SP sin ogo Now we substitute w = cos @ so that du ~ ~sin 00. When @ = 0, u = 1; when @= a/3,u— 5. Therefore x 2 Cea Tyre du = sf! ~ we) du [G+2-a+n)-3 00 SUANPLE7 Evaluate [ =a SOLUTION We can transform the integrand into a function for which trigonomettic substtu- tion is appropriate by first completing the square under the root sign: Bo 2x3 GF 42) 941 OF HOt DY) =4-(e+ IP ‘This suggests that we make the substitution u = x + 1. Then du = dy and.x = w— 1,s0 year lee 4472 [||| CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION «faves ove to gist iegand We now subsite ~ sin giving d= 2c0s #40 and YEH = 208 0,50 in rane 7a its nett inter ith C= 0} Which sbi? 2sin = Spc | ate = [sino — a0 ia = -20080-04€ 5 iouRe 5 0 [73] exercises Toa Balti negra wsig the indicated gone sb- : a ‘Rane Sau an Mel he socal ight onl 1. pare ww eres 1 a \ an x=30800 a FETS ae 4 [yee Hf eepan xo some 1, { VF Tae 2 [oie t_ct ot file xe. | ‘a Sa 4-30 Evol he intra ao [BE] (a) Use trigonometric substitution to show that apfete [ar hh era) ee {(b) Use the hyperbolic substitution x = a sink «to show that Bix ‘ew ? as x 9. fate v0 fotere {pte (2)-e un [vie eae 12, [xy Fa de ‘These formulas are connected by Formula 3.11.3. mj fa a. rae Setar 15. [eae ds (o) by trigonometric substitution. {) by the hyperbolic substitution x = a sinh a ; @ te eecaeees j aT” Star FF 133, Find the avernge value of f(x) = Vx —T/x, 1257 vie : 3A. Find the aca ofthe i : te aes ofthe region bounded by Ue hypebole mits 4 ort Sey Soand ihe ne x= 3 SECTION 714 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS II] 473 35, Prove the formula A = 1139 for the area of a sector of 39, (a) Use trigonometric substitution to verify that ‘circle with radius r and central angle 6. [int: Assume 0.< 0 < 7/2and place the center ofthe cirele atthe origin [MEA t= Ja? sin-Ma/a) + fa 0 it has the equation x* + y? = r#,"Then is the sum of the ‘rea of the triangle POG and the area of te region POR in ‘he figure) (6) Use the figure to give tigonomewe interpretations of both terms on the right side ofthe equation in part (a), 9.36, Evaluate te integral as lar 40, The parabola y ~ {3° divides the disk 1? + y? = Bio wo Pars Find the areas ofboth parts, : Graph the integrand and its indeinte integral onthe same sereen and check that your answer is reasonable. 41, Find the ea ofthe crescent-shaped region (cle ine) B37. Use a gph to apronimate the rots ofthe equation ound hy aes of eels with rir and Se there) s1YE= 57 = 2 x Thon apronimate th area bounded by the curve y= x4 — 3? andthe line y = 2 x, Bey 31. A charged rod of ent L produces an lected at pin Cry Pla) given by os__ ab Fa FP) ds ‘where A i the charge density per unit length on the rod and ‘nis the free space permitiviy (see the figure). Evaluate the ‘megralo determing an expression fr the electric field E(F). 42, A water storage tank has the shape ofa cylinder with diam ter 10 A. It is mounted so thatthe circular eross-sections fare vertical. If the depth ofthe water is 7 ft, what percentage *Pl0,0) ‘of the total eapacity is being used? y 43, A torus is generated by rotating the circle 29+ (= RF = about the sani, Find the volume enclosed by the torus, 74 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how to integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions 2/(x ~ 1) and 1/(s + 2) (0 a common denominator we obtain 1 _2e+2-G-1) $5 420 GG “exo If-we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the function on the right side of 474 II] CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION this equation: 2 L Saova)« ~1f-inst2[ +e ‘To tee how the method of paral fractions works in genera, let's consider rational function Px) i 1) = Bey | where P and Q are polynomials. It's possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions | rude tat he degen of Pi ss han the degree of Q. Such ational functions called ; proper. Recall that if | PCa) = aga" + agent toes bane + ae where a, # 0, then the degree of P is m and we write deg(P) =n. 5 | If fis improper, that is, deg(?) > deg(Q), then we must take the preliminary step | of dividing 0 into P (by long division) until a remainder RG) is obtsined such that ddeg(R) < deg(Q). The division statement is PG) RQ) a £0) = GGy 75) * where S and R are also polynomials. “As the following example illustrates, sometimes this preliminary step is all that is i] reauie Hl wtx | wa exannte 1 Find Eas | ae son sine the degre ofthe aumertoris geste than th degree ofthe denoiat, { ie ‘we fist perform the long division. This enables us to write | ms 2A ya {(eret24ty)ae | St | Bea | BaP ant = a SE tet rine 1 +e “The next step is to factor the denominator Q(=) as far as possible. It ean be shown any polynomial Q can be factored as a product of linear Factors (of the form ax 4°) i ae eeducible quadratic factors (ofthe form ax? + bx + c, where B? ~ 4ac <0) Ft Jnstance, if Q(x) = 3* — 16, we could factor it as Q(x) = (a? - Ge + 4) = (x= De + DEP +A) \ “The third step i to express the proper rational function R(3)/Q(x) (from Equation 1) | 1 sum of partial fractions of the form Gt ax riety { i HI A Ax +B ! t | footer meth for fdig A, 8, and © ‘sgianin th nota this example. SECTION 7.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS |] 475 ‘A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible o do this. We explain the details for the four cases that occur, CASE I ® The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors. ‘This means that we can write Ole) (ayx + bi)(aax + b:) +++ (aex +b) Where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of anothes) In this case the partial fraction theorem states that there exist constants Ay, Az, ..., Ax such that o FO) An aa) + Ap +b) ax + bp tah ‘These constants can be determined as in the following example. x? + 2-1 . awe 2 Brtase fg SOLUTION Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we don’t need to divide. We factor the denominator as 2x9 + Ba? 2x = xO? + Br — 2) = 22x — lx +2) Since the denominator has thee distiet linear factors, the partial faction decomposition ofthe integrand (2) has th form th2r-1 c a YOxr-D@+Q x *R-1 + ye2 ‘To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by the Product of the denominators, x(2x ~ 1)(x + 2), obtaining Bo PH 2-1 ARE ~ Ie +2) + Bele + 2) + Cx2x— 1) Expanding the right side of Equation 4 and writing it in the standard form for polyno- rials, we get © eta QA + B+ 2C)x? + GA +28 — Chr = 24 ‘The polynomials in Equation 5 are identical, so their coefficients must be equal. The Coefficient of x*on the right side, 24 + B + 2C, must equal the coefficient of x? on the loft side—namely, 1. Likewise, the coefficients of are equal and the constant terms are | qual. This gives the following system of equations for A, B, and C: 2+ B+2C=1 3A4+2B- Cm2 24 -1 476 [jl] CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION se We cou eet ou wos by aking the tems {oe comma doaninaer dain en. ss Fgue| she he gaps ofthe read inept indie nee ith = 0) Which i ih? FIGURE 1 Solving, we getA = $, B= §, and C= —q,and so J Peni Be +30 = De = fin |x| + bin [2x — 1] finjx +21 + In integrating the midale term we have male the mental substitution « = 2x ~ 1, whieh ives du = 2 dec and ds = du/2, o ‘We can use an alternative method 0 find the coeflicients 4, B, and C in Example 2. Equation 4 isan identitys it is true for every value of x. Let's choose values of sat simplify the equation. If we putx = 0 in Equation 4 then the second and third terms con the right side vanish and the equation then becomes ~24 = —1, or A=. Likewise, se gives 58/4 = | and x = ~2 gives IOC = —1, 90 B = 4 and C= ~j (You may object that Equation 3 is not valid for x = 0, or ~2, so why should Equation 4 be valid For those values? In fact, Equation 4s true forall values of x, even x = O,},and —2, See Exercise 69 for the reason.) xanete 3 Find [3 , whew a #0 SOLUTION The method of partial fractions gives ee 2 Woaera) x-a xta and therefore A(x + a) + Ble =a) =1 Using the method of the preceding note, we put x = a in this equation and get ‘A(2a) = 1, 50.4 = 1/(2a). If we put x = ~a, we get B(—2a) = 1, s0 B = ~1/(2a). a 1 Elle al mle tad +e Since In x ~ Iny = In(x/y), we can write the integral as a j+ +e See Exercises 55-56 for ways of using Formula 6. CASE Il © O{e) isa product of Hnear factors, some of which are repeated. Suppose the first linear factor (ayx + b;)is repeated r times: that is, (aux + bs)" ‘occurs it the factorization of Ol). Then instead ofthe single term A,/(axx + 61) in Equation 2-8 f at Arc mead afin the cote Rea= Linh = 2 Mure 1 o==1 Mimo Aw p+c. SECTION 7.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS [| 477 would use A A ath Wart be * ebay By way of illustration, we could write eee Gi "Gy but we prefer to work out in detail a simpler example. A,2 2a? 4x +1 =s-ae) & exams «rind { 5 SOLUTION The first step is to divide. The result of long division is MoH art 4c 7 A as : Bomar t+ Sea ‘The second step is to factor the denominator Q(x) = x? — ‘we know that x ~ 1 isa factor and we obtain x + 1. Since Q(1) = x+1= (= DGt- D=@~ De Ne +1) =(r-1F@+ 1) ‘Since the linear factor x — 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is 4a A 8 c (DG 4+) ~x-1* GF eT by the least common denominator, (x ~ 1)*(x + 1), we get 4x = ACe— Ix + 1) + Bex + 1) + Cle 1 = A+ Che? + (B20) + (-A 4B +O) Now we equate coefficients: A + c=0 B-2C=4 -A+B+ C=0 Solving, we obtain A = 1, B= 2, and C= -1, s0 jay fit! 2 aa ee x1 yaa =F tat ine 1]- Infxtf+K ane 2 a8 (CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION CASE Ill © Q(x) contains ireducible quadratic factors, none of which is repented. 1 Of) has the factor ax? + bx + ¢, where b* — 4ac < 0, then in addition to the partial fractions in Equations 2 and 7, the expression for R(x)/Q(s) will have a term ofthe form a where A and B are constants to be determined. For instance, the function given by Flo) = sfx ~ 2)? + 12? + 4)] has a partial fraction decomposition of the form A -2 AxtB ax bree Bxt+C , Deve etl ee ae + De +4) “The term given in (9) can be integrated by completing the square and using the formula aint dx. wt exans 5 mie j SOLUTION Since x? + 4x = x(a? + 4) can't be factored further, we write Qet-st4 A, Bxtc reed) ox Pte Moliplying by x(x? + 4), we have 2x? x +4 = AQ? + 4) + (Bx t+ Che (A+ Batt Cr dd Equating coefficients, we obtain A+B a. g= ‘Thus A= 1, B = 1, and C= —1 and s0 atost [7a In order to integrate the second term we split it nto two parts: xc aaa ‘We male the substitution w= x? + 4 in the first of these integrals so that die = 2xds: |We evaluate the second integral by means of Formula 10 with a = 2: : L Fri*-|pea* dare (sige fayae = In |x| + $lnGs? + 4) — pram (x/2) + K pepe mera OO 2xde. SECTION 7.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS [lll 479 xt = 3x42 EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate {> — dx. SOLUTION Since the degree of the numerator is not /ess shan the degree of the denominator, Wwe first divide and obtain ae at2 1 Was 3 ae a3 Notice that the quadratic 4x? ~ 4x + 3 is irreducible because its diseriminant is ~ 4ac = ~32 <0. This means it can't be factored, so we don’t need to use the partial fraction technique. ‘To integrate the given function we complete the square in the denominator: 4x 4x3 = (Qe — 1) +2 ‘This suggests that we make the substitution w= 2x — 1. Then, die = 2 dx and (w+ 1,80 4x? 3c 42 t aerj fed ye Hts wee, ear fe cf meee oe ra ma flo 42) po xt fin(4s? — 4x +3) Example 6 illustrates the general procedure for integrating apart fraction of the form AxtB Bikers where b?— 4ac <0 ‘We complete the square in the denominator and then make a substitution that brings the ‘integral into the Form SSB a cf staat fate du wee Te ‘Then the first integral is logarithm and the second is expressed in terms of tan” CASE IV © Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor, If Q(s) has the factor (ax? + bx + oJ, where 6? ~ dac <0, then instead of the single partial fraction (8), the sum mo MER At ax + bx be” (ax + bx + oP 400° Il] CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION i cours in the paral fraction decomposition of R()/(2). Back of the terms in (11) ean be 1 integrated by first completing the square jon of the function “ctivoadte omone tsa. towartatby EXAMPLE 7 Write out the form ofthe partial fraction devomp fend hae ves ft coins 0 Sie on copa = a Naneve can nd tessa a ey ae - ‘quickly For instance, the Maple cormand yor — DG? +x + 1G + coment) ‘or the Mathematica command saleitle | yah waattl | rs avn ates aoe : ani, C=Da=-h AB. CetD , Beth, Get, Wetd \ Fach Gnded, Ay By te BF BS 1 , ctyet tweet eer WP Ge? set i 1-x42s? 4 1 punnis 0 Bvuate | 752552 ae ! souow ‘The Form ofthe pata faeion decomposition is i lextotoe A, Bet, Derk xe? + IP seh (et i | Multiplying by x(3? + 1, we have WEE gh baat FLAG + WP + Br + Che? +) + Ox + Ele { m= Alt + 248 + 1) + BG! + 27) + Ola? +3) + Ds? + Ex | Ae Bt Ce + QA+ B+ D+ (CHB +A | Ir we equate coefficients, we gtthe system | Pogeo | onel aaserbee Ghee oti ' hich has the solution A = 1,8 = ~1, C= 1, D=Iyand E= 0. Thus } 1 La-xt2e- x’ boxtt x : i foes SG ver! wer)® | | | caren xds / gre Seer torr nen oad oth oe we nde 1 minal}? + D-wws— ao tk ink. In(x? + 1) — tan Wer (renal sbstion a= 3 1 ‘We note that sometimes partial fractions can be avoided when integrating raion Fe wet 5 Jaera® ‘ : | tion, For instance, although the integral 1 | SECTION 7.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS Ii] 481 ‘could be evaluated by the method of Case Il, it's much easier to observe that if t= x + 3) = 7 + 3x, then du = (3x? + 3) dx and so #41 i a4 leaa* din |x? +3] +0 RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTIONS. Some nonrational functions can be changed into rational funetions by means of appropri ‘ate substitutions, In particular, when_an integrand contains an expression of the form Va{-), then the substitution u = ¥/g(z) may be effective, Other instances appear in the exercises. z cxavots 9 evimte [= ay, SOLUTION Let u = Je 74. Then? = x + 4, $0 x ‘Therefore w= 4 and dx = 2u du : ‘We can evaluate this integral cither by factoring u* ~ 4 as (w ~ 2)(u + 2) and using partial fractions or by using Formula 6 with a = 2: frre au fa alate aa ~ m4 8m slee Vera -2 = 2eF4 o aera + 2n[ EEE? | 4c 174 | exercises I Wilton te om ofthe aril ton decompose feeds faneton (as in Example 7). Do not determine the numerical values of the coefficients, 2x 1 L@ © T3e0 _ © + PsP © 7a +3 Fae ror oma 7-20 ane he nega ro dtt, wo alge nj Sree 402 |Il|_ CHAPTER 7 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION sol =e eae L aa “| avaaen® mphsecte Misra? 1" woe 20. aes A nu [2t4e alge ws (RE a va [ESE ae woery Ge elses «ae 4 P+ 2e 2h earea* 35. ae, [ae = Corry 39-50 Make a substitution to express the integrand as a rational Tunetion and then evaluate the integral i a ” laaeT* © \aRrats « nd aa hie 2 > _vE veri “peas” 45. yar® (rane Subsite w= 9] TE 46 aye «| Getme © |e sane 9» aoa 51-52 Use integration by pars, together with the techniques ofthis section, to evaluate the integral si fino? 2yds sf xenxas FASS. Use a graph of f(x) = I/[a? - 2x — 3) todecide whether [Byte ders poshive or negative. Use the graph to give a rough ‘imate ofthe value ofthe integral and then use partial factions to find the exat va BSS54, Graph both y= 1/tx* ~ 2=*) and an amterivative onthe ‘55-56 Evaluate the integral by completing the square and using Formula 6 a{% 5s. f etl i+ Toe 57, The German mathematician Kari Weiersras (1815-1897) noticed that the substitution ¢= tan(r/2) wll conver any rational function of sinx and cos x into an ordinary rational function of (a) I= tanx/2), —27

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