Divisor: the number you will use to divide.
Basic operations
There are 4 basic operations. The graphic organizer
below shows what these operations are along with
some other important terms.
The 4 Basic Operations Save
Basic operations key terms explained
Addition:
Addends: the numbers being added.
Sum: the answer to the addition problem.
Subtraction:
Minuend: the number you are subtracting from.
Subtrahend: the number that is to be subtracted
from the minuend.
Difference : the answer to the subtraction problem.
Multiplication:
Factors: the numbers being multiplied.
Product: the answer to the multiplication problem.
Division:
Dividend: the number you need to divide.
Quotient: the answer to the division problem.
Remainder: a leftover when the dividend could not
be divided evenly.
Basic number theory
Get a strong understanding of the very basic of
number theory. Life is full of patterns, but often
times, we do not realize as much as we should that
mathematics too is full of patterns.
If I show you the following list: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,...
You may immediately conclude that the next
number after 10 is 12.
If I show you also the following list:
2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4,...
What comes next?
Of course it is 2 5
Exploring number patterns can really help you
develop a strong understanding of mathematics
concepts. It is my desire that you develop a love for
this topic and others to come.
In this unit, you will explore some other interesting
patterns while I teach the following topics:
Identify prime and composite numbers.
Find least common multiple
find greatest common factor.
Find multiples for a given number
Divisibility tests
To use sets of numbers to find and describe number
patterns
Problems that can be solved with number
theory:

Example #1:
What is the least number of marbles that can satisfy
the following situation:
Put the marbles in 2 piles with no leftovers
Put the marbles in 5 piles with no leftovers
Put the marbles in 7 piles with no leftovers
To solve this problem, you can play around with the
marbles until you find the correct combination
However, you could get the least common multiple
of 2, 5, and 7.
LCM (2,5,7) = 70
You need 70 marbles
Example #2:
Your father wants to give you some money if the
following condition is met
You can share the money with either 2, 3, or 6
people
The money is less than 100 dollars
You need divisibility rules to solve this problem.
There may be more than one solution
All you have to do is to make sure that the number
is divisible by 2, 3, and 6 at the same time
Possible solutions: 42, 12, and 84
Example #3:
A clown waves at people every 3 minutes
A second clown waves every 4 minutes
A third clown waves every 5 minutes
When will all 3 clowns wave at the same time?
Just get the least common multiple of 3, 4, and 5
LCM(3,4,5) = 60
All clowns will wave at the same time in 60 minutes
Deep Knowledge of
fractions!
This lesson will provide you with a solid
introduction to fractions. The lesson is deep, so take
your time as you read. Do not rush over the
information.
Fraction is part of a whole. The following illustrate
the concept. The figure has 4 parts and only 1 part
of the figure is shaded.
Now, suppose you go to Domino's pizza, you may
order a medium pizza. If your pizza has 8 slices and
you did not eat the whole pizza, this means that you
only ate parts of the whole pizza.
Let's say you don't have a big appetite and eat only
2 out of those 8 slices. The following figure
illustrate the situation
We write
28
and we call 2 the numerator and we call 8 the
denominator.
A (/) can also be used to separate the numerator
with the denominator.
28 Other examples are:
= 2/8
and
12
5 10
Because
28
is more appealing, we prefer to use it instead of 2/8 and
13
4 12

The expression
28 and
25
can also mean 2 divided by 8 4 10

If you use a calculator, the answer will be 0.25 and
0.25 is a decimal. Don't worry about this now. I will
teach you decimals in a different unit.
Common sense also tells us that if we eat 2 slices
and there are 8 slices, well, we ate only one-fourth
of the pizza.
How can we rearrange the slices so you see the one-
fourth? May be you know already!If you don't, try
the following:
You make 4 piles with your slices with each pile
having 2 slices.
Eating 2 slices out 8 is the same as eating 1 pile out
of those 4 piles.
We can then write
14
which is also equal to 0.25 or 2/8
Although they both have different numerators and
denominators, they are both equal.
Equivalent fractions
Important observations:
Notice that to get from 1/4 to 2/8, all we need to do
is to multiply both numerator and denominator by
the same number that is 2.
In the same way, to get from 1/2 to 5/10, we can
multiply both numerator and denominator by 5.
2/8 and 5/10 are called higher terms. Be careful! It
is not because 2/8 is bigger than 1/4 and 5/10 is
bigger than 1/2.
Compared to 1/2, 5/10 is a higher term only because
it has a bigger numerator and a bigger denominator.
However, we saw before that 1/2 = 5/10 = 0.5
Notice too that you can go from a higher term to a
lower term. For instance, to bring 5/10 to a lower
term, all you need to do is to divide both numerator
and denominator by 5. You will get 1/2
Going from higher terms to lower terms means that
you are simplifying. To get the simplest form,
divide the numerator and the denominator by the
largest number that divides into both evenly.

For instance, to bring 10/40 to its simplest from,

Something interesting! divide both 10 and 40 by 10. You will get 1/4.
=
14
28 Understanding decimals
Understanding decimals starts with a good
and understanding of place value. Therefore, I
We
28 recommend that you start by carefully studying
call
equivalent decimals place value before studying other lessons
14
fractions once you are done reading this page.

What is a decimal? When examining the word
decimal, you can recognize the prefix deci. And
deci is equal to 1/10 or 0.1
A decimal is referring to any proper or improper
fraction whose denominator is 10, 100, 1000, and so
forth...
For example, the following are all examples of
decimals.
5/10 = 0.5
2/100 = 0.02
16/1000 = 0.016
1/100 = 0.01
195/10000 = 0.0195
45/10 = 4.5
234/100 = 2.34
Notice that the first 5 are proper fractions and the
last two are improper fractions.
Ratio and Proportion
Real life applications of ratio and proportion are
numerous! The concept occurs in many places in
mathematics
When you prepare recipes, paint your house, or
repair gears in a large machine or in a car
transmission, you use ratios and proportions.
Say a recipe to make brownie requires 4 cups of
flour for 6 persons
You may want to know how much flower to put for
24 persons
As a former math teacher, I used to tell my students
to set it up as you see below:
You just cannot go wrong when you take this first
step:
The setup you see above can be translated into the
following proportion:
4 =
cups 6 24
x
The lessons below are geared toward setting up
problems like these and solving them
Say you need 4 gallons of paint to paint 1000 square
feet of area in your house.
You may want to know how much paint, you will
need for 1500 square feet
Try setting up that one yourself as shown above!
Probably one of the best applications we can find is
that of gears in a car transmission.
A gear look like a circle and it has teeth all around
it.
Gear theory in a vehicle transmission is a complex
study. We won't discuss this here in details, or I am
going to have to read again my old mechanics
books.
Having said that, I will only show you the forest.
You will need to do your own research to see all the
trees.
My goal is to introduce you to an interesting
application of the topic.
In sum, transmissions contain several combinations
of large and small gears.
Say for instance a small gear (20 teeth) drives a
large gear(40 teeth).
The large gear will turn at half the speed of the
small gear.
=
20 4 1 2
However, this situation increases the turning force
(or torque) of the large gear.
In general, the larger the gear the bigger the torque.
Therefore, you can see that knowing the ratio of
gears, can help us determine the speed and how
much torque each gear will deploy.
This concept is important when putting a
transmission together. The situation we just describe
may for instance set the proper gear ratio for
moving a load.
However, at cruising speed, gears may have the
same ratio so that the amount of torque that enter
the transmission equal the amount of torque that
goes out.
Automotive engineers do lots of gear ratios
calculation before they can put a transmission
together.
This concludes our introduction. Dig deeper by
reading the following lessons:
The following lessons about ratio and proportion
follow a logical order, so try your best to learn them
in order
Ratios
The objective of this lesson is show you how to
write ratios using some situations or examples you
encounter daily .
Things are not always the same size. Thus, a natural
need arise to compare quantities using division to
see how much bigger a quantity is when compared
to another.
For example, looking at the two piles below made
of red apples and green apples, you may not be
satisfied just to know that there are more red apples.
A comparison of red apples to green apples using
division may help you to see how much more red
apples there are.
There are 9 red apples and 3 green apples. We can
do a ratio of red apples to green apples as shown
below:
93
=3
The quotient or answer to the ratio above is equal to
3 and we can quite interpret the answer.
It means that there are 3 times more red apples than
green apples
Other examples:
Say for instance, you are in a classroom. In the
classroom, there are 3 boys and six girls.
The ratio of boys to girls is
36
is equal to
12
36
or 0.5
It means that there are half as many boys as girls in
the classroom.
However, the ratio of girls to boys is
63
63
is equal to 2 and it means that there are two times
as many girls as boys in the classroom.
You can also do the following ratios: The word "per" also means a ratio

Ratio of girls to number of students in the For example, gas mileage such as 50 miles per 4
classroom: gallons means
69 50 4

Ratio of boys to number of students in the Wage such as 25 dollars per hour means
classroom: 25 1
39

Continued ratio: The ratio of three or more

Ratio of number of students in the classroom to quantities is called continued ratio
girls:
96 The ratio of 4 to 8 to 12 is the continued ratio 4:8:12

We get the continued ratio above by combining 3

Ratio of number of students in the classroom to ratios
boys:
93 4:8, 8:12, and 4:12

When doing ratios, make sure that quantities are in

At this point you may have noticed that the order is the same units first
important when defining a ratio. The number that
comes after ' of ' is your numerator and the number Ratio of 24 inches to 6 feet
that comes after ' to ' is your denominator.
Since 1 foot = 12 inches, 6 feet = 6 12 inches = 72
Some formal definitions inches

A ratio is a comparison of two numbers using Now, you can do the ratio of 24 inches to 72 inches
division.
24 72
The ratio of a to b is
ab
with b 0 It may be useful to simplify a ratio sometimes such
as the one immediately above

A ratio is an ordered pair of numbers, written a:b, Just divide both numerator and the denominator by
with b 0 the greatest common factor

As you can see there are more than one way to 24 24 72 24

express a ratio. For example, if you have 6 pencils
and 2 pens all the followings are good ways to
express the ratio of pens to pencils We get:
13
2:6

Ratio of pens to pencils A little word problem: A classroom has 50 students

and the ratio of males to females is 2 to 3. How
26 many students are females?
 35
2 to 3 is the same thing as 20 to 30 6 12
= 0.60
= 0.5
20 + 30 = 50

Therefore, there are 30 females in this class
Proportions
This lesson will teach you important concepts you
need to know about proportions.
Since 0.60 0.50, the ratios are not equal and
therefore do not for a proportion
Choice #2: You can also tell if two ratios are equal
by comparing their cross products. If the cross
products are equal, then they form a proportion.
Recall that a cross product is obtained when you
multiply the numerator of one fraction by the
denominator of another fraction.

The cross products and

for 6 12
35 are

3 12 = 36 and

5 6 = 30
Definition:
and
36 is not equal to 30.
A proportion is an equality of two ratios. Simply 6 12
Therefore,
put, whenever we put an equal sign between two do not form a
35
ratios and the ratio on the left is equal to the ratio on proportion
the right, we say that they form a proportion.

Look at the following two ratios. Right now they and

Another example:
are just ratios 58
Do
form a
10 16
and proportion ?
3 5 6 12

10 8 = 80 and
Do they form a proportion? They will form a
proportion if the ratios are equal, so first put an 16 5 = 80
equal sign between them
80 is equal to 80, therefore, they form a proportion.
Then, you have two choices to check if the ratios
are equal When ratios are equal, they are also called
equivalent fractions.
Choice #1: You can just convert both ratios into
decimals and see if the decimals are equal. In general, if two fractions are equivalent, they
form a proportion
=
3 5 6 12 =
If
cd
ab
is a proportion

Then, the proportion can also be written as
a:b::c:d
We can read a:b::c:d as " a is to b as c is to d "
The format above make it easy also to identify the
means and the extremes
In any proportion the product of the extremes is
equal to the product of the means. It is just a
different way of wording the procedure of cross
multiplication
Fourth proportional:
Looking at a:b::c:d, the fourth term is d. We call
d fourth proportional
Equivalent proportions:
You can get an equivalent proportion by inverting
each ratio:
a:b::c:d is the same as b:a::d:c
You can get others equivalent proportions by
Is it ok to say that the ratio of arm's length to height
form a proportion for adult males?
If you are willing to neglect the tiny differences and
use exactly 5 cm, the answer is yes
Say your wife's height is 152.4 centimeter, the arm
length is then 152.4 + 5 = 157.4
Now, if your height is 165 centimeter, the arm
length is then 165 + 5 = 170
interchanging either the means, the extremes or both
a:b::c:d is the same as a:c::b:d, d:b::c:a
and d:c::b:a
Think deeper:
Wages:
Is your wage or the money you make per hour a
proportion?
As long as the wage stays the same, it will form a
proportion
Suppose you make 25 dollars per hour and work 8
hours a day
Money per hour is 25:1
Money at the end of the day is 200:8
Let us see if 25:1::200:8 form a proportion
Product of means is 1 200 = 200
Product of extremes is 25 8 = 200
Ratio of arm's length to height:
Let us now talk about the picture shown at the
beginning of this lesson
In adult males, arm's length is about 5 cm greater
than the height
157.4 152.4
= 1.03032
170 165
= 1.03030
Since the ratios are closely equal, you could make a
claim and say that ratio of arm's length to height for
adult males form a proportion.
 Terms to know:
Solving Proportions
x, y, or any other letter is used to stand for an
Solving proportions by using cross product to find unknown number.
unknown terms is what this lesson is about.
Unknown term: The missing or unknown number in
a proportion.

We will also show somes principles, special We have seen in the lesson about proportions that
techniques or shortcuts that can be used to quickly we can use cross product to determine if the
solve a proportion. fractions or ratios are in proportions.

Cross products can also be used to find an unknown

term in a proportion. Here is how!
Notice that 5 16 = 8 10 = 80
If cd
ab then, a d = b c You can also break the problem down into more
= steps if you like as shown below:

First cross product: 5 16 = 80

We will illustrate this with a couple of examples.
Second cross product: 10 x
Example #1:
Setting the cross products equal, we get:
Solve for x =
if 10 10 x = 80
5x 16
There is a faster way to get the answer when solving
proportions. Look at the proportion again:
Since these two fractions or ratios are in
proportions, we know that the cross product must be =
5x
equal. 10 16

Using the cross product, we get:

Notice that to get 10, 5 was multiplied by 2. By the
5 16 = x 10 same token, to get 16, something or a number must
be multiplied by 2. What number multiplied by 2
80 = 10x will give you 16? No doubt it is 8!

If you know your multiplication table you can Example #2:

quickly get the answer.
Solve for n if =
If 10 x = 80, then x should be 8 because 10 8 is 8 10 n 25
80.

x=8 Using the cross product, we get:

The proportion = 8 25 = 10 n
becomes 10
58 16 200 = 10n
 10 4
Instead of asking yourself " 10 times what equals
200? " we will this time solve the equation in order
to show you another way to get n The above is of course a lot easier to solve

Divide both sides by 10 Principle #2:

= =
200 If
10n x4
10 xy
10 then, y = 4

200 divided by 10 is 20 and 10 divided by 10 is 1 =

For instance If
50 100
50 y
20 = 1n then, y = 100

20 = n
=
If
xy
18 y
Useful equivalent proportions when solving then, x = 18
proportions:

Principle #1: Principle #3:

= =
If = If =
cd a+bb cd a+cb+d
ab c+dd ab ab
then, then,

Proof: Proof:

Add 1 to both sides of the equation and do the math Cross multiply:
as demonstrated:
bc=ad

bc = ad
The above can be useful if you solving
Add ab to both sides of the equation
=
x-88 ab + bc = ab + ad
64

Factor b from the left side. Factor a from the right

The above equation becomes side

= b(a + c) = a(b + d)
x-8+
6+4
88
4 Rewrite the above as a proportion. It is like undoing
a cross multiplication

Or a+cb =
+d ab
x8 =

Why is principle #3 useful when solving
proportions?
Say you have = with an understanding of these. Let's define them.
x+28+4 x8
It is
equivalent to =
24
x8
Addition word problems
Addition word problems arise in any situations
where there is a gain or an increase of something as
a result of combining one or more numbers. Think
of addition as combining parts to form a whole.
Subtraction word
problems
Subtraction word problems arise in any situations
where there is a loss or a decrease of something as a
result of deducting a number from another. Think of
subtraction as removing parts from a whole.
Consider the following situations
Multiplication word
problems
Multiplication word problems arise in situations
where we do repeated addition of the same number.
Think of multiplication as a shortcut for adding the
same number multiple times.
Division word problems
Division word problems arise in situations where
we are trying to find out how many times a number
go into another.In general, Division is the inverse
operation of multiplication
Basic geometry
Basic geometry is the study of points, lines, angles,
surfaces, and solids.The study of this topic starts
Point: A point is a location in space. It is
represented by a dot. Point are usually named with a
upper case letter. For example, we refer to the
following as "point A"
Line: A line is a collection of points that extend
forever. The following is a line. The two arrows are
used to show that it extends forever.
We put two points in order to name the line as line
AF. However, there are an infinite amount of points.
You can also name it line FA
Line segment: A line segment is part of a line. The
following is a segment. A segment has two
endpoints. The endpoints in the following segments
are A and F. Notice also that the line above has no
endpoints.
Ray: A ray is a collection of points that begin at one
point (an endpoint) and extend forever on one
direction. The following is a ray.
Angle: Two rays with the same endpoint is an
angle. The following is an angle.
Plane: A plane is a flat surface like a piece of paper.
It extends in all directions. We can use arrows to
show that it extends in all directions forever. The
following is a plane
 Distance around = 5 inches + 4 inches + 2 inches +
3 inches + 6 inches = 20 inches

Example #2

Find the distance around for the following trapezoid

Parallel lines When two lines never meet in space

or on a plane no matter how long we extend them, Distance around = 5 inches + 8 inches + 4 inches +
we say that they are parallel lines The following 3 inches = 20 inches
lines are parallel.
Example #3

Intersecting lines: When lines meet in space or on Find the distance around the following triangle
a plane, we say that they are intersecting lines The
following are intersecting lines.

Vertex: The point where two rays meet is called a

vertex. In the angle above, point A is a vertex.

Finding the perimeter

Distance around = 5 inches + 4 inches + 2 inches =
Finding the perimeter of a shape means that you are 11 inches
looking for the distance around the outside of that
shape. Example #4

Find the distance around the following rectangle

Example #1

Find the distance around for the following irregular

polygon

Distance around = 3 inches + 3 inches + 6 inches +

6 inches = 18 inches
Example #5

Find the distance around the following square

distance around = 5 inches + 5 inches + 5 inches + 5

inches = 20 inches
You can get the same answer by doing 4 5 = 20
1 square represents 1 square unit. The rectangle has
Area of shapes 8 squares, so the area for this rectangle is 8 square
units.

By definition, the area of shapes is the amount of
space inside those shapes.You can find the area of
any two-dimensional shape or any shape that has a
width and a length
We can also write 8 units2 and it will mean the same
Notice,it is very important, that you can get the
same answer if you multiply 2 square units by 4
square units because 2 4 = 8

2 square units represent the measure of the width

The area can only be found for flat surfaces, so it
does not make sense to say, " What is the area of a
box ? "
You could however, find the volume of the box
A tile, a tabletop, a rug, a ping pong table, a tennis
court, a soccer field, and a foorball field are all
examples of shapes that you can get the area for
and 4 square units represent the measure for the
length.
Thus, in general, to get the area for a rectangle, just
use the following formula:
Area of rectangle = length width
In practice, when looking for the area of shapes, you
will be using real life units such, inches, yards, feet,
and so forth

The following examples demonstrate how to do this

To get the amount of space inside a figure, we use a
square to represent 1 unit and we say that the area is
measured in square units

Take a look at the following rectangle. To get the

area, we are going to draw squares of equal sizes
inside of it.
 Rectangle:

Perimeter = l + l + w + w = 2 l + 2 w

Area = l w

Square:
Notice here the unit we are using is inch. That
means we are going to use squares, which have a
side of 1 inch to get the area for the rectangle.
Perimeter = s + s + s + s = 4 s
Area = length width = 5 2 = 10 square inches or
10 inches2 Area = s2

This also means that we can fit 10 squares with a

side of 1 inch inside this rectangle.

Find the area of the following rectangle

Parallelogram:

Perimeter = a + a + b + b = 2 a + 2 b

Area = b h

Rhombus:
Area = length width = 10 2 = 20 square inches
or 20 inches2
Perimeter = b + b + b + b = 4 b
Now,that you understand how to get the area for a
rectangle, it is going to be easy to get the area of Area = b h
shapes such as squares, triangles, and trapezoid.

Common geometry Triangle:

formulas
Perimeter = a + b + c

Here, we provide you with common geometry Area = (b h)/2

formulas for some basic shapes

Trapezoid:
 Perimeter = a + b + c + d Since you have 4 boxes, you have 4 choices to put
the first book. You can put the first book in any of
those boxes. The important thing is to see that you
have 4 choices to do this.

Say you put algebra in box #1

Circle:

Perimeter = 2 pi r or Perimeter = pi d
Area = pi r2 or Area = (pi d2)/4
After you put the algebra book in box #1, you can
no longer use box #1. You can use box #2, box #3,
or box #4 to place your next book.
This means you have 3 choices to place your next
book. Say that you put basic math in box #2

After you put the basic math book in box #2, you
Permutations can no longer use box #2. You can use box #3 or
box #4 to place your next book.

Say that you put the algebra 1 book in box #3

Permutations are ordered arrangement of objects.
We have a great example for you here.

Objects stand for anything you are trying to arrange

or put in a certain order.

Examples of arrangements are:

1)You have 5 CDs. How many different ways can

you listen to them?

2)You are seating 3 people on 3 chairs. How many

different ways can people sit?
After you put the algebra 1 book in box #3, you
3)You have 6 books to read.How many different have only 1 choice ( box #4) to place your last
ways can you read your books? book, which is geometry

You can use the fundamental counting principle to

find out how many different permutations or
arrangements you can have.

Before solving the situations above, let us start with

this example.

and 4 boxes to arrange those books.

Now to find the total number of arrangement, you

You want to know how many different need to multiply all your choices as seen in
arrangements are possible. fundamental counting principle

Therefore,
Number of permutations = 4 3 2 1 = 24
Now,let us solve the situations above.
First, how many ways can 3 people sit on 3 chairs?
The first person has 3 choices
once the first person sits, there are only 2 seats left.
Thus, the second person who sits has 2 choices
The last person has 1 choice
The number of ways people can sit = 3 2 1 = 6
ways
Second, How many different ways can you listen to
five CDs?
Assuming you do not listen twice to a CD, you have
5 choices to listen to the first CD.
4 choices to listen to the second CD
3 choices to listen to the third CD
2 choices to listen to the fifth CD
1 choice for the last CD
So you have 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 different ways
to listen to the 5 CDs
Order of Operations
The information below explains PEMDAS:
parentheses, exponents, multiplication,
division, addition, and subtraction
When you have a math problem that involves more
than one operationfor example, addition and
subtraction, or subtraction and multiplication
which do you do first?
Example #1: 6 3 x 2 = ?
Do you do the subtraction first (6 3 =
3) and then the multiplication (3 x 2 =
6)?
Or do you start with the multiplication
(3 x 2 = 6) and then subtract (6 6 =
0)?
PEMDAS
In cases like these, we follow the order of
operations. The order in which operations should
be done is abbreviated as PEMDAS:
1. Parentheses
2. Exponents
3. Multiplication and Division (from left
to right)
4. Addition and Subtraction (from left to
right)
(One way to memorize this is to think of the phrase
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.)
In the above example, we're dealing
with multiplication and subtraction.
Multiplication comes a step before
Subtraction, so first we multiply 3 x 2,
and then subtract the sum from 6,
leaving 0.
Example #2: 30 5 x 2 + 1 = ?
There are no Parentheses.
There are no Exponents.
We start with the Multiplication and
Division, working from left to right.
NOTE: Even though Multiplication
comes before Division in PEMDAS, the
two are done in the same step, from
left to right. Addition and Subtraction
are also done in the same step.
30 5 = 6, leaving us with 6 x 2 + 1
=?
6 x 2 = 12, leaving us with 12 + 1
=?
 We then do the Addition: 12 + 1 = 13

Note that if we'd done the multiplication before the

division, we'd have ended up with the wrong Rectangle
answer:

5 x 2 = 10, leaving 30 10 + 1 = ?
A = ab, in which a is the base and
30 10 = 3, leaving 3 + 1 = ? b is the length.
3 + 1 = 4 (off by 9!)

One last example for advanced students, using all

six operations: Parallelogram

Example #3: 5 + (4 2)2 x 3 6 1 = ?

Start with the Parentheses: 4 2 = 2.

A = bh, in which b is the base
(Even though subtraction is usually
done in the last step, because it's in and h is the height.
parentheses, we do this first.) That
leaves 5 + 22 x 3 6 1 = ?

Then Exponents: 22 = 4. We now have

5 + 4 x 3 6 1= ? Circle

Then Multiplication and Division,

starting from the left: 4 x 3 = 12,
leaving us with 5 + 12 6 1 = ?
A = r2, in which is 3.1416 and r
Then moving to the right: 12 6 = 2, is the radius.
making the problem 5 + 2 1 = ?

Then Addition and Subtraction,

starting from the left: 5 + 2 = 7,
leaving 7 1 = ? Ellipse

Finally, moving to the right: 7 1 = 6

Finding Area A = r1r2, in which is

See below for helpful information about 3.1416, r1 is the longer
finding the area of squares, rectangles, radius, and r2 is the shorter
parallelograms, circles, ellipses, trapezoids, radius.
and triangles.

Square Trapezoid

A = a2, in which a is one of the sides.

A = (h[b1 + b2])/2, in V = a3, in which a is the length of
which h is the height, one of the sides.
b1 is the longer parallel
side, and b2 is the
shorter parallel side.
Rectangular Prism

Triangle
V = abc, in which a is
the length, b is the
width, and c is the depth.
Given base and height:
A = (1/2)bh, in which b is
the base and h is the
height.
Sphere

Given side, angle, side V = (4r3)/3, in which is

(SAS): (1/2) ab x sin, in about 3.1416 and r is the
which a is one side, b is radius.
another side, and is the
known angle.

Given three sides: Cylinder

when s = (a + b +
c)/2 (Heron's formula),
in which a, b, and c
represent the three V = r2h, in which is about
sides.
3.1416, r is the radius of the
base, and h is the height.

Cone

Finding Volume

V = (r2h)/3, in which is
about 3.1416, r is the radius
Cube
of the base, and h is the
height.

Pyramid
V = (Ah)/3, in which A is the
area of the base and h is the
height.
Finding Perimeter and
Circumference
Perimeter
The perimeter of a geometrical figure is the
complete distance around that figure. To find the
perimeter, simply add up the lengths of the figure's
sides.
Example: What is the perimeter of a rectangle that
measures 3 inches by 8 inches?
Since a rectangle has four
sides, and its parallel sides
are equal in length, this
rectangle must have two
sides that are each 3
inches in length, and two sides that are each
8 inches in length.
The sum of the lengths is 3 + 3 + 8 + 8 = 22.
Therefore, the perimeter of the rectangle is
22 inches.
Example: What is the perimeter of a pentagon in
which each side measures 4 inches?
A pentagon is a figure with five sides, and
this pentagon has all sides of the same
length.
The sum of the lengths is 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 =
20. Therefore, the perimeter of the pentagon
is 20 inches.
Example: What is the perimeter of a triangle that
has sides measuring 12 inches, 9 inches, and 6
inches?
The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of
the triangle's sides.
The sum of the lengths is 12 + 9 + 6 = 27.
Therefore, the perimeter of the triangle is 27
inches.
Circumference
The circumference of a circlethe
complete distance around a circle
can be found by using this formula:
C = 2r, in which is about 3.1416
and r is the radius.
Triangles
A triangle has three sides and is made of straight
lines. A triangle may be classified by how many of
its sides are of equal length. Or, it may be classified
by what kind of angles it has.
Types of Triangles by Length
In an equilateral triangle,
all three sides are the same
length. An equilateral
triangle is always
equiangular (see below).
In an isosceles triangle, two sides are the
same length. An isosceles triangle may be
right, obtuse, or acute (see below).
 To change

In a scalene triangle, none
of the sides are the same
length. A scalene triangle
may be right, obtuse, or acute (see below).
Types of Triangle by Angle
A fraction to a decimal:
Divide the denominator (the bottom part) into the
numerator (the top part):
1
/4 = 1 4.00 = 0.25
A fraction to a percent:

Multiply the fraction by 100 and reduce it. Then,

In an equiangular triangle, attach a percent sign.
all the angles are equal 1 100 100 25
/4 x /1 = /4 = /1 = 25%
each one measures 60
degrees. An equiangular A decimal to a fraction:
triangle is a kind of acute
triangle, and is always Starting from the decimal point, count the decimal
equilateral. places. If there is one decimal place, put the number
over 10 and reduce. If there are two places, put the
number over 100 and reduce. If there are three
places, put it over 1000 and reduce, and so on.
In a right triangle, one of the 25
0.25 = /100 = 1/4
angles is a right anglean angle
of 90 degrees. A right triangle A decimal to a percent:
may be isosceles or scalene.
Move the decimal point two places to the right.
Then, attach a percent sign.

0.25 = 25%
In an obtuse triangle, one
angle is greater than a right A percent to a decimal:
angleit is more than 90
degrees. An obtuse triangle Move the decimal point two places to the left. Then,
may be isosceles or scalene. drop the percent sign.

25% = 0.25

A percent to a fraction:
In an acute triangle, all angles are less
than right angleseach one is less than Put the number over 100 and reduce. Then, drop the
90 degrees. An acute triangle may be percent sign.
equilateral, isosceles, or scalene.
25
25% = /100 = 1/4

Common Fractions with Decimal and Percent

Equivalents
Converting Fractions, Decimals, and Percents
Fraction Decimal Percent
 Repeating Equivalent
Decimal Fraction
1/2 0.5 50%
0.3333... 1/3
1/3 0.333 33.333%
0.6666... 2/3
2/3 0.666 66.666%
0.1666... 1/6
1/4 0.25 25%
0.8333... 5/6
3/4 0.75 75%
0.1111... 1/9
1/5 0.2 20%
0.2222... 2/9
2/5 0.4 40%
0.4444... 4/9
3/5 0.6 60%
0.5555... 5/9
4/5 0.8 80%
0.7777... 7/9
1/6 0.1666 16.666%
0.8888... 8/9
5/6 0.8333 83.333%
0.0909... 1/11
1/8 0.125 12.5%
0.1818... 2/11
3/8 0.375 37.5%
0.08333... 1/12
5/8 0.625 62.5%
0.41666... 5/12
7/8 0.875 87.5%

1/9 0.111 11.111% Table of Squares and

2/9 0.222 22.222% Square Roots
4/9 0.444 44.444%
Use this table to find the squares and square roots of
5/9 0.555 55.555% numbers from 1 to 100.

7/9 0.777 77.777% You can also use this table to estimate the square
roots of larger numbers.
8/9 0.888 88.888%
For instance, if you
1/10 0.1 10% want to find the
square root of
1/12 0.08333 8.333%
2000, look in the
1/16 0.0625 6.25% middle column
until you find the
1/32 0.03125 3.125% number that is
closest to 2000.
The number in the
Common Repeating Decimals and Their middle column that
Equivalent Fractions is closest to 2000 is 2,025.
 Now look in at the number to the left of 30 900 5.477
2,025 to find its square root. The square root
31 961 5.568
of 2,025 is 45.
32 1,024 5.657
Therefore, the approximate square root of 33 1,089 5.745
2,000 is 45. 34 1,156 5.831
To get a more exact number, you will have to use a 35 1,225 5.916
calculator (44.721 is the more exact square root of 36 1,296 6.000
2,000). 37 1,369 6.083
38 1,444 6.164
number square square root
39 1,521 6.245
1 1 1.000
40 1,600 6.325
2 4 1.414
41 1,681 6.403
3 9 1.732
42 1,764 6.481
4 16 2.000
43 1,849 6.557
5 25 2.236
44 1,936 6.633
6 36 2.449
45 2,025 6.708
7 49 2.646
46 2,116 6.782
8 64 2.828
47 2,209 6.856
9 81 3.000
48 2,304 6.928
10 100 3.162
49 2,401 7.000
11 121 3.317
50 2,500 7.071
12 144 3.464
51 2,601 7.141
13 169 3.606
52 2,704 7.211
14 196 3.742
53 2,809 7.280
15 225 3.873
54 2,916 7.348
16 256 4.000
55 3,025 7.416
17 289 4.123
56 3,136 7.483
18 324 4.243
57 3,249 7.550
19 361 4.359
58 3,364 7.616
20 400 4.472
59 3,481 7.681
21 441 4.583
60 3,600 7.746
22 484 4.690
61 3,721 7.810
23 529 4.796
62 3,844 7.874
24 576 4.899
63 3,969 7.937
25 625 5.000
64 4,096 8.000
26 676 5.099
65 4,225 8.062
27 729 5.196
66 4,356 8.124
28 784 5.292
67 4,489 8.185
29 841 5.385
68 4,624 8.246
69 4,761 8.307 1. Pick a number that when squared, comes
close to (but is less than) the number whose
70 4,900 8.367 square root youre finding: 3 3 = 9. This is
71 5,041 8.426 a better choice than 4: 4 4 = 16
72 5,184 8.485
2. Divide the number youre finding the square
73 5,329 8.544 root of (12) by the number you squared (3)
74 5,476 8.602 in step 1: 12 3 = 4
75 5,625 8.660
3. Average the closest square root (3) and the
76 5,776 8.718
answer of step 2 (4): 3 + 4 = 7. 7 2 = 3.5
77 5,929 8.775
78 6,084 8.832 4. Square the average to see how close the
number is to 12:
79 6,241 8.888
80 6,400 8.944 3.5 3.5 = 12.25Close, but not close enough!
81 6,561 9.000
Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the number squared is
82 6,724 9.055
very close to 12:
83 6,889 9.110
84 7,056 9.165 Divide: 12 3.5 = 3.43
85 7,225 9.220
Average: 3.5 + 3.43 = 6.935
86 7,396 9.274
87 7,569 9.327 6.935 2 = 3.465
88 7,744 9.381
3.465 3.465 = 12.006, close enough!
89 7,921 9.434
90 8,100 9.487
91 8,281 9.539
Scientific Notation
92 8,464 9.592 Sometimes, especially when you are using a
93 8,649 9.644 calculator, you may come up with a very long
94 8,836 9.695 number. It might be a big number, like
2,890,000,000. Or it might be a small number, like
95 9,025 9.747 0.0000073.
96 9,216 9.798
97 9,409 9.849
98 9,604 9.899 Scientific notation is a way to
99 9,801 9.950 make these numbers easier to
100 10,000 10.000 work with. In scientific notation,
you move the decimal place
NOTE: Square roots in this table are rounded to the
until you have a number
nearest thousandth.
between 1 and 10. Then you
Finding Square Roots add a power of ten that tells
how many places you moved the decimal.
The easiest way to find a square root is to use a
In scientific notation, 2,890,000,000 becomes 2.89 x
calculator, but you can do it without one. Heres one
109. How?
way, using 12 as an example of the squared number:
 Remember that any whole number can be 109 = 1,000,000,000
written with a decimal point. For example: 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 =
2,890,000,000 = 2,890,000,000.0 1,000,000,000
millions
Now, move the decimal place until you have 106 = 1,000,000
a number between 1 and 10. If you keep 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000
moving the decimal point to the left in
2,890,000,000 you will get 2.89. hundred thousands
105 = 100,000
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 100,000
Next, count how many places you moved
the decimal point. You had to move it 9 ten thousands
places to the left to change 2,890,000,000 to 104 = 10,000
2.89. You can show that you moved it 9 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10,000
places to the left by noting that the number thousands
should be multiplied by 109. 103 = 1,000
10 x 10 x 10 = 1,000
2.89 x 109 = 2.89 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
hundreds
x 10 x 10
102 = 100
2.89 x 109 = 2,890,000,000
10 x 10 = 100
Scientific notation can be used to turn 0.0000073 tens
into 7.3 x 10-6. 101 = 10
First, move the decimal place until you have ones
a number between 1 and 10. If you keep 100 = 1
moving the decimal point to the right in tenths
0.0000073 you will get 7.3. 101 = 1/10
1/10 = 0.1
Next, count how many places you moved hundredths
the decimal point. You had to move it 6 102 = 1/102
places to the right to change 0.0000073 to 1/102 = 0.01
7.3. You can show that you moved it 6 thousandths
places to the right by noting that the number 103 = 1/103
should be multiplied by 10-6. 1/103 = 0.001
7.3 x 10-6 = 0.0000073 ten thousandths
104 = 1/104
Remember: in a power of ten, the exponentthe 1/104 = 0.0001
small number above and to the right of the 10tells
which way you moved the decimal point. hundred thousandths
105 = 1/105
A power of ten with a positive exponent, 1/105 = 0.00001
such as 105, means the decimal was moved millionths
to the left. 106 = 1/106
1/106 = 0.000001
A power of ten with a negative exponent, billionths
such as 10-5, means the decimal was moved 109 = 1/109
to the right. 1/109 = 0.000000001

Powers of Ten Factorials

billions
The factorial of a number is the product of all the
whole numbers, except zero, that are less than or
equal to that number. For example, to find the
factorial of 7 you would multiply together all the
whole numbers, except zero, that are less than or
equal to 7. Like this:
7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5,040
The factorial of a number is
shown by putting an
exclamation point after that
number. So, 7! is a way of
writing the factorial of 7 (or
7 factorial).
Here are some factorials:
1! = 1 = 1
2! = 2 x 1 = 2
3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6
4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24
5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
7! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5,040
8! = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 40,320
9! = 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 362,880
10! = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 =
3,628,800
11! = 11 x 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 =
39,916,800
12! = 12 x 11 x 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= 479,001,600
Factorials are useful. They can show how many
different ways there are to order or arrange a set
of things. For example, if you have 5 books on a
shelf, and want to know how many different ways
there are to order or arrange them, simply find the
factorial of 5:
5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
This shows that you can arrange 5 books 120
different ways.
Here's a bit of trivia: mathematicians have decided
that the factorial of zero, or 0!, is 1. Why? Because
you can arrange a set of nothing, an empty set, in
just one wayas nothing, an empty set.
Factors
A whole number that can be divided cleanly into
another whole number is called a factor of that
number.
Example: Factors 10 can be evenly divided by 1,
of 10 as 10 1 = 10
10 can be evenly divided by 2,
as 10 2 = 5
10 cannot be evenly divided by
3: 10 3 = 3.333
10 cannot be evenly divided by
4: 10 4 = 2.5
10 can be evenly divided by 5:
10 5 = 2
10 cannot be evenly divided by
6, 7, 8, or 9
10 can be evenly divided by 10:
10 10 = 1
The factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and
10.
You can also look at this the other way around: if
you can multiply two whole numbers to create a
third number, those two numbers are factors of the
third.
Example: Factors 2 x 5 = 10, so 2 and 5 are
of 10 factors of 10.
1 x 10 = 10, so 1 and 10 are
also factors of 10.
You will notice that 1 and the number itself are
always factors of a given number.
A Note About Negatives
Everything said above also applies to negative
whole numbers.
The factors of 10 are actually 1, 1, 2, 2,
5, 5, 10, and 10.
(1 x 10 = 10, and 2 x 5 = 10.)
The factors of 10 are also 1, 1, 2, 2, 5,
5, 10, and 10.
(2 x 5 = 10, 2 x 5 = 10, and so
on.)
This can be written more easily by using a
combined + and sign () to indicate that
both the positive and negative versions of a
number are factors. Thus, the factors of 10
can be written as 1, 2, 5, and 10.
Prime Factors
Some numbers can be evenly divided only by 1 and
themselves. These are prime numbers. Factors that
are prime numbers are called prime factors.
Every whole number greater than one is either a
prime number, or can be described as a product of
prime factors.
Examples: 10 is the product of the prime factors 2
x5
11 is a prime number
12 is the product of the prime factors 2
x2x3
324 is the product of the prime factors 2
x2x3x3x3x3
700 is the product of the prime factors 2
x2x5x5x7
701 is a prime number
2103 is the product of the prime factors
3 x 701
To find the prime factors of a given number, follow
these steps:
1. See if the number is a prime number. If it's
below 1000, use the table of prime numbers.
If it is prime, add it to the list of prime
factors, and you're done.
2. If it's not prime, try dividing it by a prime
number, starting with 2.
If it divides cleanly, with no remainder, then
add that prime to the list of prime factors.
Take the quotient as your new number to
work with, and return to step 1.
If it does not divide cleanly, return to step 2,
but move on to the next prime on the list.
Example: Prime 700 2 = 350, with no
factors of 700 remainder. Add 2 to the list of
prime factors.
350 2 = 175, with no
remainder. Add 2 to the list of
prime factors.
175 2 = 87.5. It doesn't divide
cleanly, so we go to the next
prime number.
175 3 = 58.33. It doesn't divide
cleanly, so we go to the next
prime number.
175 5 = 35, with no remainder.
Add 5 to the list of prime factors.
35 5 = 7, with no remainder.
Add 5 to the list of prime factors.
7 is a prime number. Add 7 to the
list of prime factors, and we're
done.
The prime factors of 700 are 2 x
2 x 5 x 5 x 7.
Be sure to check at each step to see if the number
you have is a prime. The next example illustrates
why:
Example: 2103 2 is 1051.5. It doesn't
Prime factors divide cleanly, so we go to the next
of 2103 prime number.
2103 3 is 701, with no remainder.
Add 3 to the list of prime factors.
The table of prime numbers will
tell you that 701 is a prime. Add
701 to the list of prime factors, and
we're done.
The prime factors of 2103 are 3 x
701.
If we didn't notice that 701 was a prime, we'd have
gone on to check 5, 7, 11, 13, and so on, going
through 120 more primes before getting done. So be
sure to check the quotient every time before
proceeding.
(As you might imagine, this method is designed for
smaller numbers. It's too time-consuming for very
large ones.)
Common Factors
Factors that two numbers have in common are
called the common factors of those numbers.
Example:
What are the common factors of 20 and 25?
The factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, and 20.
The factors of 25 are 1, 5, and 25.
The common factors of 20 and 25 are 1 and
5.
Example:
What are the common factors of 15 and 30?
The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, and 15.
The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15,
and 30.
The common factors of 15 and 30 are 1, 3, 5,
and 15.
Example:
What are the common factors of 9 and 20?
The factors of 9 are 1, 3, and 9.
The factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, and 20.
The only common factor of 9 and 20 is 1.
Greatest Common Factors
The largest common factor of two numbers is called
their greatest common factor or highest common
factor.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 20
and 25?
The common factors of 20 and 25 are 1 and
5. (see above)
The greatest common factor is 5.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 15
and 30?
The common factors of 15 and 30 are 1, 3,
5, and 15.
The greatest common factor is 15.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 9 and
20?
The only common factor of 9 and 20 is 1.
The greatest common factor is 1.
Method #2: Prime Factors
Another method of finding the greatest common
factor uses the prime factors of each number. Rather
than looking at all the factorsprime or notto
find the single highest one they have in common,
we multiply all the prime factors they have in
common, to reach the same results.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 20
and 25?
The prime factors of 20 are 2 x 2 x 5.
The prime factors of 25 are 5 x 5.
The prime factor they have in common is 5.
The greatest common factor is 5.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 15
and 30?
The prime factors of 15 are 3 x 5.
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5.
The prime factors they have in common are
3 x 5.
3 x 5 = 15.
The greatest common factor is 15.
When two numbers have no prime factors in
common, their greatest common factor is 1.
Example:
What is the greatest common factor of 9 and
20?
The prime factors of 9 are 3 x 3.
The prime factors of 20 are 2 x 2 x 5.
9 and 20 have no prime factors in common.
The greatest common factor is 1.
Lowest Common
Multiples
Common multiples are multiples that two numbers
have in common. These can be useful when
working with fractions and ratios.
Example:
What are some common multiples of 2 and 3?
Multiples of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22,
24...
Multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27...
Common multiples of 2 and 3 include 6, 12, 18, and
24.
Example:
What are some common multiples of 25 and 30?
Multiples of 25: 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175,
200, 225, 250, 275, 300, 325...
Multiples of 30: 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210,
240, 270, 300, 330...
Common multiples of 25 and 30 include 150 and
300.
The lowest common multiple or least common
multiple is the lowest multiple two numbers have in
common.
There are two ways of finding the lowest common
multiple of two numbers.
Method 1: Listing Multiples
The first way to find the lowest common multiple is
to do what we did above: write out a list of the
lowest multiples of each number, and look for the
lowest multiple both numbers have in common.
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 2 and 3?
Multiples of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8...
Multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9...
The lowest common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6.
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 25 and 30?
Multiples of 25: 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175...
Multiples of 30: 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180...
The lowest common multiple of 25 and 30 is 150.
Method 2: Factors
The other way to find the lowest common multiple
is to list the prime factors for each number. Remove
the prime factors both numbers have in common.
Multiply one of the numbers by the remaining
prime factors of the other number. The result will be
the lowest common multiple.
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 25 and 30?
The prime factors of 25 are 5 x 5.
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5.
Remove the 5 that 25 and 30 have in common as a
prime factor.
Multiply 25 by the remaining prime factors of 30.
25 x 2 x 3 = 150.
The lowest common multiple of 25 and 30 is 150.
You'll get the same results no matter which number
you work with:
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 25 and 30?
The prime factors of 25 are 5 x 5.
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5.
Remove the 5 that 25 and 30 have in common as a
prime factor.
Multiply 30 by the remaining prime factors of 25.
30 x 5 = 150.
The lowest common multiple of 25 and 30 is 150.
Another Example
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 42 and 48?
The prime factors of 42 are 2 x 3 x 7.
The prime factors of 48 are 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3.
Remove the 2 x 3 that 42 and 48 have in common
as prime factors.
Multiply 48 by the remaining prime factors of 42.
48 x 7 = 336.
The lowest common multiple of 42 and 48 is 336.
What if they have no prime factors in
common?
Example:
What is the lowest common multiple of 44 and 45?
The prime factors of 44 are 2 x 2 x 11.
The prime factors of 45 are 3 x 3 x 5.
44 and 45 have no prime factors in common.
Either:
Multiply 44 by the remaining prime factors of 45.
44 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 1980.
Or:
Multiply 45 by the remaining prime factors of 44.
45 x 2 x 2 x 11 = 1980.
Or:
44 x 45 = 1980.
The lowest common multiple of 44 and 45 is 1980.
As that last example illustrates, if two numbers have
no prime factors in common, the lowest common
multiple will be equal to the product of the two will be equal to the product of the two
numbers. numbers.

Treat primes as prime factors (The second scenario also includes cases where both
numbers are prime.)
If one number is prime, you can treat it as its own
prime factor. Mixed Numbers and Improper Fractions

Example: A mixed number is a combination of a whole

What is the lowest common multiple of 7 and 30? number and a fraction. For example, if you have
7 is a prime number. two whole apples and one half apple, you could
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5. describe this as 2 + 1/2 apples, or 21/2 apples.
7 and 30 have no prime factors in common.
7 x 30 = 210. Writing Mixed Numbers as Fractions
The lowest common multiple of 7 and 30 is 210.
Example: This mixed number can also be expressed as a
What is the lowest common multiple of 2 and 3? fraction. Each whole apple contains two half apples.
2 is a prime number. Your two whole apples are also four half apples.
3 is a prime number. Four half apples plus one half apple is five half
2 and 3 have no prime factors in common. apples. So you have 5/2 apples.
2 x 3 = 6.
The lowest common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6. To put this another way: to turn a mixed number
Example: into a fraction, multiply the whole number by the
What is the lowest common multiple of 3 and 30? denominator (the bottom part), and add the
3 is a prime number. result to the numerator (the top part).
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5.
Remove the 3 that 3 and 30 have in common as a 21/2 = ?
prime factor. Multiply the whole number by the
Either: denominator.
Multiply 3 by the remaining prime factors of 30. The whole number is 2.
3 x 2 x 5 = 30 The denominator is 2.
Or: 2 x 2 = 4.
Add the result to the numerator:
You would normally multiply 30 by the remaining
The numerator is 1.
prime factors of 3, but there are no remaining prime 4+1=5
factors. The numerator is 5. The denominator
The lowest common multiple is 30. remains 2.
Prime results 21/2 = 5/2

As you can see from the above, there are two Another Example
scenarios if at least one number is prime:
Let's try another example:
If one number is prime, and the other
52/3 = ?
number's prime factors include that prime
Multiply the whole number by the
number, the lowest common multiple will be
denominator.
equal to the non-prime number. The whole number is 5.
The denominator is 3.
If one number is prime, and the other 5 x 3 = 15.
number's prime factors do not include that Add the result to the numerator:
prime number, the lowest common multiple The numerator is 2.
15 + 2 = 17
 20
The numerator is 17. The denominator /5 = ?
remains 3. Divide the numerator by the denominator:
52/3 = 17/3 20 5 = 4
The quotient, 4, is the whole number. There
Proper and Improper Fractions is no remainder.
20
/5 = 4
A fraction in which the numerator is smaller than
the denominator, like 1/3 or 2/5 is called a proper Multiplying Fractions and Mixed Numbers
fraction. A fraction in which the numerator is larger
Multiplying Fractions
than or equal to the denominator, like 5/2, 17/3, or 6/6
is called an improper fraction. (To put it another
If your friend has one-quarter of a pie, and she
way, a fraction with a value less than 1 is a proper
gives you half, how much of the pie do you have?
fraction. A fraction with a value greater than or
Or, to put it another way, what's half of one-quarter?
equal to 1 is an improper fraction.)
Or, to put it into mathematical notation:
As we have shown above, mixed numbers can be 1
/2 x 1/4 = ?
written as improper fractions. Similarly, improper
fractions can be written as mixed numbers. To get the answer, multiply the numerators (the
top parts) and denominators (the bottom parts)
Writing Improper Fractions as Mixed Numbers
separately.
To write an improper fraction as a mixed
In this case, first we multiply the numerators:
number, divide the numerator (top part) by the
denominator (bottom part). The quotient is the 1x1=1
whole number, and the remainder is the
numerator. Next we multiply the denominators:

How would you express 17/4 as a mixed 2x4=8

number?
Divide the numerator by the denominator: The answer has a numerator of 1 and a denominator
17 4 = 4, with a remainder of 1
The quotient, 4, is the whole number. The
of 8. In other words:
remainder, 1, is the numerator. The 1
denominator remains 4. /2 x 1/4 = 1x1
/2 x 4 = 1/8
17
/4 = 41/4
You have one-eighth of the pie.
Two More Examples
Another Example
Let's try another couple of examples:
Let's try another.
14
/9 = ?
2
Divide the numerator by the denominator: /9 x 3/4 = ?
14 9 = 1, with a remainder of 5
The quotient, 1, is the whole number. The First we multiply the numerators:
remainder, 5, is the numerator. The
denominator remains 9. 2x3=6
14
/9 = 15/9
Next we multiply the denominators:
If there is no remainder, just take the quotient as the
whole number: 9 x 4 = 36
 4
The answer has a numerator of 6 and a denominator /5 x 5/4 = 20
/20 = 1
of 36. In other words:
In the case of a whole number, think of it as having
2 3
/9 x /4 = 2x3 6
/9 x 4 = /36 a denominator of 1:

This can be further reduced: The reciprocal of 5 is 1/5.

5
/1 x 1/5 = 5/5 = 1
66
/36 6 = 1/6
Every number has a reciprocal except for 0. There is
(See Reducing Fractions.) nothing you can multiply by 0 to create a product of
1, so it has no reciprocal.
Multiplying Mixed Numbers
Reciprocals are used when dividing fractions.
To multiply two mixed numbers, or a mixed number
and a fraction, first convert each mixed number to a Dividing Fractions
fraction. Then multiply the fractions.
If your friend has half a pie, how many quarter-pies
1
What is 2 /3 x /4 = ? 1
are in that half? Or, to put this into mathematical
notation:
First we write 21/3 as a fraction:
1
/2 1/4 = ?
1 7
2 /3 = /3
To get the answer, flip the divisor (the second
Then we multiply the fractions. fraction) over, and then multiply the fractions.
(Or, to put it another way, multiply the dividend [the
7
/3 x 1/4 = ? first fraction] by the reciprocal of the divisor [the
second fraction].)
First we multiply the numerators:
In this case, that makes the problem:
7x1=7
1
/2 x 4/1 = ?
Next we multiply the denominators:
We begin by multiplying the numerators:
3 x 4 = 12
1x4=4
The answer has a numerator of 7 and a denominator
of 12. In other words: And then we multiply the denominators:
21/3 x 1/4 = 7x1
/3 x 4 = 7/12 2x1=2

Reciprocal Fractions The answer has a numerator of 4 and a denominator

of 2. In other words:
To find the reciprocal of a fraction, flip it over, so
that the numerator becomes the denominator and the 1x4
/2 x 1 =4/2
denominator becomes the numerator. That is:
This fraction can be reduced to lowest terms:
The reciprocal of 4/5 is 5/4
42
/2 2 =2/1 = 2
Note that the product of a fraction and its
reciprocal is always 1. There are 2 quarter-pies in a half-pie.
Another Example 4x2=8

Let's try another: The answer has a numerator of 27 and a

denominator of 8. In other words:
4
/5 6/7 = ?
9x3
/4 x 2 =27/8
We flip the divisor over, and change the division
sign to a multiplication sign: Finally, we turn the resultan improper fraction
into a mixed number.
4
/5 x 7/6 = ?
27
/8 = 33/8 =
We multiply the numerators:
Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms
4 x 7 = 28
Consider the following two fractions:
And we multiply the denominators:
1
/2 and 2/4
5 x 6 = 30
These fractions are equivalent fractions. They both
The answer has a numerator of 28 and a represent the same amount. One half of an orange is
denominator of 30. In other words: equal to two quarters of an orange. However, only
one of these fractions is written in lowest terms.
4x7
/5 x 6 =28/30
A fraction is in lowest terms when the numerator
We can reduce this fraction by dividing the and denominator have no common factor other
numerator and denominator by 2: than 1.
28 2 14
/30 2 = /15 The factors of 2 are 1 and 2.
The factors of 4 are 1, 2, and 4.
Mixed Numbers 2 and 4 share a common factor: 2.

Let's try one more, this time with a mixed number: We can reduce this fraction by dividing both the
numerator and denominator by their common factor,
21/4 2/3 = ? 2.

First we change the mixed number to an improper 22

/4 2 = 1/2
fraction:
1 and 2 have no common factor other than 1, so the
9
/4 2/3 = ? fraction is in lowest terms.

Next we flip the divisor over and change the Method #1: Common Factors
division sign to a multiplication sign: (a slow and steady method)
9
/4 x 3/2 = ? Let's try another example:

We multiply the numerators: 30

/36

9 x 3 = 27 Do 30 and 36 share any factors other than 1?

And we multiply the denominators: The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30.
The factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18,
36.
30 and 36 have three common factors: 2, 3,
and 6.
Let's see what happens if we divide the numerator
and denominator by their lowest common factor, 2.
(In fact, we'd know that they have 2 as a common
factor without having to work out all their factors,
because both 30 and 36 are even numbers.)
30 2
/36 2 = 15
/18
Are we done? Do 15 and 18 share any factors other
than 1?
The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, 15.
The factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18.
15 and 18 have one common factor: 3.
Once again, we divide the numerator and
denominator by their common factor, 3.
15 3
/18 3 = 5/6
Are we done? Do 5 and 6 share any factors other
than 1?
The factors of 5 are 1 and 5.
The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and 6.
5 and 6 have no common factors other than
1.
This method will reduce a fraction to its lowest
terms, but it can take several steps until you reach
that point. What would have happened if, instead of
dividing the numerator and denominator by their
lowest common factor, we had started with their
greatest common factor?
Method #2: Greatest Common Factor
(a more efficient method)
and 6.
The greatest common factor is 6.
Divide the numerator and denominator by the
greatest common factor:
30 6
/36 6 = 5/6
This time, it takes only one step to get to the same
result. To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms,
divide the numerator and denominator by the
greatest common factor.
Method #3: Prime Factors
(an even more efficient method)
Another way to reduce fractions is to break the
numerator and denominator down to their prime
factors, and remove every prime factor the two have
in common. Let's do that example one more time,
using this method.
30
/36
The prime factors of 30 are 2 x 3 x 5.
The prime factors of 36 are 2 x 2 x 3 x 3.
2x3x5
/2 x 2 x 3 x 3
We remove the 2 x 3 the numerator and
denominator have in common:
5
/2 x 3 = 5/6
(If you think about it, this works the same way as
the last method. The greatest common factor of two
numbers is the same as the product of the prime
factors they have in common.)
Metric Conversions
Below are the rules for converting metric and
english systems of measurement.
Multiply By To Find

Let's try it again: Centimeters .0328 feet

30
/36 Centimeters .3937 inches

Do 30 and 36 share any factors other than 1? Feet 30.4801 centimeters

The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15. Feet/minutes .507 cent./seconds

The factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18.
Foot-pounds .1383 meter-kilograms
30 and 36 have three common factors: 2, 3,
Gallons 3,785.4 cubic centimeters

Gallons 3.7853 liters Pounds .4536 kilograms

Grams .0353 ounces Quarts .946 liters

Grams .0022 pounds Quarts (dry) 67.2 cubic inches

Inches 2.54 centimeters Quarts (liquid) 57.75 cubic inches

Inches .0833 feet Sq. .0011 square feet

centimeters
Kilograms 2.2046 pounds
Sq. kilometers .3861 square miles
Kilometers 3,280.833 feet
Sq. kilometers 1.196x10(6 square yards
Kilometers .6214 miles )

Kilometers/ho 54.68 feet/minute Sq. meters 10.7639 square feet

ur
Sq. meters 1.196 square yards
Kilometers/ho .6214 miles/hour
ur Sq. miles 2.59 square kilometers

Knots 1.8532 kilometers/hour Sq. yards .8361 square meters

Liters 1.0567 quarts Yards 91.44 centimeters

Meters 3.2808 feet Yards .9144 meters

Meters 39.37 inches

Conversion Factors
Meters 1.0936 yards
Below are instructions for converting factors,
Meter- 7.2307 foot-pounds
including changing acres to hectares, Btu/hour to
kilograms
horsepower, centimeters to inches, degrees to
Meters/minute 1.667 centimeters/seco radians, feet to miles, furlongs to feet, liters to
nd gallons, and more. See also the Infoplease.com
conversion calculator
Meters/minute .0547 feet/second

Miles 1.6093 kilometers Multipl

y
Miles/hour .8684 knots To change To by

Miles/hour 1.6093 kilometers/hour acres hectares .4047

Miles/hour .447 meters/second acres square feet 43,560

Ounces 28.3495 grams acres square miles .001562

Ounces 2.8349x10 kilograms atmospheres cms. of mercury 76

(2)
Btu/hour horsepower .
Pounds 453.5924 grams
 000393
0
hectares acres 2.4710
Btu kilowatt-hour .
000293 hectoliters bushels (U.S.) 2.8378
1
horsepower watts 745.7
Btu/hour watts .2931
horsepower Btu/hour 2,547
bushels cubic inches 2150.4
hours days .04167
bushels (U.S.) hectoliters .3524
inches millimeters 25.4000
centimeters inches .3937
inches centimeters 2.5400
centimeters feet .03281
kilograms pounds (avdp or 2.2046
cubic feet cubic meters .0283 troy)

cubic meters cubic feet 35.3145 kilometers miles .6214

cubic meters cubic yards 1.3079 kilowatt-hour Btu 3412

cubic yards cubic meters .7646 knots nautical 1.0

miles/hour
degrees radians .01745
knots statute miles/hour 1.151
dynes grams .00102
liters gallons (U.S.) .2642
fathoms feet 6.0
liters pecks .1135
feet meters .3048
liters pints (dry) 1.8162
feet miles (nautical) .
000164 liters pints (liquid) 2.1134
5
liters quarts (dry) .9081
feet miles (statute) .
000189 liters quarts (liquid) 1.0567
4
meters feet 3.2808
feet/second miles/hour .6818
meters miles .
furlongs feet 660.0 000621
4
furlongs miles .125
meters yards 1.0936
gallons (U.S.) liters 3.7853
metric tons tons (long) .9842
grains grams .0648
metric tons tons (short) 1.1023
grams grains 15.4324
miles kilometers 1.6093
grams ounces (avdp) .0353
miles feet 5280
grams pounds .002205
miles (nautical) miles (statute) 1.1516 square feet square meters .0929

miles (statute) miles (nautical) .8684 square square miles .3861

kilometers
miles/hour feet/minute 88
square meters square feet 10.7639
millimeters inches .0394
square meters square yards 1.1960
ounces (avdp) grams 28.3495
square miles square kilometers 2.5900
ounces pounds .0625
square yards square meters .8361
ounces (troy) ounces (avdp) 1.09714
tons (long) metric tons 1.016
pecks liters 8.8096
tons (short) metric tons .9072
pints (dry) liters .5506
tons (long) pounds 2240
pints (liquid) liters .4732
tons (short) pounds 2000
pounds (ap or kilograms .3732
troy) watts Btu/hour 3.4121

pounds (avdp) kilograms .4536 watts horsepower .001341

pounds ounces 16 yards meters .9144

quarts (dry) liters 1.1012 yards miles .

000568
quarts (liquid) liters .9463 2

radians degrees 57.30 NOTE: avdp = avoirdupois weight, ap =

apothecaries' weight.See also Customary
rods meters 5.029 U.S. Weights and Measures

rods feet 16.5