Chapter 1 - Introduction To Geology

Engineering Geology - BFC 3013 Introduction to Geology
Chapter 1
Introduction to Geology
INTRODUCTION
What is Geology and Engineering Geology?
Geology is the study of this planet Earth, its origin, history, composition, structure
and dynamics of how it changes. The word geology is derived from Greek word
(geo - earth; logos - discourse). Geology is an event formed during geological
time which involves interpretation and also observation of the event that occurred
and is still occurring at present in our earth; Geological processes that takes
place during the very large span of geological time, left their record in the rocks.
One of the unique features of Earth is that the Earth is not a static body but is in
constant motion and changes continually.
In sciences study, engineering geology is the application of the geological

principal in civil engineering (and as a subdivision of the mining engineering).
Engineering geology in practice are responsible in civil engineering projects that
involve the earth or earth materials which include (1) The identification and
evaluation of the physical environment of the site and (2) The analysis of the
impact of the geologic processes on the proposed project. As a result, it is
important to the civil engineers to understand about history, nature and the
variety behavior of the soil and rock. The knowledge of the application
engineering is also important for the geologist who works together with the
engineer.
Engineering geology is a subfield of geological study concerning about the

geological inputs and the uses of the information to solve the engineering
problems. It exists solely to serve art and science of engineering through
description of the structure and attributes of rocks connected with engineering
works (Goodman, 1993). Some engineering works that need
understandings/related to geological aspect are construction of dam, landslide,
rock as aggregates and construction material, hydro geological and Etc.
1 UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

1.1 The Universe and Solar System
Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It
includes the satellites of the planets such as numerous comets, asteroids, and
meteoroids and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of
electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system.
The nine major planets including our earth and their moons are revolving around
the Sun.
Figure 1.1 The solar system
Figure 1.2 The composite above shows Figure 1.3 Planets

the Sun and the 5 largest planets at a scale
of 3200 km/pixel. (Earth is the tiny spot
between Jupiter and the Sun)

1.1.1 The Terrestrial and Jovian Planets
The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar system,
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are called terrestrial because they have a
compact, rocky surface like the Earth's. The planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars
have significant atmospheres while Mercury has almost none.
Figure 1.4 The Terrestrial Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like)
planets. They are called jovian because they are all gigantic compared with
Earth, and they have a gaseous nature like Jupiter's.
Figure 1.5 The Jovian Planets

1.1.2 Satellites, Asteroids, Comets and Meteors
Satellites or Moons: are those celestial bodies, each of which is revolving around
any of these nine planets. Asteroids are the minor planets generally situated
between orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Comets are the heavenly bodies having
along tail pointing approximately away from the sun and a brighter head section
(coma) that contains a small bright nucleus. Meteors are smaller solid bodies
moving through the space, and getting illuminated while entering earths
atmosphere.
Figure 1.6 Asteroids

Figure 1.7 Comet

Table 1.1 The characteristics for the entire planet
Distance Radius Mass Rotation Orbital Orbital Density

(AU) (Earth's) (Earth's) (Earth's) # Moons Inclination Eccentricity Obliquity (g/cm3)
Sun 0 109 332,800 25-36* 9 --- --- --- 1.410
Mercury 0.39 0.38 0.05 58.8 0 7 0.2056 0.1 5.43
Venus 0.72 0.95 0.89 244 0 3.394 0.0068 177.4 5.25
Earth 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 0.000 0.0167 23.45 5.52
Mars 1.5 0.53 0.11 1.029 2 1.850 0.0934 25.19 3.95
Jupiter 5.2 11 318 0.411 16 1.308 0.0483 3.12 1.33
Saturn 9.5 9 95 0.428 18 2.488 0.0560 26.73 0.69
Uranus 19.2 4 17 0.748 15 0.774 0.0461 97.86 1.29
Neptune 30.1 4 17 0.802 8 1.774 0.0097 29.56 1.64
Pluto 39.5 0.18 0.002 0.267 1 17.15 0.2482 119.6 2.03
1.2 Earth
The largest of four planets of inner group solar system i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars and third closest to the sun.

Shape - spherical
Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial radius
Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
Overall Density - 5.5 g/cm3
Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea level
Average height above sea level is 7 km
1.2.1 The Origin of the Earth
Based on observational facts cosmologist have developed classes of hypothesis

which try to explain the origin of the earth. One of them is The Big Bang Theory.
At 13.7 billion years ago, the entirety of our universe was compressed into the
confines of an atomic nucleus. Known as a singularity, this is the moment before
creation when space and time did not exist. According to the prevailing
cosmological models that explain our universe, an ineffable explosion, trillions of
degrees in temperature on any measurement scale, that was infinitely dense,
created not only fundamental subatomic particles and thus matter and energy but
space and time itself. Cosmology theorists combined with the observations of
their astronomy colleagues have been able to reconstruct the primordial
chronology of events known as the big bang.

Figure 1.8 The Big Bang Theory

Figure 1.9 Earth
Figure 1.10 Earth with other Planets

1.2.2 Principal Division of Earth
(a) Atmosphere
Gaseous portion of the Earth extending upwards for hundreds of miles above sea
level. It is a mixture of 98% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide, eater vapour
and minor amount of other gases. The atmosphere is divided into two parts.
Troposhere is the closest to the Earth ~ 13 km. It contains almost all of the water
vapour, clouds and storms.
Stratosphere is the overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface, contains the

ozone layer. It acts as an insulating agent protecting us from the heat and ultra
violet radiation of the sun and makes possible the evaporation and precipitation
of moisture and is thus of crucial important to organisms on surface of Earth. The
atmosphere is an important geologic agent and is responsible for the processes
of weathering which are continually at work on the Earth's surface.
(b) Hydrosphere
Total mass of water or the surface of our planet. The hydrosphere includes about
98% of water in the oceans and 2% in lakes, rivers as well as ground water which
exist in the pores and crevices of the crustal rocks and soils. 71% of Earth
covered by oceans to average depth of 4 km. Water is essential to man and of
geologic important.
All of Earth's weather patterns, climate, rainfall and the extremely important
carbon dioxide content of atmosphere are influenced by the seas and oceans.
Hydrosphere is in constant motion - evaporating through atmosphere,
precipitating as rain and returning to Earth. As water moves over the Earth's
surface it erodes, transports and deposits weathered rock material, constantly
modifying the Earth's landscape.
(c) Lithosphere
Lithos means rock. The solid portion of the Earth composed of crust and upper
mantle. It is a layer of rocks about 70 km thick, that rests upon soft weak material
and is broken into about 12 major plates which is slowly moved by the flow of
material in a layer that directly underlies the lithosphere called the
asthenosphere. There are three basic types of rock: Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic.

1.2.3 Physical Features of the Earth
Major Concepts
Earth is segregated and concentrated into layers according to density.
The major internal layers based on physical properties are:
(a) lithosphere (b) asthenosphere

(c) mesosphere (d) core
Material within each of these units is in motion, making Earth a changing

dynamic planet.
Continents and ocean basins are the principal surface features of Earth.
1.2.3.1 Major Structural Units of Earth
The constituents of Earth are separated and segregated into layers according to
density. The denser materials are concentrated near the center, the less dense
near the surface.
The internal layers are recognized on the basis of composition and physical
properties.
Composition layers are:
Crust
Mantle
Core
Layers based on physical properties are:
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere
Core

Table 1.2 Layers of the Earth Based on Composition
Outer layer of the Earth, extending from solid surface down to the first major
discontinuity in seismic wave velocity in the lithosphere. Thickness of crust varies
from about 8 km under the oceans to about 35 km under the continents.
There are two kinds of earth crust classified according to two different kinds of
rock they contained where each with its own general composition, thickness and
density.
Outer (a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
Crust relatively low density
granitic rock
average density: 2.8 g/cm3
(b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3
The next major compositional layer of the Earth which covers the core and this
zone constitute 82% of its volume and 68% of mass of the Earth (Earth largest
layer).
The mantle has a property called "plasticity" (where a solid has the ability to flow
like a liquid). You might call the mantle "partially molten". Remember that the
temperature of the mantle increases the deeper you go. This difference in
temperature causes CONVECTION CURRENTS to form. This type of current
forms when hot things rise and cooler things sink. These convection currents
tumble throughout the mantle. They cause the Lithospheric plates floating on the
mantle to move around. These currents cause our continents and oceans to
change location slightly each year. The currents are the driving force for Plate
Mantle Tectonics or Continental Drift, which we will discuss in more detail in a later
section.
The forces which drive continental drift seem to come from the mantle. The hot
rock, which boils up at mid-ocean ridges, comes from the upper mantle. This rock
spreads out forming new oceanic plates.
When these meet the continents they plunge back down into the mantle,
sometimes going down as far as the outer core.
In addition there are hot spots, which start at the outer core and rise up through
the mantle to form islands such as Hawaii or Iceland.
The mantle is composed of iron and magnesium silicate rock, and it goes down to
about 2900 km from surface of Earth.
Average density: 4.5 g/cm3
It is speculated that the thickness is about 2250 km and it is made of molten iron
Outer
and nickel.
Core
Average density: 10.7 g/cm3
Inner The thickness' is about 1300 km and probably consists of mostly iron and nickel.
Core Average density: 17.0 g/cm3

Figure 1.11 The composition of earth: the crust, the mantle, the outer core and
the inner core

Figure 1.12 The Convection Currents in the Mantle
Figure 1.13 The physical properties: The Lithosphere divided into two:
continental plate and oceanic plate.
Table 1.3 Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties
The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface.

Lithosphere
Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid. This
(rock sphere)
layer is called lithosphere. Contains the continental crust of the
uppermost part of the mantle.
A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and

pressure are just the right balance so that part of the material melts.
Asthenosphere
The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft plastic and
(weak sphere)
easily deformed. The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that
flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
The thickness is about 200 km.
The rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more rigid than
the asthenosphere because the high pressure at this depth offsets
Mesosphere
the effect of high temperature. The region between the
asthenosphere and the core-mantle boundary is called the
mesosphere.
Core
The core of the Earth marks a change in both physical properties and
composition. It is composed mostly of iron and is therefore distinctly
different from the silicate (rocky) material above. On the basis of
physical properties, the core has two distinct parts - a solid inner core
and liquid outer core. Heat loss from the core and the rotation of the
Earth probably causes the liquid outer core to circulate and generate

the Earth's magnetic field.
Physical properties layers
Figure 1.14 (a) and (b) illustrated the comparison between the composition and
the physical properties layers of the earth.

1.2.3.2 The Structure of Earth
Continents and ocean basins are the principle surface features of the Earth. Both
are distinctly different in composition, density, rock type, structure and origin.
(a) Continental Masses
This part of the earth covers about 29% of the earths surface and has an
average elevation of about 5 km above the floors of the ocean basins and about
1 km above sea level. It composed largely of rocks known as granite. The
continents rise above the ocean basins as large platforms. The highest mountain
on the continental surface is Mount Everest which is 29000 feet above sea level
but the deepest part of the ocean is about 35000 feet below sea level at Pacific
Ocean.
(b) Ocean Basins
The greatest part of the hydrosphere is the ocean basin which covers about 70%
of the earth's surface. The ocean floors are also as irregular and posses many
deep trenches and mountain ranges as the continental masses. The rocks of the
ocean are rather dense, dark basaltic rock.

Figure 1.15 A graph of the Elevation of the Continents and Ocean Basins
1.2.3.3 The Geologic Processes that Change the Earth's Structure
Geologic Forces: Earth has undergone great changes over million of years.
Generally processes of gradation, tectonism and volcanism.
(a) Gradation
Degradation: Erosion results from wearing of rocks by water, air and ice.
Aggradation: Deposition results in accumulation of sediment and ultimate

building up of rock strata.
(b) Tectonism
Plate tectonics is a dynamic process of the lithospheric plate which moves over a
weak plastic layer in the upper mantle known as asthenosphere. These plates
interact with one another along their boundaries. Indicative of crustal instability,
produce faulting (fracture and displacement), folding, subsidence and uplift of
rock formation. Responsible for formation of mountain ranges.
Earths lithosphere is composed of seven large plates (Figure 1.19) with

thickness ranging from 75 to 125 km.
Table 1.4 Earths Lithosphere Plates

Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate
Antartic Plate North America Plate
Indian Plate South American Plate
Africian Plate 20 other small plates in between
(c) Volcanism
A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust through which molten rock materials within
the earth, lavas, ashes, steam and gas are ejected and responsible for the
formation of plutonic rocks, once solidified at great depth. Majority of volcanoes
are located along the margins of tectonic plates.


Figure 1.16 Major Plates of the Lithosphere

1.2.3.4 Geologic Time Scale
The Earth's crust is known to be at least 40 million centuries old. The time span
of the earth is called eras and subdivided into periods (Table 1.5). Rocks have
been created and destroy throughout geologic time. Rocks which are created
during that particular period for example Cambrian are said to belong to the
Cambrian system. The nature of rocks created or formed during various eras can
actually reveal about its strength and condition, for example rocks from the
Precambrian era are known to be very hard, crystalline materials but often with
many fractures and microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pilocene
series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without blasting.
Table 1.5 Geologic Time Span
Era Period Absolute (million years

Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2
Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65
Mesozoic Cretaceous 135

Jurassic 195
Triassic 225
Upper Paleozoic Permian 280

Carboniferous 345
Devonian 395
Lower Paleozoic Silurian 440

Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570
Proterozoic and 4600

Archaeozoic

1.3 Plate Tectonic
1.3.1 What is a Tectonic Plate?
A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped

slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere.
Plate size can vary greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers
across; the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness
also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to
about 200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere.
How do these massive slabs of solid rock float despite their tremendous weight?
The answer lies in the composition of the rocks. Continental crust is composed of
granitic rocks which are made up of relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz
and feldspar. By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic rocks, which are
much denser and heavier.
Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot be seen, because they
are hidden beneath the oceans. Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped
accurately from outer space by measurements from GEOSAT satellites.
Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near these boundaries.
1.3.2 The Theory of Tectonic Plate
The theory of tectonic plate states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented
into a dozen or more large and small plates that are moving relative to one
another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile material.
The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and processes - gradual
as well as catastrophic - acting on the Earth today are the same as those that
have acted in the geologic past.
Continental Drift - introduced by a 32 year old German meteorologist named

Alfred Lothar Wegener. He contended that, around 200 million years ago, the
supercontinent Pangaea began to split apart.

Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg University, proposed

that Pangaea first broke into two large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the southern hemisphere. Laurasia
and Gondwanaland then continued to break apart into the various smaller
continents that exist today.
Wegener's theory was based in part on what appeared to him to be the

remarkable fit of the South American and African continents, the matching animal
fossils found on coastlines of South America and Africa, and the evidence of
dramatic climate changes on some continents.
For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in the form of coal
deposits) in Antarctica led to the conclusion that this frozen land previously must
have been situated closer to the equator, in a more temperate climate where
lush, swampy vegetation could grow. Other mismatches of geology and climate
included distinctive fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-polar regions,
and the occurrence of glacial deposits in present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal
River valley of South Africa.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.17 These two maps showing the American and African continents may
once have fit together, then later separated. (a) The formerly joined continents
before their separation. (b) The continents after the separation.

Figure 1.18 According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent

Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago, eventually
fragmenting into the continents as we know them today.

Figure 1.19 As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain

fossil plants and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form
definite patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined
Figure 1.20 Major Plates of the Lithosphere

1.3.3 Developing the Theory of Continental Drift
Four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of the plate-tectonics

theory:
a) The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor
b) Repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic field in the geologic past
c) Developing of the seafloor-spreading and associated recycling of oceanic crust
d) The world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated along oceanic

trenches and submarine mountain ranges.
1.3.3.1 The Ruggedness and Youth of the Ocean Floor
Ocean floor mapping shows the ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor.
The sediment layer on the floor of the Atlantic was much thinner than
originally thought.
Scientists had previously believed that the oceans have existed for at least
4 billion years, so therefore the sediment layer should have been very thick.
Why then was there so little accumulation of sedimentary rock and debris
on the ocean floor? The answer to this question, which came after further
exploration, would prove to be vital to advancing the concept of plate
tectonics.
The discovery that a great mountain range on the ocean floor virtually
encircled the Earth. Called the global mid-ocean ridge, this immense
submarine mountain chain - more than 50,000 kilometers (km) long and, in
places, more than 800 km across - zig-zags between the continents, winding
its way around the globe like the seam on a baseball. Rising an average of
about 4,500 m above the sea floor.

Figure 1.21 The mid-ocean ridge (shown in red) winds its way between the
continents much like the seam on a baseball

1.3.3.2 Repeated Reversals of the Earth Magnetic Field in the Geologic Past
Using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne

devices to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations
across the ocean floor.
This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it

was known that basalt - the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor
- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort
compass readings.
Figure 1.22 A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New

oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and
becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor
spreading (see text): a. the spreading ridge about 5 million years ago; b. about 2
to 3 million years ago; and c. present-day.
Rocks generally belong to two groups according to their magnetic

properties. One group has so-called normal polarity, characterized by the
magnetic minerals in the rock having the same polarity as that of the Earth's
present magnetic field. This would result in the north end of the rock's
"compass needle" pointing toward magnetic north. The other group, however,
has reversed polarity, indicated by a polarity alignment opposite to that of the
Earth's present magnetic field. In this case, the north end of the rock's
compass needle would point south.
How could this be? This answer lies in the magnetite in volcanic rock.
Grains of magnetite - behaving like little magnets - can align themselves with
the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field. When magma (molten rock
containing minerals and gases) cools to form solid volcanic rock, the
alignment of the magnetite grains is "locked in," recording the Earth's
magnetic orientation or polarity (normal or reversed) at the time of cooling.

1.3.3.3 Seafloor Spreading and Recycling of Oceanic Crust
Why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why
oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks?
At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and they
become
progressively older away from the ridge crest.
The youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-day

(normal)
polarity.
Stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternated in magnetic polarity

(normal-reversed-normal, etc.), suggesting that the Earth's magnetic field has
flip-flopped many times.
When the ages of the samples were determined by paleontologic and

isotopic dating studies, they provided the clinching evidence that proved the
seafloor spreading hypothesis.
1.3.3.4 Concentration of Earthquakes and Volcano Activity
During the 20th century, improvements in seismic instrumentation and greater

use of earthquake-recording instruments (seismographs) worldwide enabled
scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in certain areas,
most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges.
By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent

earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 - 60
from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth.
These zones later became known as Wadati-Benioff zones, or simply Benioff
zones.

Figure 1.23 As early as the 1920s, scientists noted that earthquakes are
concentrated in very specific narrow zones. In 1954, French
seismologist J.P. Roth published this map showing the concentration
of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched
areas

1.3.4 Understanding Plate Motions
Scientists now have a fairly good understanding of how the plates move and how
such movements relate to earthquake activity. Most movement occurs along
narrow zones between plates where the results of plate-tectonic forces are most
evident. There are four types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent boundaries - where

new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other.
2. Convergent boundaries - where

crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. It can divide into
three:
(1) Oceanic - continental convergence

(2) Oceanic - oceanic convergence
(3) Continental - continental convergence
3. Transform boundaries - where

crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally
past each other.
4. Plate boundary zones - broad belts in which boundaries are not well
defined and the effects of plate interaction are unclear.


Figure 1.24 An illustrating the main types of plate boundaries; convergent,

divergent and transform plate boundaries.

1.3.4.1 Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading

centers where plates are moving apart and new
crust is created by magma pushing up from the
mantle. The rate of spreading along the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 centimeters
per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a million years.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits nearly the

entire Atlantic Ocean north to south, is probably
the best-known and most-studied example of a
divergent-plate boundary
In East Africa, spreading processes have already

torn Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the
African continent, forming the Red Sea. The
actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian
Plate meet in what geologists call a triple
junction, where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of
Aden.
Figure 1.25 Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active
volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center) - a so-
called triple junction (or triple point), where three plates are pulling away
from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African
Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift
Zone

1.3.4.2 Convergent Boundaries
The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at about
the same rate as it is being created. Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes
place along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other,
and sometimes one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where
sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
The type of convergence - called by some a very slow "collision" - that takes
place between plates depends on the kind of lithosphere involved. Convergence
can occur between an oceanic and a largely continental plate, or between two
largely oceanic plates, or between two largely continental plates.
1.3.4.2.1 Oceanic - Continental Convergence
Oceanic-continental convergence (Figure 1.31) also sustains many of the Earth's

active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the Cascade Range in the
Pacific Northwest. The eruptive activity is clearly associated with subduction.
1.3.4.2.2 Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence
The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), for example, marks where
the fast - moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine
Plate. The Challenger Deep, at the southern end of the Marianas Trench,
plunges deeper into the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000 m) than Mount Everest,
the world's tallest mountain, rises above sea level (about 8,854 m).
Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the

formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic
debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level
to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains
called island arcs.
1.3.4.2.3 Continental - Continental Convergence
The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the most

visible and spectacular consequences of plate tectonics. When two continents

meet head-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively
light and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion.

Figure 1.26 Three convergent boundaries: (a) Oceanic Continental (b)

Oceanic oceanic (c) Continental - continental
1.3.4.3 Transform Boundaries
The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is called a
transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary. Most transform faults
are found on the ocean floor. They commonly offset the active spreading ridges,
producing zig - zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow
earthquakes. However, a few occur on land, for example the San Andreas fault
zone in California. This transform fault connects the East Pacific Rise, a
divergent boundary to the south, with the South Gorda - Juan de Fuca - Explorer
Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north.

Figure 1.27 Illustration of s transform fault jointing segments of the Mid-Atlantic

Ridge
Figure 1.28 The direction of motion of the plates on opposite sides of an

oceanic transform boundary is determined by spreading from mid-ocean ridge
segments
Figure 1.29 The Blanco, Mendocino, Murray, and Molokai fracture zones are
some of the many fracture zones (transform faults) that scar the ocean floor and

offset ridges. The San Andreas is one of the few transform faults exposed on
land
1.3.4.4 Plate - Boundary Zones
Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the main types discussed above. In
some regions, the boundaries are not well defined because the plate-movement
deformation occurring there extends over a broad belt (called a plate-boundary
zone). Because plate-boundary zones involve at least two large plates and one
or more microplates caught up between them they tend to have complicated
geological structures and earthquake patterns.
SUMMARY
1. The major structural units of the Earth, based on composition are (a) crust, (b)
mantle and (c) core.
2. The internal layers of Earth based on physical properties are lithosphere,

asthenosphere, mesosphere and core.
3. The two major topographic features of Earth are (a) the continents and (b)
ocean basins.
4. Geologic process that change the Earth's structure are gradation, tectonism
and volcanism.
ASSIGNMENT
Importance of geology and it's relation to civil engineering works.
During the early nineteenth century, civil engineers were also geologists ..,
Assignment not more than 300 words.
What is a mohorovicic discontinuities?
Do you know that Himalayan mountains were formed as a result of the collision
and convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates?

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Draw a diagram of the internal structure of Earth and briefly describe the core,
mantle, asthenosphere and lithosphere.
2. What are the major differences between continents and the ocean basins?
True (T) / False (F) Questions
1. Continents and ocean basins do not differ markedly in rock type, density or
chemical composition. [ ]
2. The difference in elevation of continents and ocean basins represents a

fundamental difference in rock density. Continental rocks are less dense than
the rocks of the ocean basins. [ ]
3. The equatorial radius is shorter by 21 km than the polar radius. [ ]
4. The three broad categories of rocks are formed at the lithosphere. [ ]
5. The core is the Earth's rigid outer layer. [ ]
6. The continental crust has a granitic layer underneath a basaltic layer. [ ]
7. Earth is the largest of four planets of inner solar group and the third closest to
the sun. [ ]

Chapter 1 - Introduction To Geology

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Chapter 1 - Introduction To Geology

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Engineering Geology - BFC 3013 Introduction to Geology

What is Geology and Engineering Geology?

In sciences study, engineering geology is the application of the geological

Engineering geology is a subfield of geological study concerning about the

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1.1 The Universe and Solar System

Figure 1.1 The solar system

Figure 1.2 The composite above shows Figure 1.3 Planets

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1.1.1 The Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Figure 1.4 The Terrestrial Planets

Figure 1.5 The Jovian Planets

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1.1.2 Satellites, Asteroids, Comets and Meteors

Figure 1.6 Asteroids

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Figure 1.7 Comet

Distance Radius Mass Rotation Orbital Orbital Density

Sun 0 109 332,800 25-36* 9 --- --- --- 1.410

Mercury 0.39 0.38 0.05 58.8 0 7 0.2056 0.1 5.43

Venus 0.72 0.95 0.89 244 0 3.394 0.0068 177.4 5.25

Earth 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 0.000 0.0167 23.45 5.52

Mars 1.5 0.53 0.11 1.029 2 1.850 0.0934 25.19 3.95

Jupiter 5.2 11 318 0.411 16 1.308 0.0483 3.12 1.33

Saturn 9.5 9 95 0.428 18 2.488 0.0560 26.73 0.69

Uranus 19.2 4 17 0.748 15 0.774 0.0461 97.86 1.29

Neptune 30.1 4 17 0.802 8 1.774 0.0097 29.56 1.64

Pluto 39.5 0.18 0.002 0.267 1 17.15 0.2482 119.6 2.03

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1.2.1 The Origin of the Earth

Based on observational facts cosmologist have developed classes of hypothesis

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Figure 1.8 The Big Bang Theory

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Figure 1.9 Earth

Figure 1.10 Earth with other Planets

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1.2.2 Principal Division of Earth

Stratosphere is the overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface, contains the

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1.2.3 Physical Features of the Earth

Earth is segregated and concentrated into layers according to density.

The major internal layers based on physical properties are:

(a) lithosphere (b) asthenosphere

Material within each of these units is in motion, making Earth a changing

1.2.3.1 Major Structural Units of Earth

Composition layers are:

Layers based on physical properties are:

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Table 1.2 Layers of the Earth Based on Composition

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Figure 1.12 The Convection Currents in the Mantle

Table 1.3 Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties

The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface.

A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and

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the Earth's magnetic field.

Physical properties layers

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1.2.3.2 The Structure of Earth

(a) Continental Masses