Critical pedagogy
Critical pedagogy is a philosophy of education and
social movement that has developed and applied concepts
from critical theory and related traditions to the eld of
education and the study of culture.[1] Advocates of criti-
cal pedagogy view teaching as an inherently political act,
reject the neutrality of knowledge, and insist that issues
of social justice and democracy itself are not distinct
from acts of teaching and learning. The goal of criti-
cal pedagogy is emancipation from oppression through
an awakening of the critical consciousness, based on the
Portuguese term conscientizao. When achieved, critical
consciousness encourages individuals to aect change in
their world through social critique and political action.
1 Background
The concept of critical pedagogy can be traced back to
Paulo Freire's best-known 1968 work, The Pedagogy of
the Oppressed. Freire, a professor of history and the
philosophy of education at the University of Recife in
Brazil, sought in this and other works to develop a phi-
losophy of adult education that demonstrated a solidar-
ity with the poor in their common struggle to survive by
engaging them in a dialogue of greater awareness and
analysis.[2] Although his family had suered loss and
hunger during the Great Depression, the poor viewed him
and his formerly middle-class family as people from an-
other world who happened to fall accidentally into their
world.[3] His intimate discovery of class and their bor-
ders led, invariably, to Freires radical rejection of a
class-based society.[3]
The inuential works of Freire made him arguably the
most celebrated critical educator. He seldom used the
term critical pedagogy himself when describing this
philosophy. His initial focus targeted adult literacy
projects in Brazil and later was adapted to deal with a wideThe educational philosophy has since been developed by
range of social and educational issues. Freires pedagogy
revolved around an anti-authoritarian and interactive ap-
proach aimed to examine issues of relational power for
students and workers.[11] The center of the curriculum
used the fundamental goal based on social and political
critiques of everyday life. Freires praxis required imple- tive action.[6] Freire wrote the introduction to his 1988
mentation of a range of educational practices and pro-
cesses with the goal of creating not only a better learning gogy of Learning. Another leading critical pedagogy the-
environment but also a better world. Freire himself main-
tained that this was not merely an educational technique
but a way of living in our educative practice.[12]
Freire endorses students ability to think critically about another in the 1990s. Among its other leading gures
their education situation; this way of thinking is thought
by practitioners of critical pedagogy to allow them to
recognize connections between their individual prob-
lems and experiences and the social contexts in which
they are embedded.[4] Realizing ones consciousness
("conscientization, "conscientizao) is then a needed
rst step of "praxis, which is dened as the power and
know-how to take action against oppression while stress-
ing the importance of liberating education. Praxis in-
volves engaging in a cycle of theory, application, evalua-
tion, reection, and then back to theory. Social transfor-
mation is the product of praxis at the collective level.[4]
Critical pedagogue Ira Shor, who was mentored by and
worked closely with Freire from 1980 until Freires death
in 1997,[5] denes critical pedagogy as:
Habits of thought, reading, writing, and
speaking which go beneath surface meaning,
rst impressions, dominant myths, ocial pro-
nouncements, traditional clichs, received wis-
dom, and mere opinions, to understand the
deep meaning, root causes, social context, ide-
ology, and personal consequences of any ac-
tion, event, object, process, organization, ex-
perience, text, subject matter, policy, mass
media, or discourse. (Empowering Education,
129)
Critical pedagogy explores the dialogic relationships be-
tween teaching and learning. Its proponents claim that it
is a continuous process of what they call unlearning,
learning, and relearning, reection, evaluation,
and the eect that these actions have on the students, in
particular students whom they believe have been histori-
cally and continue to be disenfranchised by what they call
traditional schooling.
Henry Giroux and others since the 1980s as a praxis-
oriented educational movement, guided by passion and
principle, to help students develop a consciousness of
freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and con-
nect knowledge to power and the ability to take construc-
work, Teachers as Intellectuals: Toward a Critical Peda-
orist who Freire called his intellectual cousin,[7] Peter
McLaren, wrote the forward. McLaren and Giroux co-
edited one book on critical pedagogy and co-authored
1
2 2 DEVELOPMENTS

in no particular order are Michael Apple, bell hooks promote anti-intellectualism, promotes a more balanced
(Gloria Jean Watkins), Joe L. Kincheloe, Patti Lather, approach to education than postmodernists.[8]
Antonia Darder, Gloria Ladson-Billings, Peter McLaren,
Joe L. Kincheloe, Howard Zinn, Donaldo Macedo, Sandy We cannot simply attempt to cultivate the
Grande, and Stephanie Ledesma. Educationalists in- intellect without changing the unjust social
cluding Jonathan Kozol and Parker Palmer are some- context in which such minds operate. Critical
times included in this category. Other critical pedagogues educators cannot just work to change the social
known more for their Anti-schooling, unschooling, or order without helping to educate a knowledge-
deschooling perspectives include Ivan Illich, John Holt, able and skillful group of students. Creating a
Ira Shor, John Taylor Gatto, and Matt Hern. just, progressive, creative, and democratic so-
Critical pedagogy has several other strands and ciety demands both dimensions of this peda-
foundations. [8]
Postmodern, anti-racist, feminist, gogical progress.
postcolonial, and queer theories all play a role in further
expanding and enriching Freires original ideas about a One of the major texts taking up the intersection be-
critical pedagogy, shifting its main focus on social class tween critical pedagogy and Indigenous knowledge(s) is
to include issues pertaining to religion, military identi- Sandy Grandes, Red Pedagogy: Native American Social
cation, race, gender, sexuality, nationality, ethnicity, and Political Thought (Rowman and Littleeld, 2004). In
and age. Much of the work also draws on anarchism, agreement with this perspective, Four Arrows, aka Don
Gyrgy Lukcs, Wilhelm Reich, postcolonialism, and Trent Jacobs, challenges the anthropocentrism of criti-
the discourse theories of Edward Said, Antonio Gramsci, cal pedagogy and writes that to achieve its transformative
Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault. Radical Teacher is goals there are other dierences between Western and In-
a magazine dedicated to critical pedagogy and issues of digenous worldview that must be considered.[12][13] Ap-
interest to critical educators. Many contemporary critical proaching the intersection of Indigenous perspectives and
pedagogues have embraced Postmodern, anti-essentialist pedagogy from another perspective, critical pedagogy of
perspectives of the individual, of language, and of place examines the impacts of place.
power, while at the same time retaining the Freirean
emphasis on critique, disrupting oppressive regimes of
power/knowledge, and social change.[4] 2.1 In the Classroom
As mentioned briey in the above, Ira Shor, a professor at
the City University of New York, provides for an exam-
2 Developments ple of how critical pedagogy is used in the classroom. He
develops these themes in looking at the use of Freirean
Like Critical theory itself, the eld of critical pedagogy teaching methods in the context of the everyday life of
continues to evolve.[8] Contemporary critical educators, classrooms, in particular, institutional settings. He sug-
such as bell hooks and Peter McLaren, discuss in their gests that the whole curriculum of the classroom must be
criticisms the inuence of many varied concerns, insti- re-examined and reconstructed. He favors a change of
tutions, and social structures, including globalization, role of the student from object to active, critical subject.
the mass media, and race/spiritual relations, while cit- In doing so, he suggests that students undergo a struggle
ing reasons for resisting the possibilities to change.[4] for ownership of themselves. He states that students have
McLaren has developed a social movement based ver- previously been lulled into a sense of complacency by the
sion of critical pedagogy that he calls revolutionary crit- circumstances of everyday life and that through the pro-
ical pedagogy, emphasizing critical pedagogy as a social cesses of the classroom, they can begin to envision and
movement for the creation of a democratic socialist alter- strive for something dierent for themselves.
native to capitalism.[9][10] Of course, achieving such a goal is not automatic nor easy,
Joe L. Kincheloe and Shirley R. Steinberg have created as he suggests that the role of the teacher is critical to this
the Paulo and Nita Freire Project for International Critical process. Students need to be helped by teachers to sep-
Pedagogy at McGill University.[11] In line with Kinche- arate themselves from unconditional acceptance of the
loe and Steinbergs contributions to critical pedagogy, the conditions of their own existence. Once this separation
project attempts to move the eld to the next phase of its is achieved, then students may be prepared for critical re-
evolution. In this second phase, critical pedagogy seeks entry into an examination of everyday life. In a classroom
to become a worldwide, decolonizing movement dedi- environment that achieves such liberating intent, one of
cated to listening to and learning from diverse discourses the potential outcomes is that the students themselves as-
of people from around the planet. Kincheloe and Stein- sume more responsibility for the class. Power is thus dis-
berg also embrace Indigenous knowledges in education as tributed amongst the group and the role of the teacher
a way to expand critical pedagogy and to question educa- becomes much more mobile, not to mention more chal-
tional hegemony. Joe L. Kincheloe, in expanding on the lenging. This encourages the growth of each students in-
Freires notion that a pursuit of social change alone could tellectual character rather than a mere mimicry of the
 3

professorial style.[14] 3 Resistance to Critical Pedagogy

Teachers, however, do not simply abdicate their authority
in a student-centred classroom. In the later years of his 3.1 Student Resistance to Critical Peda-
life, Freire grew increasingly concerned with what he felt gogy
was a major misinterpretation of his work and insisted
that teachers cannot deny their position of authority. Students sometimes resist critical pedagogy. Student re-
sistance to critical pedagogy can be attributed to a variety
Critical teachers, therefore, must admit of reasons. Student objections may be due to ideologi-
that they are in a position of authority and then cal reasons, religious or moral convictions, fear of crit-
demonstrate that authority in their actions in icism, or discomfort with controversial issues. Kristen
supports of students... [A]s teachers relinquish Seas argues Resistance in this context thus occurs when
the authority of truth providers, they assume students are asked to shift not only their perspectives, but
the mature authority of facilitators of student also their subjectivities as they accept or reject assump-
inquiry and problem-solving. In relation to tions that contribute to the pedagogical arguments being
such teacher authority, students gain their constructed.[17] Karen Kopelson asserts that resistance
freedom--they gain the ability to become self- to new information or ideologies, introduced in the class-
directed human beings capable of producing room, is a natural response to persuasive messages that
their own knowledge. are unfamiliar.
Joe L. Kincheloe, Critical Pedagogy Primer
p. 17 Resistance is often, at the least, under-
standably protective: As anyone who can re-
member her or his own rst uneasy encounters
And due to the student-centeredness that critical peda- with particularly challenging new theories or
gogy insists upon, there are inherent conicts associated theorists can attest, resistance serves to shield
with the large collections of top-down content standards us from uncomfortable shifts or all-out up-
in their disciplines.[8] Critical pedagogy advocates insist heavals in perception and understanding-shifts
that teachers themselves are vital to the discussion about in perception which, if honored, force us to in-
Standards-based education reform in the United States habit the world in fundamentally new and dif-
because a pedagogy that requires a student to learn or a ferent ways.[18]
teacher to teach externally imposed information exempli-
es the banking model outlined by Freire where the struc-
Kristen Seas further explains Students [often] reject the
tures of knowledge are left unexamined. To the critical
teachers message because they see it as coercive, they do
pedagogue, the teaching act must incorporate social cri-
not agree with it, or they feel excluded by it.[17] Karen
tique alongside the cultivation of intellect.
Kopelson concludes that many if not most students come
Joe L. Kincheloe argues that this is in direct opposition to to the university in order to gain access to and eventual en-
the epistemological concept of positivism, where social franchisement in 'the establishment,' not to critique and
actions should proceed with law-like predictability.[8] In reject its privileges.[18] To overcome student resistance
this philosophy, a teacher and their students would be to critical pedagogy, teachers must enact strategic mea-
served by Standards-based education where there is only sures to help their students negotiate controversial topics.
be one correct way to teach as "[e]veryone is assumed
to be the same regardless of race, class, or gender.[8]
Donald Schn's concept of the Indeterminate zones of 3.2 Teacher Resistance to Critical Peda-
practice illustrates how any practice, especially ones with gogy in the First Year Composition
human subjects at their center, are innitely complex and (FYC) Classroom
highly contested, which amplify the critical pedagogues
unwillingness to apply universal practices.[15] Maxine Hairston takes a hard line against critical peda-
Furthermore, bell hooks, who is greatly inuenced by gogy in the rst year college composition classroom and
Freire, points out the importance of engaged pedagogy argues, everywhere I turn I nd composition faculty,
and the responsibility that teachers, as well as students, both leaders in the profession and new voices, asserting
must have in the classroom:[16] that they have not only the right, but the duty, to put ideol-
ogy and radical politics at the center of their teaching.[19]
Teachers must be aware of themselves as Hairston further confers,
practitioners and as human beings if they wish
to teach students in a non-threatening, anti- When classes focus on complex issues such
discriminatory way. Self-actualisation should as racial discrimination, economic injustices,
be the goal of the teacher as well as the stu- and inequities of class and gender, they should
dents. be taught by qualied faculty who have the
4 7 SEE ALSO
depth of information and historical compe-
tence that such critical social issues warrant.
Our societys deep and tangled cultural con-
icts can neither be explained nor resolved by
simplistic ideological formulas[19] .
Sharon ODair (2003) states, Today, compositionists fo-
cus [...] almost exclusively on ideological matters,[20]
and further argues that this focus is at the expense of
prociency of student writing skills in the composition
classroom.[20] To this end, O'Dair explains that recently
advocated working-class pedagogies privilege activism
over language instruction.[20] Je Smith argues that stu-
dents want to gain, rather than to critique, positions of
privilege, as encouraged by critical pedagogues[21] . There
are a wide variety of views in opposition to critical ped-
agogy in the rst year composition classroom, these are
but a few.
4 Critical Pedagogy of Teacher Ed-
ucation
The rapidly changing demographics of the classroom
in the United States has resulted in an unprecedented
amount of linguistic and cultural diversity. In order to
respond to these changes, advocates of critical peda-
gogy call into question the focus on practical skills of
teacher credential programs. "[T]his practical focus far
too often occurs without examining teachers own as-
sumptions, values, and beliefs and how this ideologi-
cal posture informs, often unconsciously, their percep-
tions and actions when working with linguistic-minority
and other politically, socially, and economically subor-
dinated students.[22] As teaching is considered an in-
herently political act to the critical pedagogue, a more
critical element of teacher education becomes address-
ing Implicit biases (also known as Implicit cognition
or Implicit stereotype) that can subconsciously aect a
teachers perception of a students ability to learn.[23]
Advocates of critical pedagogy insist that Teachers, then,
must become learners alongside their students, as well as
students of their students. They must become experts be-
yond their eld of knowledge, and immerse themselves
in the culture, customs, and lived experiences of the stu-
dents they aim to teach.
5 History
During South African apartheid, legal racialization im-
plemented by the regime drove members of the radi-
cal leftist Teachers League of South Africa to employ
critical pedagogy with a focus on nonracialism in Cape
Town schools and prisons. Teachers collaborated loosely
to subvert the racist curriculum and encourage critical
examination of religious, military, political, and social
circumstances in terms of spirit-friendly, humanist, and
democratic ideologies. The eorts of such teachers are
credited with having bolstered student resistance and
activism.[10]
6 Criticism
Philosopher John Searle characterizes the goal of
Girouxs form of critical pedagogy to create political
radicals, thus highlighting the antagonistic moral and
political grounds of the ideals of citizenship and pub-
lic wisdom.[24] These varying moral perspectives of
what is right are to be found in what John Dewey[25]
has referred to as the tensions between traditional and
progressive education. Searle argues that critical ped-
agogys objections to the Western canon are misplaced
and/or disingenuous:
Precisely by inculcating a critical attitude,
the canon served to demythologize the con-
ventional pieties of the American bourgeoisie
and provided the student with a perspective
from which to critically analyze American cul-
ture and institutions. Ironically, the same tra-
dition is now regarded as oppressive. The
texts once served an unmasking function; now
we are told that it is the texts which must be
unmasked.[13]
7 See also
Adult education
John Asimakopoulos
Critical psychology
Critical thinking
Inclusive school
Praxis intervention
Praxis School
Rouge Forum
Social criticism
Student voice
7.1 Parallel Fields
The parallel veins of postmodern and postcolonial phi-
losophy in education mirror many of the goals of critical
pedagogy: In writing about education from outside the

critical pedagogy camp, philosopher Stephen Hicks[26]
describes the motives and practical of postmodern ed-
ucation.
In education, postmodernism rejects the
notion that the purpose of education is primar-
ily to train a childs cognitive capacity for rea-
son in order to produce an adult capable of
functioning independently in the world. That
view of education is replaced with the view that
education is to take an essentially indetermi-
nate being and give it a social identity. Educa-
tions method of molding is linguistic, and so
the language to be used is that which will cre-
ate a human being sensitive to its racial, sex-
ual, and class identity. Our current social con-
text, however, is characterized by oppression
that benets whites, males, and the rich at the
expense of everyone else. That oppression in
turn leads to an educational system that reects
only or primarily the interests of those in posi-
tions of power. To counteract that bias, educa-
tional practice must be recast totally. Postmod-
ern education should emphasize works not in
the canon; it should focus on the achievements
of non-whites, females, and the poor; it should
highlight the historical crimes of whites, males,
and the rich; and it should teach students that
sciences method has no better claim to yield-
ing truth than any other method and, accord-
ingly, that students should be equally receptive
to alternative ways of knowing.
8 References
[1] Kincheloe, Joe; Steinburg, Shirley (1997). Changing Mul-
ticulturalism. Bristol, PA: Open University Press. p.
24. Critical pedagogy is the term used to describe what
emerges when critical theory encounters education
[2] Salmani Nodoushan, M. A., & Daftarifard, P. (2011).
Globalized classroom, emancipatory competence, and
critical pedagogy: A paradigm shift. In R. V. Nata (Ed.),
Progress in Education, (pp. 147-162). New York: Nova
Science Publishers, Inc.
[3] Freire, Paulo (2009). Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
New York, NY: The Continuum International Publishing
Group Inc. ISBN 0-8264-1276-9.
[4] Critical Pedagogy on the Web
[5] Ira Shor. English Department. Retrieved 2016-11-22.
[6] Giroux, H. (October 27, 2010) Lessons From Paulo
Freire, Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved
10/20/10.
[7] philcsc (2016-01-09). Foreword to Peter McLarens
PEDAGOGY OF INSURRECTION. THE PHILIP-
PINES MATRIX PROJECT. Retrieved 2016-11-23.
5
[8] Kincheloe, Joe (2008) Critical Pedagogy Primer. New
York: Peter Lang
[9] http://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/mclaren/
[10] Revolutionary Critical Pedagogy and the Struggle against
Capital Today: An Interview with Peter McLaren I The
Hampton Institute. www.hamptoninstitution.org. Re-
trieved 2016-11-23.
[11] The Freire International Project for Critical Pedagogy
[12] Kincheloe, J. & Steinberg, S. (2008) Indigenous Knowl-
edges in Education: Complexities, Dangers, and Profound
Benets in Ed Denzin, N. Handbook of Critical and In-
digenous Methodologies
[13] Four Arrows (2011) Diering Worldviews: Two Scholars
Argue Cooperatively about Justice Education (Sense)
[14] Shor, I. (1980). Critical Teaching and Everyday Life.
Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press.
[15] Schon, Donald, A. (1995). THE NEW SCHOLARSHIP
REQUIRES A NEW EPISTEMOLOGY. Change. 27.
[16] http://www.infed.org/thinkers/hooks.htm
[17] Seas, Kristen (2006). Enthymematic Rhetoric and Stu-
dent Resistance to Critical Pedagogies. Rhetoric Review.
(25) 4: 429 via JSTOR.
[18] Kopelson, Karen (2003). Rhetoric on the edge of cun-
ning: Or, the performance of neutrality (re) considered as
a composition pedagogy for student resistance. College
Composition and Communication: 119.
[19] Hairston, Maxine (1992). Diversity, ideology, and teach-
ing writing.. College Composition and Communication.
43(2): 179193.
[20] O'Dair, Sharon (2003). Class work: Site of egalitarian
activism or site of embourgeoisement?". College English:
593606.
[21] Smith, Smith (1997). Students Goals, Gatekeeping, and
Some Questions of Ethics. College English. 59: 299
320.
[22] Bartolom, Lilia (2004). Critical Pedagogy and Teacher
Education: Radicalizing Prospective Teachers (PDF).
Teacher Education Quarterly. Winter: 97122 via
teqjournal.
[23] Understanding Implicit Bias. kirwaninstitute.osu.edu.
Retrieved 2016-11-23.
[24] Searle, John. (1990) The Storm Over the University, The
New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990.
[25] Dewey, John. (1938). Experience and Education.
[26] Hicks, Stephen R.C. (2004) Explaining Postmodernism:
Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault.
Tempe, AZ: Scholargy Press, ISBN 1-59247-646-5, pp.
18-19.
6 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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