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Cell biology

Ana Revenco
Paul Breha
Constantin Cojocariu
Sipoteanu
Marian

1. General description of the plant cell


The plant cells are the basic unit that plants are formed of. Called also eukaryotic cells, plant cell has a
membrane that holds the cell together and lets substances pass in and out of the cell. The DNA in a plant
cell is found in the nucleus of the cell, unlike the prokaryotic cells. Apart having a nucleus plant cells
also contain small cellular structures and other membrane -bound organelles each one of them having
specific functions necessary for normal cellular functions. Enzymes and hormones are produced by
organelles and they offer energy for a plant cell. Plant cell are pretty much the same like animal cells
because they are both eukaryotic cells and have similar organelles but the plants cell are in general bigger
than the animal .

Plant cell structure and organelles

Cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell enclosing its content. The membrane is
semipermeable.

Cell wall- covers the cell on the outside and


protects and give shape to the cell

Chloroplast- Helps the plant in photosyntesys


and they can do that by absorbing the sunlight
trough the green pigments named chlorophyll

Cytoplasm its a gel like substance found in


the cell membrane and it contain water, salts,
organelles and different organic molecules

Nucleus its the structure that contains cells


hereditary information

Plant cell types

When the plant matures, her cells specialize in doing certain functions necessary for survival. Some of the
cells store organic products while some transport nutrients within the plant. Some examples of specialized
cells are :

Parenchyma Cells this cells are not very specialized and they help store organic products in the
plant

Collenchyma Cells supports the plants


Sclerenchyma Cells also help the plant with support but not like collenchyma cells they are
much more rigid

2. Description of the animal cell.

Animal cells are eukaryotic and they are surrounded by plasma membrane and contain a nucleus and
organelles which are bound by a membrane. Animal cells are multicellular. The animal cells can be found
in different sizes and shapes. In the nucleus, we can find the DNA (the genetic material) which is bound
by a double membrane.

Parts of the animal cell.

Because the animal cells dont have a cell wall their shape and size is most of the time irregular. Animal
cell contain a nucleus which is bound by a membrane but it also contains membrane bound cellular
organelles.

Animal cells are pretty much the same like plant cells and structurally there are not that many
differences between them since they work almost the same way

Every single cell has inside a membrane which protects the cell but the plant cell has a cell wall
which offer them more protection. All the cells coordinate and function togheder and helps the organism
to survive. Inside the cell, we can find different cell organelles each one of them having a different
function as it follows

Mitochondria produce energy for the cell


by the process of cellular respiration, we call
the energy produced ATP.

Ribosomes- synthesis the proteins .

Lysosomes- contain digestive enzymes and


they have the purpose in clearing the
damaged cells and invading microorganisms
from the cell but they also help digest the
food .
Vacuole they have the job of storing the water or food that is in excess inside the cell. They are
large storage organelles

Cell nucleus-it regulates the activities of the other cellular organelles. When we say cell nucleus
we understand that is referred to as the control center of the cell, the genetic material of the
organism is found in the cell

Centrioles- during the cell division they assembly the cell division

3. Cell membrane function.

Eukaryotic cells (animal cells and plant cells) and prokaryotic cells are closed and protected by a cell
membrane. The membrane is a thin structure semipermeable. The functions of the cell membrane are to
control the movement of particles in and out of the cell and to maintain the integrity of the cell. The
functions of the cell membrane are various because the particles can move across the membrane in
different ways including

Diffusion via ion channels

Active transport via membrane pumps

Endocytosis (in to the cell)

Exocytosis (out of the cell)

Functions of cell membrane

Mechanical structure- the cell membrane

closes and give shape to the cell. The cell membrane helps the cell maintain its integrity. We can see that
better in an animal cell because it has no cell wall and the membrane holds the cell togheder by keeping
the organelles and cytoplasm within it. We can also say that the membrane forms the barrier between the
inside of the cell and the environment form outside it

Selective permeability- The cell membranes are structured in such way that they only allow to
certain particles to enter the cell but no others
Active transport- the cell membrane can allow
specific molecules to go in and out of the cell.
By active transport we understand movement
from a lower concentration outside the cell to
a higher concentration inside the cell or the
other way around

Metabolic activities- the membrane tend to


include in their structure some kind of
proteins and enzymes which help in some of
the metabolic processes of the plant .

4. Cytoplasma

It represents the intracelullar environment located between cellular membrane and the nucleus of the
cells. The water is the most common element in cytoplasm , also here we can find organelles, ribosomes,
enzymes, and different substances. The purpose of the organelles is to accomplish different functions.
The ribosomes movement can be free, or they can attach to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Enzymes
are made from amino acids, which have the purpose to accelerate the biological activities. For the highest
activity of the enzymes we should know that they are working at a higher temperature ( 40 degrees
Celsius ) and also the pH (optimal at 8) have a important role in their activity. Some factors are really
important because the diffusion have a major role in this environment. The Brownian movement it is very
important , because it relies on temperature and pH, which if it will increase also the speed of diffusion
will increase.

5. The Vacuole

It have the biggest size in the plant cell. Comparing with the animal
cell,the vacuole in the plant cell have a higher level of development.The
purpose of this element into the eukaryotic cell is to storage all of the
different materials,such as water,organic compounds and methabolical
waste. Also they can accomplish digestive functions in the plant. Another
important attribute of the vacuoles are that they can defend the plant,in
the way that it will keep poisonous elements, against the predators.
In a plant vacuole, water is pushed to the cell membrane and
wall, in this way, it creates a pressure over them . This pressure
have the Turgore pressure name, and it keeps the plant alive, in
an upright stand position. If a plant will be let to dry, the turgore
pressure will dissapear as a effect of lack of water, in this case
plant will die.

6. The Photosynthesis

The Photosynthesis is the most important way, used by all of the plants prepare their food. Of course,for
this thing to happen,we should know that the main fuel for this process is represented by the
sunlight.After the sunlight it is recepted by the chloroplasts , it is converted to the chemical energy by
clorophill (a pigment in cloroplast), which is stored as sugar and other molecules. The plants take the
carbon dioxide through the small openings in their leaves, which are called stomata. Their purpose is to
absorb carbon dioxide, when they are dilating and constricting. Also, them are absorbing water using their
root system. They are using the energy from the sunlight to reuse Co2 together with water to produce
sugar called glucose ( C6H12O6) and molecular oxygen (O2).

The chemical formula for the photosynthesis is:

6CO2+6H2O+sunlight energy=C6H12O6+6O2.
7. Respiration at cell level

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells use oxygen to break down glucose
and release energy in the form of ATP. That ATP goes on to fuel cycles and metabolic
processes in cells within the body. Even though anaerobic cellular respiration lacks
the presence of oxygen, it is still able to produce energy, just smaller amounts of it.
This process is called fermentation. Respiration occurs at a cellular level. In
photosynthesis, plants use CO 2 in the presence of sunlight to make food in the
form of carbohydrates. It occurs in the chloroplast. Cellular respiration occurs within
and near the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.

During cellular
respiration, food
molecules are broken
down from sugar
molecules to energy
molecules known as ATP.
ATP is also considered to
be the 'energy currency' of
cells. ATP stores energy in
a strong bond, and cells
can harness this energy by
breaking that bond, thereby removing a phosphate group and resulting in ADP, which can then be
reconverted to ATP. At the end of anaerobic respiration, there are only two molecules of ATP produced.
During aerobic cellular respiration, there are a maximum of 38 molecules of ATP formed.

The energy stored in ATP can then be used to drive processes requiring energy,
including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell
membranes. The chemical equation describing this process is: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy

Aerobic cellular respiration occurs mainly in eukaryotic cells. These are cells that contain a nucleus
(brain of the cell) and organelles (little organs that each have their own job inside the cell). The process of
aerobic cellular respiration takes place mostly inside of the mitochondria, an organelle that is known as
the powerhouse of the cell.
There are three main stages to get from food molecules to ATP:

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain)

Glycolysis is the first step of


respiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm,
which is a gel of the cells in which the
organelles float. During glycolysis, the
six-carbon sugar molecule, glucose, is
broken down into two pyruvate
molecules, which are three-carbon
sugars. Pyruvate is the main product,
but there are also two molecules of
ATP and two very high-energy NADH
molecules. But this is just the
beginning. The first several steps require the input of energy.

Krebs cycle is starting when pyruvate acid enters in the


mitochondria and it is transforms into citric acid, this is why
the Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. After citric
acid forms, it goes through a series of reactions that release
energy. The energy is captured in molecules of NADH, ATP (in
smaller amount) , and FADH2, another energy-carrying compound.
This process occurs in a continuous cycle. The Krebs cycle uses a
2-carbon molecule (acetyl-CoA) derived from pyruv ate and
produces carbon dioxide that will be released as a waste product
of these reactions.

At the end of Krebs cycle, the original glucose molecule has been
broken down completely.

The Electron Transport Chain use high-energy electrons that are released from NADH and FADH 2 to
generate ATP. This occurs in two parts. First, the NADH and FADH2 enter an electron transport chain, in
the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, where their energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (from
NADH and FADH2) from the matrix into the inter-membrane space. This establishes a proton gradient
across the thylakoid membrane. The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a
greater concentration of the ions in the inter-membrane space than in the matrix. This gradient makes the
ions to flow back across the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is lower. Now, ATP
synthase acts as a channel protein, helping the hydrogen ions to cross the membrane. It also acts as an
enzyme, forming ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. After passing through the electron-transport
chain, the spent electrons combine with oxygen to form water. Most of the ATP produced during
cellular respiration is made during this stage.

For each glucose that starts cellular respiration, in the presence of oxygen (aerobic
conditions), 36-38 ATP are generated. Without oxygen, under anaerobic conditions, much less
ATP are produced.

8. Endoplasmatic reticulum is a type of


organelle found in eukaryotic cells, which
forms a network of tubules, vesicles and
cisternae within the cells. It is mainly
responsible for:
the transportation of proteins and other
carbohydrates to others organelle, which
includes lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, plasma
membrane;
have a vital role in the formation of the
skeletal framework by providing the increased
surface area for cellular reactions;
help in formation of nuclear membrane during cell division.
play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins, lipids, glycogen and other steroids like cholesterol,
progesterone, testosterone
There are two regions of the Endoplasmic reticulum, which differ in both structure and function.
rough Endoplasmatic reticulum, as it contains ribosome attached to the cytoplasmic side of the
smooth Endoplasmatic reticulum as it lacks the attached ribosome and they are tubule network.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is mainly responsible for the synthesis and processing of
proteins that are either secreted from the cell or that end up stuck in the plasma membrane. Proteins
marked for secretion are sent from the RER to the Golgi body for further processing. Insulin is an
example of a secreted protein processed by the RER. This very large protein is secreted in huge quantities
from the pancreas cells in mammals and aids in the uptake and digestion of glucose.
Rough ER are also helped by ribosomes. They are very important in the synthesis and packaging of
proteins. Some of those proteins might be used in the cell and some are sent out. The ribosomes are
attached to the membrane of the ER. As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed
into the ER. When the protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small
membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus.

Smooth ER is mainly involved in the synthesis of lipids and steroids. The lipids produced in the Smooth
ER are combined with phosphorous phospholipids.. The steroids, including cholesterol, are also
important components of cell membranes keeping it in shape. It also stores ions in solution that the cell
may need later.

In plant cell, the endoplasmic reticulum acts as a port for the entry of proteins into the membrane.
It also plays a vital role in the biosynthesis and storage of lipids and protein synthesis and maturation.
Endoplasmic reticulum of plant cell has also some additional functions, which is not found in animal
cells. The additional function involves communication between cells and also it serves as a storage site
for proteins. Endoplasmic reticulum of plant cell contains enzymes and structural proteins, which are
involved in the process of oil body biogenesis and lipid storage. In plants, the endoplasmic reticulum is
connected between the cells via the plasmodesmata.

9. The Function Of The Golgi Apparatus :

The Golgi apparatus is a cellular organelle that is found in most eukaryotic cells, including human cells.

The Golgi apparatus is one of the largest structure of the cells.

The cisternae-s are the layers which surround the central of the Golgi apparatus, at the animal cells its
between 10-20 layers, while in the single cell organisms they can have up to 60 layers, they have different
shapes(pancakes) and forms.
The membrane surrounds an area of fluid where are stored and changed some complex molecules like
sugars, proteins and enzymes.

The Golgi complex works closely with the rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum). When the ER make a
protein he also make something called transition vesicle. This transition vesicle is moving to the Golgi
where will be absorbed by this. Inside the Golgi this will be changed to a secretory vesicle and will be
released to the cytoplasm. After this the vesicle moves to the cell membrane and will be released out

10. Lysosomes are some small bags filled with enzymes which help cells to process the nutrients
and in the same time their role is to destroy them after they die.

Enzymes are proteins that act as a catalyst


(increasing the reaction rate)
Peroxisomes are in many ways similar to
lysosomes. They have a single membrane and their role is
to break down the toxic materials around the cell.

10. Benefic facts of knowledge of cell in agriculture

Antibiotics or vaccines which helps to maintain animals alive or avoiding of viruses.

Genes. Animal or plant production can raise the results by providing races or species adapted to
environmental conditions.

Fertilizers. Plants can contact diseases or rough environment conditions, so we can help them by
providing fertilizers or pesticides.

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