RW Van Bemmelen Geology of Indonesia Vol-IA General

Dr.Eng.
Suryantini
Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Outline
1. Distribution of Geothermal System in the

World
2. The heat transfer from the earth
3. Volcanism and geothermal manifestation
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
1. Distribution of Geothermal System in the World
in association with seismicity zone
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
in association with volcanoes distribution
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
in association with plate boundary
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
in association with heat flow
QW/m2 = k W/mK dT
W/m dT//dZ K /m+ T0 K
At Continental Plate
At Oceanic Plate
The younger the plate, the higher the heat flow, and at Continental Plate, show the processes
such as plutonism,
plutonism, volcanism, uplift, subsidence, folding, etc., all of which have variable
surface thermal effects even for the same age. Thus high heat flow may be locallized at young
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
orogenic zones and regions where cooling magma bodies occur at shallow depths.
Geothermal Hence
Enginering FTTMthe
ITB
volcanic belt has high heat flow.
1. Distribution of Geothermal System in the World;
A conclusion
Geothermal System (fields) are located in

association with plate boundaries, earthquakes
(or seismicity zone), volcanoes, and regions of
high heat flow
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
2. Heat Transfer from the Earth
Litosfer < 200 km:

Kerak (Crust) dan
bagian atas dari
mantel: Padat/rigid
Astenosfer
200-300 km, mantel
bawah : lebih plastis
http://geothermal.marin.org/GEOpresentation/sld003.htm
The structure of the earth Dr.Eng. Suryantini

2. Heat Transfer from the Earth
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Thermal structure of the earth Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Earth Heat Transfer
heat sink is the earth surface
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
http://www.geothermal-energy.org/geo/ Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Heat transfer from mantle to earth crust are
happened and the manifestation of this
process can be seen
This surface manifestasion are used to predict

the occurrence of subsurface geothermal
system arround the manietation.
manietation.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
3. Volcanism and geothermal manifestation
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Surface manifestation
Hockstein & Browne, 2000, Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
(1) features at ground surface where fluids discharge, mainly as

single-phase fluids (e.g., hot springs, hot lakes and pools,
fumaroles);
(2) features resulting from fluid/rock interactions and
hydrothermal mineral deposition, also at ground surface.
The term, in its widest sense, refers to both active and inactive
thermal features.
Volcanism atau kegunungapian, juga merupakan manifestasi permukaan yang dapat

menjadi indikasi adanya anomali termal dibawah permukaan. Sistem panas bumi yang
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
bersosiasi dengan gunung api dan produk letusannya akan memiliki karakteristik tertentu.
Geothermal system and its surface manifestasion
Surface manifestasion is the product of thermal fluid (liquid /

vapour) with the host rock (surrounding rock)
The non-convective geothermal system show no surface

manifestasion
Thus the intensity and type of surface manifestation is

controlled by
Hidrology,
Chemistry of fluid and surrounding rock
Temperature (Heat source condition) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Processes that produce various type of surface
manifestation
Conductive heat transfer from rock and soil
Convective heat transfer from water, vapour/steam, and gas
Boiling (phase change from water to steam)
Mixing or Dilution (Mixing / dilution of various thermal fluid

with meteoric water/ground water)
Condensation (the cooling reaction of steam and gas by

ground water)
Water-rock interaction (reaction between thermal fluid with

surrounding rock) Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Types of geothermal fluid
Before we learn about various

type of geothermal surface
manifestation, we will discuss the
principal type of thermal fluid
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Chloride Water (Cl
Cl))
Indicates reservoir fluid Cl

SiO2 rich and often with
silica sinter precipitate
arround the springs
Nutral pH but can be slightly
acid depend on the CO2 SO4 HCO3-
The water is vary clear,
bluish or greenish
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Sulfate Water (SO4)
Form at the shallowest part of
the system
Due to steam condensate into Cl
near surface water (steam
heated water)
High SO4 due to oxidasition of
H2S
Acid due to low pH SO4 HCO3-
Shown by the appearance of

mud pool and dissolution of the
surrounding rock , occasionally
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
shown by collapse ground Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Air Bikarbonat (HCO3)
Terbentuk sebagai akibat adsorbsi gas

CO2 dan kondensasi uap air ke dalam Cl
air tanah (steam heated water)
Berada di daerah tepi sistem dan

dangkal
Anion utama HCO3 dan kation utama

adalah Na
SO4 HCO3-
Cl rendah dengan SO4 bervariasi
Apabila dibawah permukaan terdapat

batugamping maka dapat terbentuk
endapan sinter travertin (CaCO3) di
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
permukaan Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
The other water type is the result of mixing
between these primary waters type, therefore
it shows the intermediate chemical
composition and characteristic
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
General Conceptual Model shows distribution of various manifestationGeothermal
on highEnginering
temperature
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
FTTM ITB
flat or low terrain system. Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Nicholson, 1993
General Conceptual Model shows distribution of various manifestation on high temperature
high terrain system.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Nicholson, 1993 Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Berbagai Macam Manifestasi Permukaan
Acid Crater Lake (Danau Kawah Asam)

Fumarols (Fumarol)
Solfatar (Solfatara)
Steaming Ground (Tanah beruap)
Warm Ground (Tanah hangat)
Boiling Springs (T>90 C), Hot Springs (T 60-90 C), Warm Springs (T 30-60 C),
Cool Springs (T < 30 C atau T udara)
Neutral Hot Springs (Mata air panas pH netral ~ 7)
Acid Hot Springs (Mata air panas pH asam < 4) yang bersosiasi dengan
(mudpools/ mudpots, ground collapse)
Hot Pool ; calm, boiling, or ebulliant
Geyser
Hydrothermal Eruption
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Batuan terubah (Altered Rock) Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
It is in the crater of a volcano

Indicates the manifestation of volcanic hydrothermal system
High temperature than ambient temperture
Low ph
The water in this lake is the product from meteoric water that
mixing with the condensate water from condensation of
steam and magmatic gas from the volcano.
Example: Kawah Ijen East Java
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Acid Crater Lake
(Danau Kawah Asam)
Kawah Ijen
The biggest acid crater lake in the
world
Green color
Temperature 36 C
pH = 0,5
DHL = 29.000 umhos/cm.
Water level at 2160 masl
Steam above the water level is about -
20 m from water surface. Irritated on
the eyes
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Kawah Ijen
Fumarol
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Analisis Kimia air danau Kawah Ijen
ppm
http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/gunungapiIndonesia/ijen/umum.html
Perubahan komposisi disebabkan oleh aktivitas vulkanik dan pengenceran dari air
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
permukaan Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Fumarol
Fumarol is vapor (uap panas) which sometimes mix with gases. Appear through
the rock crack.
Originally this terminology is to describe the manifestation that emit volcanic gas.
Fumarol which associate with volkanic-hidrotermal system can emit steam with
velocity >150 m/s.
The steam generally contain reactive magmatic gases such as HF, HCl dan SO2
and sublimes S.
If the SO2 content is dominant, the temperature can reach >130C.
May contain boric acid (the term for soffioni)
The humidity or wetness and temperature : wet fumaroles has temperature <
100oC which is formed in water dominated system, dry fumaroles with
temperature 110 -150oC is formed in vapor dominated system.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Fumarol Kawah Domas, Tangkuban Perahu Dr.Eng. Suryantini
(Suryantini 2011, KK Geologi Terapan ITB) Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Fumarol Kawah Domas, Tangkuban Perahu Dr.Eng. Suryantini
(Suryantini 2011, KK Geologi Terapan ITB) Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Solfatara
The name is from the active volkanic-hydrothermal system
in Italia; Phlegrean Fieds.
Solfatar is the crack in the rock that emit steam that mix
CO2 and H2S (and sometimes with SO2)
Surrounding the vent (crack) may be found significant sulfur

deposit.
This sulfur deposit can be mined , example at Kawah Ijen,

East Java.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Solfatar and sulfur
mine at Kawah Ijen
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
9-12 ton/hari sulfur ini ditambang dengan sistem konvensional
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Steam Vent, Soffioni, Moffete dan Kaipohan
Steam vents is a general term to describe the rock crack that
emit steam or gas or mix of both
Steam vents that emit gas with high concentration of boric

acid is called Soffioni
Steam vent that emit CO2 and low temperature is called

Moffete
Steam vent that emit mixing of CO2 dan H2S with cool
temperature is called Kaipohan (Philippines word)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Tanah beruap (Steaming Ground)
When the steam appear with small number and low velocity
through the pore inside the soil or rock it will appear as steaming
ground, not fumarol.
Steaming ground shows warm white smog, quite because the
pressure is small
The vegetation in this area shows stress anomaly vegetation
May be detected by infra-red
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Steaming Ground, Kawah Domas, Tangkuban Perahu
(suryantini 2011, KK Geologi Terapan ITB)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Tanah Hangat (Warm Ground )
Steam and gases that ascending to the surface will

increased the temperature around this area by
conduction, resulting temperature higher than
surrounding area.
The temperature can reach 30-40 C.
Often direct indication is unobservable
The stressed vegetation may be found
Stressed vegetation: the leaf is yellow, red, brown
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Mata air panas netral (Neutral Hot Springs)
ph 6-7
It is associated with direct discharge of reservoir fluid to the
surface
Chloride ion is high
Usually has temperature >75 C even near boiling such as 98 C
White smog over the manifestation due to high temperature
silica sinter and sulfide mineral such as galena, pyrite etc can be
occur.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Kolam panas pH netral (neutral hot pools)
It is formed by high volume of neutral hot springs discharge that

concentrated in a discharge area
The pools are divided into:
calm (t < 100oC),
boiling, dan
ebullient pools (flashing of steam atau gas)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
NEUTRAL-CHLORIDE POOLS
Neutral Chloride Hot springs / pool, is neutral ph, clear, bluish, nearly boiling temperature,
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
show whitish steam at the surface of the pool, silica sinter are deposited surrounding the
edge. Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Yellowstone National Park, USA Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Kolam air panas asam (Hot Acid Pool)
pH <3
Water color is unclear due to muddy
Classified as calm, boiling or ebullient
Temperature between warm to boiling
Major component is sulfate water from condensation
of H2S
Often with CO2 gas buble
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Boiling Acid Pool, Kawah Domas, Tangkubanparahu,
(Suryantini, 2011, KK Geologi Terapan) ITB
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Calm Acid Pool with Bubble, Kawah Domas, Tangkubanparahu,
(Suryantini, 2011, KK Geologi Terapan ITB)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Seepage
Keluaran mata air panas atau hangat atau gas yang sulit
diidentifikasi misalnya karena berada dibawah dasar sungai
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
(Suryantini, 2011, KK Geologi Terapan ITB) Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Silica Sinter
Silica (SiO2) brought by neutral hot fluid may

precipitate around the springs. This is called silica
sinter.
Sinter has various structure such as dribling, porous,

layering etc.
Often this deposit forming a large terrace.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Hot spring dengan silika sinter
(Danakil Depression)
Silika deposit (sinter) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Pink Terraces, Waiotapu, New Zealand (destroyed) Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Silika Residu
Product from sulfate water leaching

Greyish white
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Fragile, sugary Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
(Suryantini, 2010, KK Geologi Terapan)
Geyser
Hotsprings that discharge water with very high

pressure in every particular time.
Surrounding geyser maybe deposited geyserite,

that is silica deposit with mamilary teksture,
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Spouting Springs
di Cisolok (mirip geyser tetapi (Suryantini, 2009, KK Geologi Terapan ITB)
keluarannya bersifat kontinyu) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Mata air panas asam (Acid Hot Springs)
Springs) berasosiasi dengan
mud pools dan ground collapse
Hot springs with low ph (ph < 6).
It is formed by kondensation of magmatic gases and steam

(vapor) near surface and mixing with meteoric water.
This acid fluid dissolved surrounding rocks forming small

particle
The particle can mix with water to form mud pool
If no water mixing with the particle it can form ground collapse

Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Boiling mud pool - NZ
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Collapse Ground - NZ Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB

Bicarbonate springs and travertine deposit
Travertine deposite, is the product of deposition of

CaCO3 if the discharge fluid contain CO2, or pass
trough limestone or calcareous rock.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Travertin dari kolam
(Suryantini, 2009, KK Geologi Terapan ITB)
pemandian Cisolok
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Travertin Stone, Pamukale, Turkey Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Erupsi hidrotermal (hydrothermal eruption)
No influenced of magma, but caused by the

steam formation
The product can for a crater with diameter 1 up

several hundred meters
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Hydrothermal Alteration
The product of water and rock interaction

example: silisified, clay alteration dll.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
NRH-Geologi Terapan
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Alterasi permukaan di Cisolok, Cisukarame Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Geologi Terapan
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Alterasi permukaan clay alteration di Ciater Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Ubahan iron oxide karena reaksi
dengan fluida pH netral
Batu Kapur, Subang Geothermal
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
(Suryantini, 2011, KK Geologi Terapan
Enginering ITB)
FTTM ITB
Geothermal System ;
Definition and Classification
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Definition
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Apakah energi panas bumi itu..?
Dari bahasa Yunani
Geo berarti bumi,

Thermos berarti panas
Energi panas bumi, adalah energi panas yang diekstraksi dari

panas yang tersimpan dalam batuan di bawah permukaan
bumi dan dari fluida yang terkandung didalamnya.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Glossary
(Hochstein and Browne, Encyclopedia of volcanoes, 2000)
Geothermal system : A general term that describes

natural heat transfer within a confined volume of the
Earths crust where heat is transported from a heat
source to a heat sink usually the free surface.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Glossary
(Hochstein and Browne, Encyclopedia of volcanoes, 2000)
Hydrothermal system : A type of geothermal system where heat transfers

from a heat source (often a cooling pluton) to the surface by free
convection, involving meteoric fluids with or without traces of magmatic
fluids. Liquids discharge at or near surface are replenished by meteoric
water derived from the outside (recharge) that is drawn in by the rising
fluids. A hydrothermal system consists of (1) a heat source, (2) a reservoir
with thermal fluids, (3) a surrounding recharge, and (4) a (heat) discharge
area at the surface with manifestation.
Volcanic system : A type of geothermal system where heat and mass
transfers from an igneous body (usually a magma chamber) to the surface
involving convection of magmatic fluids and sporadic discharge of magma
(subsurface melts); meteoric fluids are not involved in the heat transfer
process or are minor.
Volcanic-Hydrothermal system : A combination of a hydrothermal and a
volcanic system, where ascending magmatic (primary) fluids commonly
mix with meteoric (secondary) fluids (rarely sea water); also called a Dr.Eng. Suryantini
magmatic-hydrothermal system. Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB
Hydrothermal system is the most common
system to be exploited at present, because the
heat transfer by convection make it possible to
extract the heat optimally for many utilization.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Major component of hydrothermal system
Heat source, reservoir with thermal fluid, discharge with
manifestation and recharge (Hockstein dan Browne, 2000)
Reservoir, water (that carry the heat from reservoir to the

surface and heat source - (Goff dan Janik, 2000)
Heat source, reservoir, convection flow (Grant dkk, 1982)
Other literature mention cap rock/impermeabel layer above

the reservoir (Dipipo, 2007)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Common Conceptual Model
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
http://geothermal.marin.org/GEOpresentation/sld003.htm Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
(Goff dan Janik, 2000)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
http://www.geothermal-energy.org/geo/ Geology Engineering FITB - ITB
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
http://www.geothermal-energy.org/geo/
Summary..
Steam
Cap
Part of the Vapour
steam condense
and going down
again
Reservoir
Heat Source
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
..Clasification
..Clasification

Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Various type of geothermal system clasification
According to mode of heat transfer (Hockstein, 1992)
1. Convective system
2. Non-
Non-convective system
3. Other type or conductive system
Based on the reservoir temperature (Hockstein, 1990; Muffler dan Cataldi, 1978;
Benderriter dan Cormy, 1990; Nicholson, 1993; Axelsson dan Gunmlaugsson, 2000)
Based on the enthalpy (low, meidum
meidum,, high)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Various type of geothermal system clasification
Based on the fluide tyoe (water dominated, vapor dominated, 2

phase dominated)
Based on the terrain (high and low)
Based on the occurrence of meteoric water cyclic; Cyclic

System dan Storage System (Ellis dan Mahon 1977)
Based on the heat source: system that associated with volcanic

or magmatic, system in the heat flow higher than normal, and
system in the normal (Hockstein, 1992)
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
For further discussion we will discuss the
mostly hydrothermal system because it is
the system that most interested for
geothermal exploration in particular in
Indonesia because the energy an
efficiently generate electricity.
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
End of the first session
Thank you for your attention
Dr.Eng. Suryantini

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Dr.Eng.

1. Distribution of Geothermal System in the

Geothermal System (fields) are located in

Litosfer < 200 km:

The structure of the earth Dr.Eng. Suryantini

This surface manifestasion are used to predict

(1) features at ground surface where fluids discharge, mainly as

Volcanism atau kegunungapian, juga merupakan manifestasi permukaan yang dapat

Surface manifestasion is the product of thermal fluid (liquid /

The non-convective geothermal system show no surface

Thus the intensity and type of surface manifestation is

Chemistry of fluid and surrounding rock

Temperature (Heat source condition) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Conductive heat transfer from rock and soil

Convective heat transfer from water, vapour/steam, and gas

Boiling (phase change from water to steam)

Mixing or Dilution (Mixing / dilution of various thermal fluid

Condensation (the cooling reaction of steam and gas by

Water-rock interaction (reaction between thermal fluid with

Before we learn about various

Indicates reservoir fluid Cl

Shown by the appearance of

Terbentuk sebagai akibat adsorbsi gas

Berada di daerah tepi sistem dan

Anion utama HCO3 dan kation utama

Apabila dibawah permukaan terdapat

Acid Crater Lake (Danau Kawah Asam)

It is in the crater of a volcano

Surrounding the vent (crack) may be found significant sulfur

This sulfur deposit can be mined , example at Kawah Ijen,

Steam vents that emit gas with high concentration of boric

Steam vent that emit CO2 and low temperature is called

Steam and gases that ascending to the surface will

It is formed by high volume of neutral hot springs discharge that

The pools are divided into:

calm (t < 100oC),

ebullient pools (flashing of steam atau gas)

Silica (SiO2) brought by neutral hot fluid may

Sinter has various structure such as dribling, porous,

Often this deposit forming a large terrace.

Silika deposit (sinter) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Product from sulfate water leaching

Hotsprings that discharge water with very high

Surrounding geyser maybe deposited geyserite,

keluarannya bersifat kontinyu) Dr.Eng. Suryantini

Hot springs with low ph (ph < 6).

It is formed by kondensation of magmatic gases and steam

This acid fluid dissolved surrounding rocks forming small

The particle can mix with water to form mud pool

If no water mixing with the particle it can form ground collapse

Collapse Ground - NZ Geothermal Enginering FTTM ITB

Travertine deposite, is the product of deposition of

No influenced of magma, but caused by the

The product can for a crater with diameter 1 up

The product of water and rock interaction

Dari bahasa Yunani

Geo berarti bumi,

Energi panas bumi, adalah energi panas yang diekstraksi dari

Geothermal system : A general term that describes

Hydrothermal system : A type of geothermal system where heat transfers

Reservoir, water (that carry the heat from reservoir to the

Heat source, reservoir, convection flow (Grant dkk, 1982)

Other literature mention cap rock/impermeabel layer above

Based on the fluide tyoe (water dominated, vapor dominated, 2