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Introduction
Throughout the last century charisma has been a perennial refrain within leader-
ship literature. Theorists such as Bass (1985), Bryman (1992), Burns (1978), Carlyle
(1847/1907), Conger and Kanungo (1998), Drath (2001), House (1977), Peters and
Waterman (1982), Quinn (2000) and Stogdill (1948) have each contributed their
particular variation on the theme laid down in the western canon as early as the works
of Plato (Takala, 1998). Although much has been written about it, there is no unified
view as to how charisma arises or how it should be defined. Furthermore, an implicit
unease seems to imbue both the experience of charisma and its theorization. For every
instance of charismatic leadership which fosters generative ends, a corresponding
illustration can be cited of how it has been implicated in malevolent outcomes.
To date, much written about charisma analyses it from either a psychological or
a sociological perspective. This article contributes a new variation on the charisma
Copyright 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi)
Vol 2(2): 165179 DOI: 10.1177/1742715006062933 www.sagepublications.com
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exploring how that might be possible, the article considers the aesthetic category of
the sublime.
The sublime
The notion of the sublime within the field of aesthetics dates back most notably to
Loginus (1965) who wrote On Sublimity in the first century AD. He suggests:
the sublime denotes the moment when the individuals affective and cognitive
dispositions towards the world are subjected to a sense of displacement . . .
amazement and wonder exact invincible power and force and get the better of
the hearer . . . Sublimity . . . produced at the right moment, tears everything up
like a whirlwind. (p. 2)
Loginus thus portrays the sublime as a quality of powerful and out of the ordinary
proportions. The quote highlights the sublimes ability to disrupt both affective and
cognitive capacities. It has the capacity to up-end and disorient the perceiver, to get
the better of him or her.
Having been lost, Loginuss work was rediscovered by Immanuel Kant in
Germany and Edmund Burke in England during the 18th century. Burkes work
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predates that of Kant by about 50 years, but Kant provides a fuller treatment of the
notion within his Critique of Judgement published in 1790. This article draws prima-
rily from Kants account.
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human capacity. Much of his project as a philosopher was devoted to arguing for the
primacy of reason and creating a philosophical system which proved this case. The
Critique of Judgement is largely an account of the way in which reason, rather than
subjective feeling, mediates our aesthetic response. This would have the effect of
raising the aesthetic to a superior category of human experience, in line with the
intellectual rather than relegating it to a merely subjective reaction.
For Kant, the experience of the sublime depends wholly on the human capacity
to reason. He explains how this experience arises in the following way: the perceiver
encounters something which is impossible for her imagination to grasp, such as a
wild storm, the vastness of the sea, or a magnificent cathedral such as Chartres. She
experiences her sense of self balancing on an on edge of obliteration; the vastness or
wildness can be of such an extent as to render her helpless and without ground. At
the point when her imagination becomes overwhelmed by the vastness or chaos of
that which it perceives, reason steps in. According to Kant, it is the faculty of reason
which enables the perceiver to find some way of engaging with the object of over-
whelming qualities. In this way, the experience of the sublime occurs when reason
asserts itself and mediates the encounter between the perceiver and that which is
uncontainably formless, chaotic, or vast. He elucidates this further by writing:
sublimity must be sought only in the mind of the judging subject, and not in the
object of nature that occasions this attitude by the estimate formed of it. Who
would apply the term sublime even to shapeless mountain masses towering one
above the other in wild disorder, with their pyramids of ice, or to the dark
tempestuous ocean, or such like things? But in the contemplation of them, without
any regard to their form, the mind abandons itself to the imagination and to a
reason placed, though quite apart from any definite end, in conjunction therewith,
and merely broadening its view, and it feels itself elevated in its own estimate of
itself on finding all the might of imagination unequal to its desires. (p. 26)
This passage presents the key feature of Kants argument. In the first instance, we
encounter an entity which is somehow greater than our imagination can grasp. This
can be on account of its enormity, complete formlessness, or perceived mightiness.
At the point of non-comprehension by the imagination, reason asserts itself and finds
a way of engaging with the phenomenon. In this way, according to Kant, reason
asserts its superiority. This formulation also locates reason as the superior human
capacity. This assertion of ones reasoning capacity in the face of the unimaginable
produces the experience of the sublime.
By way of illustration, Ill refer to a contemporary philosophical system, that
created by the cartoonist Bill Waterson in the shape of Calvin and Hobbes. One of
my favourite strips presents a series of three frames in which Calvin stares up into
the night sky ablaze with a multitude of stars. Who has not done the same, and been
transported by the sheer enormity of the universe? In the fourth frame, Calvin yells
into the darkness, I am TOO significant! (Waterson, 1992).
Kant might explain Calvins outburst as the rising up of his powers of reason in
a moment of sublime aesthetic encounter. (Im not sure what Calvin would make of
such an interpretation!) The point here remains, for Kant, that the sublime resides
within the perceiver, and signals that reason has negotiated a way of interacting with
something beyond the powers of the perceivers imagination. Having said this, the
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sublime arises because of an encounter with something outside of the perceiver. The
next section elaborates on the qualities of those objects, people or situations which
might evoke the experience of the sublime.
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the feeling of the sublime is a pleasure that arises only indirectly, being brought
about by the feeling of a momentary check to the vital forces followed at once
by a discharge all the more powerful . . . since the mind is not simply attracted
by the object, but is also alternately repelled thereby. The delight in the sublime
does not so much involve positive pleasure as admiration or respect, i.e. merits
the name of a negative pleasure. (p. 23)
In other words, in the first instance, an encounter with the sublime threatens our vital
forces, our life itself. Only through the power of reason do we experience the
phenomenon as something with which we can cope and survive. Through engaging
our reason we find a way of relating to the overwhelming entity. In so doing, we feel
a concurrent surge of pleasure.
Through reason, the perceiving subject focuses on an aspect of the phenomenon
which can be comprehended. For example, faced with overwhelming limitlessness
or chaos, we tell ourselves we can sort it out, the mountain can be climbed one
step at a time, or we shout into the night sky that we, too, are significant. This brings
us a sense of mastery, along with a corresponding feeling of pleasure. Kant expands
on this:
the feeling of the sublime, is therefore, at once a feeling of displeasure, arising
from the inadequacy of imagination in the aesthetic estimation of magnitude to
attain to its estimation by reason, and a simultaneously awakened pleasure,
arising from this very judgement of the inadequacy of the greatest faculty of
sense being in accord with ideas of reason, so far as the effort to attain to these is
for us a law. (p. 27)
The ambivalent pleasure which Kant describes echoes what has been written about
the experience of charisma. In fact, all three of these aspects of the sublime
its genesis within the perceiver, and being evoked as a result of a co-created
engagement between the perceiver and the object of perception;
the nature of the object which evokes the experience of the sublime, a being
larger than life and or in some way overwhelming; and
the experience of the sublime as a negative pleasure
have parallels with the way in which charisma has been theorized, most particularly
by Max Weber. The article now turns to explore his thinking about charisma and the
way in which it resembles Kants analysis of the sublime.1
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In other words, although certain gifts need to be present, it is the perception of these
gifts by the followers which actually gives rise to the experience of the charismatic
leader. Jones then goes on to identify a number of studies (Conger & Kanungo, 1987;
Hater & Bass, 1988; House et al., 1991) which indicate the role situational variables
play in the emergence of a leader. He concludes:
Leadership is a process that cannot take place apart from the response of
followers, and the findings of both the trait and the behaviour research indicate
that follower response depends upon the leaders provision of an answer to a
situational need. This agrees with what Weber (1946) said about charismatic
leadership: it occurs only when followers believe they have found in some
individual a solution to the problems that confront them. (Jones, 2001: 763)
Joness reference to a situational need signals a second area of concern for this
article: the role context plays in experiences of both charismatic leadership and of
the sublime. This link is considered in the following section.
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The limen as he explains, is a particular kind of border, one which can be negoti-
ated and transformed into a conduit for relating. In other words, through the experi-
ence of the sublime, at such a border death does not have to be the final word. Our
imagination brings us to the threshold of knowing the possibility of our mortality,
but at the point where we would be overwhelmed by this apprehension, reason steps
in and enables us to relate to the overwhelming entity in a new way. The resulting
aesthetic experience of the sublime provides a moment of elation in the mastery of
being able to delve into unchartered territory.
Similarly, charismatic leaders stand amidst the maelstrom of confusion and chaos
of crisis situations and conjure up radical visions for engaging with them. Gandhi
proposed the British could be defeated through non-violent means. Martin Luther
King dreamed of white and black children holding hands and sharing in Americas
wealth. Leaders gifted in this way offer stories which enable followers to negotiate
previously unimagined inter-relationships and identities. Certainly not all of these
new identities are wholesome, however. The knowledge that charismatic leadership
can result in atrocities as well as noble acts features highly in the ambivalence
surrounding the phenomenon. It is to further examination of that ambivalence, and
how it might be interpreted through the frame of the sublime, that the article now
turns.
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rapids. Repeatedly I hear people who engage in extreme sports say the same thing,
Ive never felt as alive as when I knew I could die any minute.
Similarly, charisma of the variety about which Weber wrote, which veers
towards magic speaks of the other-worldly capability to negotiate untravelled
boundaries and to engage anew with chaos and confusion. The clarity and surety
charisma can bring to desperate situations can be breathtaking and inspiring. I am
thinking here of Nelson Mandela, for instance, who after spending 28 years a
prisoner, was able to envision more equitable relations between all of the citizens of
South Africa and, moreover was pivotal in the relatively peaceable realization of that
vision. I wonder if the relative success of South Africas post-Apartheid transition
can be attributed to Mandelas ability to let go of his own need for revenge and retal-
iation, and in doing so alert other South Africans that they too, had this capacity.
Such a leader wakes us up to our own potentialities. I am reminded of this further
when recalling Mandelas inaugural speech in which he quoted Marianne
Williamsons (1985) text about each persons responsibility to be the best, most beau-
tiful and most powerful person they can be. The use of charismatic power on
Mandelas part has been highly generative. Despite all of the social and political diffi-
culties which South Africa still faces, the nation moves forward in a way few could
have predicted possible during the Apartheid era. This article has argued that such
generative charismatic power could be viewed as embodiment of a sublime aesthetic
encounter, one which has brought, in this case, South Africans, to the realization of
their own capabilities in transitioning to a more equitable social and economic state.
Although charisma has been a recurring theme within the leadership canon, many
of the variations on its theme have focused on either psychological or sociological
interpretations of this phenomenon. This article has offered an interpretation of
charisma as an aesthetic encounter. Just as we are creatures imbued with our own
psychologies, living in social and socially constructed worlds, we are also creatures
sensitive to aesthetic qualities. We appreciate beauty, we recoil from the grotesque,
we are cheered by the comic. We are also drawn to the tantalizing dance between life
and death resting at the heart of the sublime. Charismatic leaders, I have argued, tap
into that fascination. Perhaps charismas mesmerising call enticing us with the
possibility of engagement with the other-worldly, the limitless, the unknown is one
of the reasons it will undoubtedly remain a key refrain within the leadership canon.
Notes
1. I do note the irony of finding similarities between Kant and Webers accounts due to the
very different philosophical positions each took in regard to the sublime and the
charismatic. Kant was in many ways the ultimate Enlightenment philosopher, with his
heralding of the power of reason, whereas Weber championed the view that charisma was
a mysterious and Divinely bestowed phenomenon. However, I hope to show that they way
in they analysed each of these phenomena has important similarities.
2. This process could be described psychodynamically as a process of projection and
introjection (Klein, 1946).
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Steve Taylor and Peter Case who, along with anony-
mous reviewers provided insightful and helpful comments which have contributed
greatly to the rewriting of this article.
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Donna Ladkin is Director of Research at the Centre for Leadership Studies at the
University of Exeter, UK, where she also acts as Programme Director for the Centres
MA in Leadership Studies. Her current research interests include leadership as an
aesthetic form, how leaders and managers take ethical action in complex situations
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